Ngiqala ngesisekelo sokuthi isikhathi sesifikile sokuxhumanisa isikhumbuzo soSuku lwe-Hiroshima nalokho isazi-mlando uGarry Wills esikubiza ngokuthi โinguquko enokuthulaโ kwezokuphatha eyaqalwa ukuthuthukiswa kweMelika nokusetshenziswa kwamabhomu e-athomu ngokumelene nezakhamuzi zamadolobha amabili aseJapane.
Njengoba uWill esho ku Amandla Ebhomu: Umongameli Wesimanje kanye Nombuso Wezokuphepha Kuzwelonke (I-Penguin Press, 2010), ukubhujiswa kwe-athomu eJapane kanye nokukhula kohulumeni oyimfihlo, ongenakuziphendulela eMelika kuxhumene ngokungenakuhlukaniswa. Ngakho namuhla kudingeka sicabange hhayi nje ngomonakalo abantu baseHiroshima naseNagasaki abawuthola ngenxa yemisebe yokushisa, ukuqhuma, nemisebe eyabulala abantu abalinganiselwa ku-140,000 70,000 eHiroshima nabanye abangu-1945 XNUMX eNagasaki ekupheleni kuka-December XNUMX. Kufanele futhi, kunanini ngaphambili, sigxile namuhla ekutheni ukuba nebhomu le-athomu kuyiguqule kanjani indima yomhlaba waseMelika, kube nomthelela esigabeni sayo sezepolitiki, futhi kwashintsha isimo samandla kamongameli.
Amabhomu e-athomu acekela phansi amadolobha aseJapane ayewumvuthwandaba wonyaka wokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu kwezakhamuzi zaseJalimane ikakhulukazi eJapane. Lokhu kuqhuma kwamabhomu kusheshise ukuguqulwa kwe-United States ekubeni yiriphabhulikhi yomthethosisekelo lapho ubukhosi okuthiwa bufakwe kuBantu ukuba bube yiNational Security State lapho buzuza khona kuMongameli. Ngemuva kwalokho, amandla amakhulu akhula kancane kancane egatsheni lesigungu ngenkathi iKhongolose iba yisizinda sayo. Lokhu kwavula indlela yokusetshenziswa kwamandla okungekho emthethweni, okuyimfihlo, nobudlova, kanye nokwephulwa kwezimiso zomthethosisekelo okwafinyelela ukuphakama kwawo ekuphathweni kukaGeorge W. Bush futhi kuyaqhubeka kungabhekwanga namuhla.
Lolu shintsho lwenzeka cishe lungaziwa, esikhathini esiyiminyaka engamashumi ayisithupha nesishiyagalolunye noma engamashumi ayisikhombisa kusukela ngo-1940-1941. Kungaleso sikhathi lapho uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt ememezele isimo esiphuthumayo sempi yezwe, ngemva kokuletha i-US ngasese empini engaziwa ngokumelene neJalimane lamaNazi โNgedili lakhe Lokubhubhisaโ ukuze athole ilungelo lokuqasha izisekelo zaseMelika eGreat Britain. Kwabe sekufika iPearl Harbor - ukuhlasela okungalindelekile okwamukelwa osopolitiki abaningi ngaleso sikhathi ngoba babecabanga ukuthi kuzohlanganisa ukuhlukana kwezigaba ezijulile zesizwe ngemuva kwempi entsha. Ngokulandelayo, uRoosevelt wagunyaza ngasese i-Manhattan Project yokwakha amabhomu e-athomu. Wagcina uxhaso lwephrojekthi enkulukazi, yezigidigidi zamadola ngesikhathi sempi efihlekile ngokuphelele ekuhlolweni yiCongress kanye nomphakathi - isenzo sokuqala esingekho emthethweni somthethosisekelo esiningi esenzeka ekwakhiweni koMbuso Wezokuphepha Kazwelonke.[1]
Kwakuphakathi neminyaka yokugcina yeMpi Yezwe Yesibili lapho uhulumeni abeka khona izisekelo zombuso omusha waseMelika amandla awo ancike ezindizeni ezisatshalaliswa phambili, imikhumbi yempi, nezisekelo ezingaletha amabhomu avamile nawe-athomu. Izisekelo zivikelwe imifelandawonye yezempi engalingani kanye nezivumelwano zesimo samandla (i-NATO ne-ANPO), noma lapho izivumelwano zingenele futhi ohulumeni benqaba ukuthatha ama-oda ase-US, ngokuketula umbuso kanye nokusungulwa kwemibuso yamakhasimende. Ngasikhathi sinye, oMongameli uTruman kanye no-Eisenhower bawusheshisa umjaho wezikhali zenuzi: okokuqala ngesinqumo sikaTruman sokwakha amasosha futhi akhiqize futhi aqongelele izikhali zenuzi ezengeziwe; kwase kusuka ngo-1949, lapho iRussia iphula ukubusa kweMelika ebhomu, ngesinqumo sayo sokwakha ibhomu le-hydrogen nokwandisa ukukhiqizwa kwezikhali zenuzi kanye nokuhlolwa komkhathi. Bobabili laba mongameli bokuqala bempi ebandayo bakhulisa futhi bahlanganisa umbuso wezisekelo futhi baletha uMbuso Wezokuphepha Kazwelonke ochazwe ngokugcwele.
Umugqa wesikhathi owusizo kaWills (ikhasi 58) ukhombisa izinyathelo zokuqala ezaguqula kancane kancane uhlelo lukahulumeni lwangemva kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili futhi wagcina esefaka amandla ezikhundleni ezinkulu, eziyimfihlo, ezingaphenduliwe kodwa ezihlangene. Ukudalwa kwesakhiwo esingaphansi samandla afihliwe kwaqala ngokugomela kukamongameli wombuso welungelo lokulwa impi ye-athomu, yebhayoloji, neyamakhemikhali, kanye nokufaka ukwesaba emphakathini ngokusebenzisa izikhungo ezihlukahlukene zegatsha eliphezulu. I-Atomic Energy Act (1946) eyasungulwa ngaphansi kukamongameli we-Atomic Energy Commission, "umzimba ovamile olawula konke ukusetshenziswa kwamandla e-athomu ekhaya." Kwanika umongameli "igunya elilodwa" phezu kokusetshenziswa kweBhomu. Ngakho-ke ekusebenziseni la mandla kuphela wabekwa ngaphandle kwesimiso somthethosisekelo, engaphenduki kunoma ubani omunye.[2] Umthetho Wezokuphepha Kazwelonke (1947) wasungula iNational Security Council (NSC) kamongameli kanye neCIA, eyaqala ngokushesha ukusebenza ngaphandle komthetho. โIzifungo zobuqothoโ kanye nohlu loMmeli Jikelele wezinhlangano ezivukela umbuso zenza izikhungo zakuqala zeNational Security State.
Lezi zengezelelwa phakathi kuka-1947 (ukuqala kweMpi Yomshoshaphansi yokulwa nemibono yamakhomanisi) kanye nokwethulwa kwe-National Security Agency (NSA) ngo-1952. Ngalesi sikhathi uTruman wasungula i-US Air Force njengenkonzo ehlukile, ebhekene nokuletha amabhomu. Ngamandla akhe uTruman wabophezela isizwe ukuthi sibambe iMpi YaseKorea, engalokothi acele iCongress ukuthi imemezele impi, imkhulule ukuthi asebenzise noma asabise amanye amazwe nganoma yisiphi isikhali asikhethayo. Kwamanye amazwe, i-US yaqala ukubulala kanye nokusebenza kwezimpi zengqondo, nokuketulwa kohulumeni. Ekhaya, ukugqugquzelwa kuzwelonke โngesikhathi sokuthulaโ kwaqhubeka ngokuhambisana nemibhalo ehlukahlukene yenqubomgomo ye-NSC okuqukethwe kwayo nakho bekufihliwe kuCongress kanye nomphakathi.
I-CIA, inhloko yayo (uMqondisi we-Central Intelligence) yabika kumongameli, yalwa impi yengqondo futhi yenza izinhloli ezinkulu zangaphandle nezasekhaya. Amanxusa ayo eHhovisi Lemisebenzi Ekhethekile abulale, abulala, futhi ahlukumeza. Umsebenzi wabo ocashile wagumbuqela ohulumeni bakaMuhammed Mosaddeq e-Iran, uJacobo Abenz eGuatemala, noSalvadore Allende eChile, uma sibala abambalwa. Umongameli wayenegunya phezu kweCIA kanye nezilinganiso zezobunhloli ezakhiqizwa yizikhulu zeCIA. Kodwa izilinganiso zabo zingahlala zenziwa ipolitiki futhi zikhethwe kahle ukuze zimnike yena nabenzi benqubomgomo yakhe lokho abakufunayo uma befuna kabi ngokwanele. (Namuhla siyazi ngeqiniso ukuthi uGeorge W. Bush kanye noRichard Cheney bacindezela i-CIA futhi bathola kuyo ngo-2003 isizathu se-WMD sokusungula impi yamanje engavunyelwe, engekho emthethweni ngokumelene ne-Iraq.)[3]
Ngesikhathi seMpi YaseVietnam, uDaniel Ellsberg wakhipha ama-Pentagon Papers ku- New York Times. Ukudalula kwakhe "izimfihlo zombuso" kwamethusa uMongameli uNixon, ngoba u-Ellsberg wakhipha iveli kuhulumeni ocashile osebenza endaweni eyimfihlo, nomongameli beqamba amanga emphakathini ukuze bathethelele impi enonya futhi bafihle amacala abo. Kuze kube yileso sikhathi abantu baseMelika abaningi babengazi ukuthi amathuluzi ahlukahlukene kahulumeni wase-US ayenzani eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia, ingasaphathwa eyokuthi omongameli u-Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, no-Nixon kanye nabeluleki babo benqubomgomo kazwelonke babengakwazi yini ukusebenza kahle neVietnam.
Ngemva kweMpi YaseVietnam iNational Security State yahlelwa kabusha. Ukungezwani phakathi kukahulumeni ofihliwe noma wangempela wase-US kanye neCongress kwabonakala ophenyweni lwe-CIA neSigele neNdlu ye-CIA.[4] Ngo-1975 iKomidi likaSenator uFrank Church laphenya ubugebengu be-CIA futhi lazama ukuthola amalungelo e-Congressional alahlekile kunqubomgomo yezangaphandle ngokubheka amandla kamongameli okulwa. [5] Omele u-Otis Pike, ongusihlalo weKomidi Lezobunhloli LeNdlu, wenze okufanayo. Ikomidi likaPike likhiphe umbiko wokugcina ophetha (phakathi kwezinye izinto) wokuthi isabelomali esiphelele sezobunhloli base-US sasifihliwe kuCongress, nokuthi ngenxa yemfihlo โabakhokhi bentela kanye neningi leCongress bebengazi futhi abakwazi ukuthola ukuthi bachitha malini [i-CIA]. emisebenzini yobunhloli.โ[6] Ngaphansi koMthethosisekelo (Art. 1, Isigaba 9 [7]) uxhaso olunjalo oluyimfihlo alukho emthethweni ngokusobala.
Kodwa ukubola okukhiqizwe wuhlelo lwaseMelika lokuthatha izinqumo ngokugunyaza, ukungaphenduli kwezikhulu eziphezulu, kanye โnokwengamela kwengqungquthelaโ okubuthaka noma okungekho kwegatsha eliphezulu kwakuthuthuke kakhulu ukuthi kungabhekwa yinoma yiliphi ikomidi leSigele noma leNdlu. UMongameli Ford, uHenry Kissinger, kanye neCIA babukela phansi iBandla kanye namakomidi ePike. UFord nabamlandelayo, ngaphandle kukaJimmy Carter, basishaya indiva iWar Powers Resolution yango-1973.
Ngesikhathi sokubusa kukaRonald Reagan, akhona amanye amahlazo, afana ne-Iran-Contra ngo-1986-87, abonisa izinga lapho imfihlo ibe yithuluzi lokukhohlisa iCongress. Kepha kufanele kukhunjulwe ukuthi ukugxila kwegatsha eliphezulu ngokuyimfihlo kwaqala kwavela kuManhattan Project, ukuwisa amabhomu eHiroshima naseNagasaki, kanye nesidingo ngemuva kwalokho sokunakekela izikhali ze-athomu kanye nezindlela zazo zokulethwa.
Ekuqaleni kwawo-1990, iSoviet Union yawa futhi uMbuso Wezokuphepha Kazwelonke waqala kabusha ukwanda kwawo, wagcina uzuza izisekelo eMpumalanga Yurophu kanye eduze nemingcele eseningizimu ne-Asia Ephakathi yeRussian Federation. Ngaleso sikhathi isabelomali samasosha ase-US saqhubeka nokukhula kwaze kwadumala izishoshovu eziningi zenhlangano yokuthula ebezilindele "isabelo sokuthula" ngoba babecabanga ngephutha ukuthi impi yase-US ingumsebenzi. kuphela yeMpi Yomshoshaphansi, engakaze ibe khona. Izinkampani ezenza ibhizinisi nePentagon kanye nosopolitiki abangabanikazi bamasheya noma abathatha kokubili izinzuzo zabo kanye neminikelo yabo yomkhankaso bekuhlale kunendima ebalulekile.
Ukuziphatha kwe-US ngeminyaka Yama-1999, ikakhulukazi phakathi nomongameli we-GW Bush kanye no-WJ Clinton, kwabonisa ukuvela kabusha kokuthambekela kwe-US ukunganaki umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe mayelana nokuqondiswa kwezindiza okuqondile nokungaqondile kwezakhamuzi kanye nengqalasizinda yabo "yokusebenzisa okukabili". Lokhu kwafakazelwa ekuhlaselweni komoya kwe-US kanye neBrithani e-Iraq nasekuqhunyisweni kwabo ngamabhomu eKosovo naseSerbia ngo-XNUMX ngezikhali eziqondiswa โngokunembaโ.
Khona-ke, phakathi neshumi leminyaka lokuqala lekhulu lama-21, ukuhlasela kwamaphekula kwango-9/11 kwanikeza uMongameli Bush nethimba lakhe ithuba labo elimangalisayo lokumemezela impi yobushokobezi, ukwandisa i-National Security State, futhi ubeke eceleni izithiyo zomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe nowasekhaya mayelana nokuziphatha. lempi. Ngemuva kwalokho, okubonisa ukuhlangana kwamandla kahulumeni nezinkampani obekuqhubeke amashumi eminyaka, izimpi zase-US kanye nokuqoqwa kwezobunhloli kwakuya ngokuya kunikezwa inkontileka yokwenza izinkampani zibe yimfihlo. Izimfihlo ezisemthethweni nazo zanda futhi zaba (emazwini afanele esazi somthethosisekelo uGlenn Greenwald) โinkolo yesigaba sezepolitiki, kanye nomsunguli wenkohlakalo yayo,โ njengoba kubonakala ekulahlekeni kwePentagon kwezigidigidi zamarandi ebekelwe ukwakhiwa kabusha e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan.
Ngakho-ke akugcinanga lapho okwafinyelelwa khona lapho umfutho wokugudluzwa kwamandla ukusuka esishayamthetho kuya egatsheni lesigungu kwaba yinto engenakuhlehliswa kodwa, okubaluleke nakakhulu, uMthetho we-Patriot kanye neminye imithetho, eyashaywa ngemva kwe-9/11 ivumele iminyango yeBush kanye ne-Obama Justice ukuthi icindezele ngesihluku umphakathi. inkululeko, ukunyathela uMthethosisekelo, nokujezisa abashaya amakhwela. Ubumongameli buka-Barack Obama, owamisa ukubulawa kwendizamgwane njengeqhinga lenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US, umane waqinisekisa la maqiniso.[7]
Ukuqalisa kabusha: njengoba kwathuthukiswa ngemva kuka-1945, amandla ebhomu le-athomu aletha i-US-isizwe esinomlando wezempi-iseduze kakhulu neJapane yombuso wanamuhla ngesikhathi lapho izikhulu zaseJapane zilwa "impi yazo ende" ezwenikazi lase-Asia.
Ukulawula phezu kwezikhali zenuzi kugxilise amandla ehhovisi likamongameli, kwaqinisa i-mystique yakhe njengomphathi oyinhloko, futhi kwavumela uMongameli GW Bush ukuba aveze ngokuziqhenya ilungelo elihlangene lokunganaki izindinganiso zokuziphatha ezingaphansi kwemithetho yempi, nokusebenzisa umthetho. Ihhovisi Lomkhandlu Wezomthetho eMnyangweni Wezobulungiswa ukunikeza โ[yena] imvume esemthethweni yokwenza lokho [aye]funa ukukwenza.โ[8]
Okokugcina, amandla ebhomu le-athomu ashadela amasosha ase-US ekuhlonipheni nasekusebenziseni amandla amakhulu, "ukushaqeka nokwesaba," kanye "nomonakalo owenzelwa isibambiso," noma ukubulawa kwezakhamuzi ezimweni lapho amabutho aseMelika engeke ahlukanise umngane nesitha. Cabanga ngeMpi YaseKorea, eyaphela ngokushuba, kanye nezimpi ezintathu ezalandela ezingekho emthethweni, ezingadingekile zamakholoni zokukhethwa kukamongameli ezalwelwa eVietnam, e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan. Manje njengoba lokhu kulandelana kokwehlulwa okumba eqolo kwenqubomgomo yase-US sekugcine sekuqalile ukwephula umhlane wesigaba esiphakathi saseMelika, mhlawumbe, singase silindele ukuphikiswa okusekelwe ngobuningi ku-National Security State, ukuphikiswa kweriphabhulikhi yomthethosisekelo.
amanothi
1. Izincwadi Zezincwadi, Amandla Ebhomu: Umongameli Wesimanje kanye Nombuso Wezokuphepha Kuzwelonke (The Penguin Press, 2010), p. 99.
2. Izincwadi zefa, Amandla weBhomu, amakhasi 31, 45, 49.
3. Bheka uFulton Armstrong kanye noThomas Powers, "I-CIA kanye nama-WMDs: Ubufakazi Obubi," New York Review of Books, Umq. I-LVII, No. 13 (Aug. 9, 2010), amakhasi 53-54.
4. Glenn Greenwald, โThe Real US Government,โ posted at salon.com, July 19, 2010.
5. Izincwadi zefa, Amandla weBhomu, amakhasi 177, 197.
6. Icashunwe kuGerald K. Haines, โThe Pike Committee Investigations and the CIA,โ ithunyelwe ku- http://bss.sfsu.edu/fischer/ir 360/Readings/pike.htm
7. UGarry Wills, โIsiqhwaga Esibhajwe,โ New York Review of Books, Umq. 56, No. 15 (Oct. 8, 2009).
8. Izincwadi zefa, Amandla weBhomu, P. 224.
U-Herbert Bix uzuze uMklomelo wePulitzer ngencwadi yakhe, I-Hirohito kanye Nokwenziwa KweJapane Yesimanje. Lona umbhalo wenkulumo eyanikezwa ngoSuku lwe-Hiroshima, Aug. 6, 2010, e-First Congregational Church, e-Binghamton, NY.
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa kuphela ngokuphana kwabafundi bayo.
Nikela