Oku kulandelayo yinguqulelo eyandisiweyo yenqaku elithunyelwe ngu Umgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle NgoDisemba 29, 2010
Kulo Msintsi uphelileyo, unobhala welizwe laseMelika uClinton uye wagxeka ukufanisa I-Mexico namhlanje ukuya "eColombia kwiminyaka engamashumi amabini eyadlulayo" kwaye ibiza iinzame eziphakamileyo zokulwa ukuthengiswa kweziyobisi zaseMexico. Uninzi lweso sigxeko sabuza ukuba isifaniso sasifanelekile okanye ukuba le nkcazo yayiyintlombe engadingekile kumlingane osondeleyo wase-US, urhulumente waseMexico waseFelipe Calderรณn. Kodwa eyona nxalenye ibaluleke kakhulu yamagqabaza kaClinton yayikukuncoma kwakhe ngenzondelelo iPlani yaseColombia-iphakheji enkulu yoncedo lwasemkhosini eyaqalwa ngumyeni wakhe ngo-1999-kunye naye. ukuzingisa ngemfuneko โyokufumanisa ukuba ziziphi izinto ezifanayoโ kweminye imimandla, ngakumbi iMexico, uMbindi Merika, neCaribbean [1].
Umbono wokuba i-Plan Colombia kufuneka ixeliswe naphi na iyamangalisa abo baqhelene nerekhodi lamalungelo oluntu e-Colombia, elona libi kakhulu eLatin America kule minyaka ingamashumi amabini idlulileyo. UChรฉ Guevara wakha wabiza ngokuba "zimbini, zintathu, iiVietnam ezininzi" ukuze zibhukuqe i-impiriyali yongxowankulu kwihlabathi lesithathu. Umnxeba kaClinton wokuphindaphinda imodeli yaseColombia kwenye indawo kwezinye iindlela azikho nesibindi kangako, kuba naye wayefuna uhlobo lwenguqu yamazwe aphesheya-nangona luhlobo oluchasene nediametrically. Kwelinye icala, loo myalelo ubonakala ungothusi kangako xa usekelwe kumxholo obanzi womgaqo-nkqubo wakutshanje wase-US obhekiselele kwiLatin America.
Imodeli YaseColombia: โYayisebenzela Baniโ?
NgoSeptemba 8 wakheth Utshilo uHillary Clinton naye Waphendula ukuba "kwakukho iingxaki kwaye kukho iimpazamo" kunye ne-Plan Colombia, "kodwa yasebenza." Njengawo nawuphi na umgaqo-nkqubo, kubalulekile ukubuza ukuba โisebenze njani, yaye isebenzela baniโ? Kwaye ukuba imodeli yaseColombia-ibhekisa kumgaqo-nkqubo wase-US obhekiselele eColombia kule minyaka ingamashumi aliqela idlulileyo-ibonisa umbono wolawulo luka-Obama kulo lonke elaseLatin America, ukuqonda okuphambili kwemodeli kunye neziphumo kubalulekile ekuvavanyeni amathemba abanzi engingqi.
Isicwangciso saseColombia saqalwa phantsi kukaBill Clinton ngo-1999, ihlawulisiwe njengenkqubo echasene neziyobisi. Ukusukela ngoko esona sizathu sichaziweyo sokuba ngaphezulu kwe-5 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kumkhosi waseMelika kunye noncedo lwamapolisa ukuya eColombia ibe "yimfazwe yeziyobisi." Ingxaki yokuqala ngolu lungelelaniso kukuba akuzange kubekho nasiphi na isizathu sokukholelwa ukuba inkqubo ikhuthazwa yinkxalabo enyanisekileyo yempilo yoluntu kwicala labenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo base-US. Zikhona izoyikiso ezingakumbi kwimpilo yoluntu kodwa azikhathazi kangako. Umhlaza, ukutyeba, isifo sentliziyo, isifo seswekile, kunye nezinye izigulo nganye nganye ibulala abantu abaninzi kakhulu ngonyaka kune-cocaine okanye i-heroine, kwaye zaziwa ngokunxulunyaniswa nokusetyenziswa kwecuba, ukuveliswa kokutya kwimizi-mveliso, ungcoliseko lweshishini, kunye nenkuthazo karhulumente wase-US uninzi lwabantu. ezi zenzo ngoncediso-mali, izivumelwano zorhwebo zangaphandle, kunye nemimiselo yokuyekelela. Ugwayi iyodwa ibulala abantu abaninzi kuneziyobisi ezingekho mthethweni, utywala, iingozi zemoto, ukubulawa kwabantu nokuzibulala zidityanisiwe. A kutsha nje isifundo yijenali yezonyango Lancet yafumanisa ukuba utywala lonakalisa abantu abaninzi kakhulu kunecrack kunye neheroin [2]. Ukuza kuthi ga ngoku kubhalwa, urhulumente wase-US kusafuneka aqalise iMfazwe enomsindo kwiCuba okanye iMfazwe yoTywala, egcwele izigwebo ezinyanzelekileyo zentolongo kubavelisi, abasebenzisi kunye nabasasazi.
Ingxaki yesibini ngesizathu esichaziweyo se "Imfazwe kwiZiyobisi" kukuba ngaphezulu kweminyaka elishumi yeSicwangciso saseColombia sibe nefuthe elincinci kwi-narcotics ingena e-US. Kwi-2007 i-economist yaseColombia kunye ne-activist yamalungelo oluntu uHรฉctor Mondragรณn phawula ukuba โ[n] nanini na ngaphambili ukuba abarhwebi beziyobisi babenamandla angaka eColombiaโ [3]. Imveliso yecoca yaseColombia iye yaguquguquka-umzekelo, ukunyuka 27 ekhulwini ngo-2007 kwaye yehla ngo 18 ekhulwini kunyaka olandelayo. Ngaphandle kokuhla okupapashiweyo okutsha nje kwemveliso yaseColombia, nangona kunjalo, kwinqanaba lengingqi kuncinci kakhulu okutshintshileyo, ngokuyinxenye ngenxa yokuba amaxesha okuhla kwemveliso yaseColombia ahambelane nokunyuka kwenye indawo kwaye ngokuchaseneyo, ebonisa (ibhaloni ebonwa ngokulula) isiphumo.โ Kutshanje, abavelisi abaninzi kunye nabarhwebi baye bafuduka besuka eColombia ukuya Peru, nakwizinga elincinci Bholiviya, ukwandisa imveliso yecoca kuloo mazwe. Nangona kunjalo, iColombia iseyeyona iphambili emhlabeni ekuveliseni icocaine [4]. Owayesakuba nguMongameli waseColombia uCรฉsar Gaviria, ongusihlalo weKhomishini yaseLatin America yeZiyobisi kunye neDemokhrasi, shwa nkathela Ikhomishini ebanzi ngo-2009 umbiko ngokuthi โ[w]yithathela ingqalelo imfazwe yeziyobisi njengokusilela ngenxa yokuba iinjongo azizange ziphunyezweโฆImigaqo-nkqubo yokuthintela esekelwe ekuphelisweni, uthintelo kunye nokwenza ulwaphulo-mthetho ayivelisanga iziphumo ezilindelekileyo. Namhlanje sikude kunangaphambili kwiinjongo zokuphelisa iziyobisiโ [5]. Izigqibo ezifanayo ziyasebenza Mekhsikho, okwathi ngo-1990 kwathatha indawo yaseFlorida kunye neCaribbean njengeyona ndawo yokuthutha i-narcotic hub ngenxa yamaphulo okulwa neziyobisi kwenye indawo. Njengomhlalutyi uLaura Carlsen phawula Kutshanje, ukusukela oko urhulumente waseMexico waqala ngenkxaso-mali ye-US, i-1.4-bhiliyoni yenkqubo yokuchasa iziyobisi ngo-2008, โUbundlobongela obunxulumene neziyobisi buqhambukeโฆaphantse abe ngama-30,000 abaswelekileyo ukusukela oko kwasungulwa imfazwe yeziyobisi ngasekupheleni kuka-2006. umkhosi wawunyuke ngokuphindwe kathandathu nge [2009], kwaye kwiinyanga nje ezidlulileyo [phakathi ku-2010] imikhosi yoMkhosi idubule yabulala abantu abaninzi" [6].
Umqondiso wesithathu wokuba "imfazwe yeziyobisi" enomkhosi omkhulu inokuba neenjongo ezigwenxa kukuba ilizwe laseColombia linxibelelene ngokusondeleyo nabantu kunye nemisebenzi ethi iPlani yaseColombia ijolise ekujoliseni, into yokuba i-US Drug Enforcement Administration. yaziwa phambi kokuba uCwangciso lwaseColombia luqale [7]. IMelika ibandakanyeka ngokusondeleyo kobu budlelwane, umzekelo ngenkqubo ye-USAID โyophuhliso olulolunyeโ kwioli yesundu yaseAfrika kunye nezinye iimveliso zezolimo ezingezizo ezemveli. USenator waseColombia uGustavo Petro amanqaku ukuba "Plan Colombia silwa iziyobisi ngomkhosi kwangaxeshanye inika imali ukuxhasa palm, esetyenziswa yi mafias paramilitary ukuba ukuhlamba imali," ngoko ke i-US "ixhasa abarhwebi beziyobisi" [8]. I-paramilitaries ye-right-wing iyaqhubeka isonwabela ubudlelwane obusondeleyo, ukuba akukho mthethweni, ubudlelwane bokusebenza kunye nomkhosi waseColombia, amagosa abo aye abanceda. Kuba amashumi amawaka eehektare zomhlaba ukusuka kuluntu lwasemaphandleni kunye namafama amancinci kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Ubungqina bubonisa ukuba ukusondelelana okufanayo kukho phakathi kwamagosa kunye nabathengisi beziyobisi kwi Peru kwaye Mekhsikho, nangona iinkcukacha zezokugqibela zincinci [9].
Ezi zibakala malunga ne-Plan Colombia-uhlobo lweenkqubo zokulwa neziyobisi-ukungasebenzi kwazo ngokwembono yezempilo yoluntu, ukuxhatshazwa okukhulu kwamalungelo abantu abaza nazo, kunye norhwaphilizo lwabo olusisiseko-ziye zaqondwa kakuhle ziingcali iminyaka emininzi, kwaye iziphumo bezinokuqikelelwa ngokulula ixesha elide. ngaphambi kokuba iPlani yaseColombia iqale. Ingxelo kaMongameli wangaphambili uGaviria malunga neziphumo ze-Plan Colombia ichanekile, ngaphandle kokuba "iziphumo ezilindelekileyo" azizange zipheliswe iziyobisi; iingcaphephe ezizimeleyo ziye zaqikelela โukusilelaโ kwenkqubo kakuhle phambi ekuphunyezweni kwayo, isilumkiso sokuba ukulwa kwindawo yemveliso yindlela engasebenziyo kakhulu yokulwa nokuhamba nokusetyenziswa kwamachiza angekho mthethweni xa kuthelekiswa neenkqubo zonyango lwamachiza kunye nolunye uphuhliso loqoqosho. I yasekhaya yase-US "Imfazwe kwiZiyobisi," okubandakanya ukuvalela abantu abangaphezu kwesiqingatha sesigidi ngonyaka ngamnye ngamatyala anxulumene neziyobisi, ngokukwanjalo yindlela engasebenziyo (kunye nengenabuntu kakhulu kunye nehanahaniso) yokunciphisa ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi [10]. Umahluko omkhulu nonexesha elide phakathi kolwazi lweengcali kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo uphakamisa imibuzo ekhawulezileyo malunga neenjongo zokwenyani โzemfazweโ kunye nomkhosi ohamba nawo, ojongwe ngokweenkcukacha ezithe vetshe apha ngezantsi.
Ke ngoku Unayo Isicwangciso saseColombia siphunyeziwe? Ngaphandle kokuhla kumanqanaba obundlobongela ngokubanzi kunye nokhuseleko oluphuculweyo kubahlali basezidolophini abakumgangatho ophakathi, iColombia ukusukela ngo-1999 iye yaduma ngakumbi kunokuba yayisele injalo ngokubulawa kwabantu ngokungekho mthethweni, ukufuduswa kwabantu abaninzi ngaphakathi kunye nokubiwa komhlaba, kunye nobudlelwane obusondeleyo phakathi kokufa kwe-paramilitary yasekunene. squads kunye norhulumente welizwe okwiphiko lasekunene. Ubundlobongela obuninzi bujolise kubasebenzi kunye nabahluphekileyo, ngakumbi abo babeka isoyikiso kumalungelo okubanini-mhlaba kunye namashishini aphezulu. Ukususela ngo-2005, Amafama angama-45 angathathi ntweni baye babulawa ngenxa yokuba befuna ukubuyisela umhlaba owawubiwe [11]. Ngo-2009 iColombia yathatha phantse isiqingatha kuko konke ukubulawa kweemanyano zabasebenzi emhlabeni, kwaye kudala kunjalo yaziwa njengelona lizwe liyingozi kwihlabathi kumatsha ntliziyo abasebenzi; lo mkhwa qhubeka phantsi komongameli omtsha, Juan Manuel Santos [12]. Izityhilelo ezintsha zokunyhashwa kwamalungelo oluntu okoyikekayo kunye noqhagamshelo lwezopolitiko kuma-paramilitaries rhoqo; ekupheleni kuka-2009, a ingcwaba elikhulu kwezidumbu ezingaphezu kwama-2,000 2010 zafunyanwa kufuphi neBogotรก. Nangona imikhosi yasekhohlo yaseColombia yenze ukunyhashwa okubalulekileyo kwamalungelo oluntu, uninzi loxhatshazo lubangelwa ngurhulumente kunye ne-right-wing paramilitaries, abonwabela imeko "yokungohlwaywa ngokubanzi" ngokutsho kwamalungelo oluntu e-UN kaMatshi XNUMX. umbiko [13].
Ukunyukela kweColombia kwinqanaba loyena mntu waphula amalungelo oluntu kakhulu kwilizwekazi lihambelana ngokusondeleyo nokunyuka koncedo lomkhosi wase-US kwilizwe. Ukusukela ngo-1990 iKholombiya ifumene uncedo oluthe kratya lwasemkhosini nakumapolisa ase-US kunawo onke amanye amazwe akumhlaba. I-Plan Colombia ibe noxanduva lolu ncedo oluninzi, lufikelela kwi-5 yeebhiliyoni zeedola ukusukela ngo-1999. NgoJanuwari 2010 umbiko epapashwe yiCentre for Global Development yafumanisa ukuba โintsebenziswano phakathi komkhosi namaqela axhobileyo angekho mthethweniโฆ kuthetha ukuba uncedo oluvela kumazwe angaphandle luvumela amaqela angekho mthethweni ukuba aqhubele phambili ugonyamelo lwezobupolitika nokujongela phantsi amaziko edemokhrasi, anjengokuthabatha inxaxheba kunyulo.โ Ngapha koko, ababhali baphawule "ipateni eyahlukileyo, engafaniyo: xa uncedo lomkhosi wase-US lusanda, ukuhlaselwa ngamajoni, aziwa ngokusebenza nomkhosi, kwanda ngakumbi koomasipala abaneziseko [zemikhosi yaseColombia]" [14]. Enye yamva nje isifundo, yi-Fellowship of Reconciliation kunye ne-Ofisi yase-US e-Colombia, ilandelele iziganeko zokubulawa kwabantu ngokungekho mthethweni ngamaqela omkhosi waseColombia afumana uncedo lwase-US kule minyaka isithoba idlulileyo, ifumanisa ukuba "imimandla apho iiyunithi zomkhosi waseColombia zifumene ulwando olukhulu kuncedo lwase-US zichazwe zanda ngokungekho mthethweni. ukubulala ngokomlinganiselo.โ Njengoko uPaola Reyes Iingxelo, "Ukubulawa ngokungekho mthethweni okuhlaziywe yingxelo ye-FOR/USOC ubukhulu becala iimeko apho iiyunithi zomkhosi ziye zabulala abantu ukuze banyuse inani leenjubaqa ekucingelwa ukuba babulele ngazo" [15]. Ezi zifundo zamva nje ziqinisekisa unxulumano olude phakathi koncedo lomkhosi wase-US kunye nokunyhashwa kwamalungelo oluntu, ipateni ebonakala ngokukodwa kumazwe afana neColombia kodwa enwenwela kwihlabathi liphela [16]. (Ukuba umthetho wase-US ubalulekile, uMthetho woLawulo lokuThunyelelwa kwamanye amazwe iArms ka-1976 uyakwalela ukuhlawulwa koncedo lomkhosi kuye nawuphi na urhulumente onetyala lokuxhatshazwa kwamalungelo oluntu okuzinzileyo.)
Abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo baseWashington bebesoloko bekho Uyazi yeqela lokufa laseColombia kunye nokunxibelelana kwabo kumanani karhulumente, kodwa olo lwazi aluzange luthobe umdla wabo woncedo lomkhosi wase-US eColombia [17]. Ngexesha lephulo lakhe lobumongameli u-Obama uvakalise ukugxeka okungephi ngemeko yamalungelo oluntu e-Colombia, kodwa uye wadibanisa umanyano olomeleleyo neColombia kwiminyaka yakhe emibini yokuqala e-ofisini. Lo mfelandawonye uquke isivumelwano sika-2009 esithi, ukuba sithe soyisa esi sangoku imiqobo esemthethweni ngaphakathi kweColombia, iya kunika iUnited States ukufikelela kwiziseko ezisixhenxe zomkhosi kweli lizwe. Isivumelwano senzelwe "ukwenza iColombia ibe yindawo yengingqi yokusebenza kwePentagon" ngokutsho "komkhosi omkhulu waseColombia kunye namagosa asekuhlaleni aqhelene nothethathethwano," i-Associated Press. umbiko ngelo xesha [18].Eyonaumbhalo Isivumelwano sithembisa ukusebenzisana kwe-US-Colombian "ukujongana nezoyikiso ezifanayo zoxolo, uzinzo, inkululeko, kunye nedemokhrasi," ulwimi olungacacanga kunye nokupholisa amathambo kwabo baqhelene nembali yomgaqo-nkqubo wase-US kulo mmandla [19].
Ngaphakathi kweKholombiya ngokwayo, abaphumeleleyo abakhulu ibe ngamacandelo ahambayo e-narcotraffickers, amagosa karhulumente, i-paramilitaries ephiko lasekunene, abanini-mhlaba, kunye namashishini aphezulu. Uninzi lwabanye abantu baseColombia abakhange bahambe kakuhle, nangona kunjalo. Ngokutsho kwamanani e-UN, "i-Colombia yenye ye-3 kuphela amazwe aseLatin America apho ukungalingani kwezoqoqosho kunyuke phakathi kwe-2002 kunye ne-2008" (abanye baseGuatemala kunye neRiphabhliki yaseDominican). Utyalo-mali lwangaphandle luphindaphindeke kathathu kule minyaka yakutsha nje, lunegalelo ekukhuleni okubonakalayo koqoqosho, kodwa intlupheko (43 pesenti) kunye nentlupheko egqithisileyo (23 pesenti) itshintshile kancinci. Ezilalini, i-0.4 yepesenti yabanini-mhlaba babamba i-61 yepesenti yomhlaba [20]. Kwingingqi apho imibutho enamandla yasekuhlaleni kunye noorhulumente abashiyekileyo baye bacela umngeni kumandla karhulumente wase-US kunye neenkampani zamazwe ngamazwe, iColombia ihleli ingumxhasi othembekileyo we-US-style "yorhwebo lwamahhala," okanye i-neoliberalism, ephawulwe ngokwenziwa kweenkonzo zabucala, ukukhululwa kweemarike, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo karhulumente osebenzisana nongxowankulu ukucinezela amalungelo abasebenzi, amahlwempu, abantu abambalwa, kunye nokusingqongileyo. IBhanki yeHlabathi kunye ne-International Finance Corporation kutsha nje sidikiwe Imitsi yaseColombia ekugcineni โimeko-bume evumelana neshishini,โ iyichaza, kunye neMexico nePeru, njengamazwe amathathu aphambili eLatin America ngokubhekiselele โukwenza lula ishishiniโ [21]. Ngenzeka, la mazwe angawona mahlakani amathathu asondeleyo e-United States kulo mmandla.
"I-Envious Have-Nots" kunye neNgcaciso yoMgaqo-nkqubo wase-US
Ukususela kwi-1990, kwaye ngokukodwa ukususela kwi-2000 xa i-Plan Colombia yaqaliswa, i-Colombia ibe yintloko yamandla ase-US eLatin America. Njengoko impembelelo yase-US iye yancipha kuwo wonke ummandla, iColombia iye yabaluleke ngakumbi njengomboniso womgaqo-nkqubo wase-US. Izithako ezithathu ezisisiseko zalo mgaqo-nkqubo ibe yi-neoliberalism yezoqoqosho, urhulumente onobuhlobo e-US, kunye nokwanda komkhosi. Ukuba ukungaphumeleli okudabukisayo kwimbono yempilo yoluntu, amalungelo oluntu, kunye nentlalontle yezoqoqosho, ezi zithako zifezekisa iinjongo eziluncedo ezahlukeneyo. Ukhetho lwase-US lweneoliberalism yomkhosi-imodeli abalawuli baka-Obama ngoku bafuna ukuyivelisa kwakhona eMexico nakuMbindi Merika-enyanisweni ithobela ingqiqo ehambelanayo.
Ukuba "imfazwe yeziyobisi" yeyona ngcaciso ingonelanga yomkhosi wase-US waseLatin America, kwaye okona kubi sisingxengxezo nje, zeziphi ezinye iziphelo ezithi umkhosi usebenza ngokwembono yamaqela anomdla wase-US? Njengendawo yokungena ekuphenduleni lo mbuzo, akunakuthandabuza ukuba i-US kudala ifuna "ukugcina i-United States njengeyona mpembelelo yomkhosi wamazwe angaphandle eLatin America," njengoko iphepha lesikhokelo seSebe leLizwe le-1962 libongoza [ 22]. Ukugcina ulawulo lomkhosi eLatin America ibiyeyona njongo yase-US isondele kwinkulungwane, ngakumbi ukusukela kwiMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi. Ukuthetheleleka esidlangalaleni komkhosi ngexesha leMfazwe ebandayo yayisisisongelo sokungena kweSoviet "ekungeneni" kweLatin America [23]. Kodwa ngasese, abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo abakrelekrele abazange basithabathe ngokoqobo eso sisongelo. Ngowe-1958 iNational Intelligence Estimate yaphawula ukuba amaqela amaKomanisi aseLatin America, singasathethi ke ngamagosa aseSoviet, โakunakwenzeka ukuba alawule nawuphi na urhulumenteโ kuloo mmandla. Nangona kunjalo, amagosa ase-US agxininisa imfuneko yomkhosi, kungekhona ukukhusela iSoviet Union kodwa egameni "lokhuseleko lwangaphakathi." Iintshaba zazingaphakathi kwiLatin America ngokwayo, hayi kwibloc yeSoviet, kwaye eyona ngozi yayibuzwe baseLatin America, hayi ubuKomanisi bohlobo lweSoviet. INguquko yaseCuba yowe-1959, apho amaKomanisi ahlangene neSoviet adlala indima encinane kakhulu, ayigxininisa le nyaniso. Iinkqubo "zokhuseleko lwangaphakathi" ezixhaswe yi-US ezibandakanya uncedo olukhulu lomkhosi kunye namapolisa ngoko zavela kulo lonke ilizwekazi ziqala nge-Eisenhower kwaye zikhawuleza phantsi kweKennedy [24].
Ezi nkqubo zenzelwe ukukhusela ntoni? Imbalelwano yeSebe likaRhulumente engachazwanga inika iimpendulo ezicacileyo. Ngokomzekelo, amagosa ayenexhala lokuba iMvukelo yaseBolivia yowe-1952 โisenokuqalisa ukusabela kuMbindi Merikaโ ukuba ayithothisi indlela โendilekileyoโ. Kamva, emva kweMvukelo yaseCuba yowe-1959, abacwangcisi base-US baphawula ngoloyiko lokuba โabangathathi ntweni nabangathathi ntweni belizwekazi, bekhuthazwa ngumzekelo wenguqu yaseCuba, ngoku bafuna amathuba okuphila ngokundilisekileyo.โ Imvukelo eyaphumelela eCuba yaqinisekisa abantu abaninzi ababebukele โukuba amazwe aseLatin America anokuba ngabaphathi belizwe lawoโ kunokuba ahlale exhomekeke kwiinkosi zamazwe angaphandle. Ngowe-1961 umcebisi omkhulu kaKennedy, uArthur Schlesinger, wavakalisa inkxalabo โngokusasazwa kwengcamango kaCastro yokuthabathelโ indawo izinto.โ Kunokuba basebenze ngokuzimeleyo kwi-US, abantu baseMelika baseLatin America bekumele ukuba bavumele i-US ibakhokele kwindlela eyakhayo eya โkwinguqu ephakathi yodidi oluphakathi,โ ngokuchaseneyo โnabasebenzi-nabalimiโ [25]. Isinyanzelo sokucinezela ubuzwe obuzimeleyo kunye nophuhliso, kunye nokohlwaya abo banemibono enjalo, ibuyela emva kwimbali yobukhosi base-US; izinyanzeliso ezinjalo zazibalasele, umzekelo, kwimbalelwano yabaphathi-mkhosi benkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba ababefuna ukutshabalalisa bonke abantu bomthonyama baseMelika abangazange bavume ukuvalelwa kwinkampu yoxinaniso yogcino-style [26].
Eyona ngxaki inkulu ngoku kunxaxha ibe sisoyikiso ebesibeka kulawulo lwabaphezulu base-US kubutyebi bendalo obucwangcisiweyo, abasebenzi, kunye nokugcinwa kwemiqathango yorhwebelwano oluxhaphazayo. Izisongelo ezimbini โzezibalo nobuzwe,โ ezathi i-Intelligence Estimate yowe-1958 yalumkisa ngazo, zivela kumnqweno wabemi baseLatin America wokuba nolawulo olungakumbi kubutyebi belizwe labo loqoqosho. Ngokutsho komcebisi weSebe likaRhulumente uLaurence Duggan, โabemi baseLatin America baye โbeyisekile ukuba abokuqala ukuxhamla kuphuhliso lobutyebi belizwe bafanele babe ngabantu belo lizwe.โ Kodwa loo nkolelo yayingqubana noko kwakufunwa yi-US. Njengoko unozakuzaku waseMelika eBolivia, uPhilip Bonsal, wabhalela umphathi wakhe kwangaloo nyaka, โLe ngxaki yokugcina isikhundla seenkampani zeoyile zaseMelika eBolivia nakweminye imimandla yoMzantsi Merika, njengoko ngokungathandabuzekiyo wazi ngakumbi kunam, enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo esijongene nazo. " UBonsal wathi, le ngxaki yabangela ukuba abantu baseLatin America bangabathembi oorhulumente nemibutho yamazwe angaphandle: โInyaniso ikukuba kube ngumsebenzi omkhulu ukoyisa inkolelo yabantu abaninzi balapha yokuba ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kakubi kobutyebi beoli baseBolivia. Umdla welizwe laseBolivia uya kutyeshelwa okanye, ubuncinci, ubekwe kwindawo engaphantsi. โ Iingxaki ezifanayo zithwaxa abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo baseMelika kwenye indawo, ngakumbi kwi Phakathi empuma [27].
Uninzi lwesidingo somkhosi savela kwezi nyani. Izinto ezibizwa ngokuba ziinkqubo zokhuseleko lwangaphakathi zaqala ukuvela, kubandakanywa ne Kholambiya, malunga nexesha elinye awayebhala ngalo uMthunywa uBonsal ngowe-1958 [28]. Umyili ophambili weMfazwe ebandayo uGeorge Kennan wayichaza le ngxaki kwiminyaka elishumi ngaphambili:
[W]amalunga nama-50% obutyebi behlabathi kodwa yi-6.3% kuphela yabemi balo. Lo mahluko mkhulu ngakumbi phakathi kwethu nabantu baseAsiya. Kule meko, asinakukwazi ukusilela ukuba ngumona kunye nentukuthelo. Umsebenzi wethu wokwenyani kwixesha elizayo kukuqulunqa ipateni yobudlelwane eya kusivumela ukuba sigcine esi sikhundla sokungalingani ngaphandle komonakalo ofanelekileyo kukhuseleko lwethu lwesizwe. [29]
Kamva amagosa ase-US ayengafihli nto malunga nemfuneko yomkhosi. Ngokutsho kukaNjengele Maxwell Taylor, omnye wabaphembeleli abaphambili beMfazwe yaseVietnam, โNjengezityebi ezikhokelayo 'zinamandla', sinokulindela ukuba silwele izinto ezixabisekileyo zelizwe lethu nxamnye nomona 'ongenazinto.'โ Yaye njengoJimmy Carter's Unobhala Wezomkhosi, uHarold Brown, wacacisa ngowe-1980 ngoxa wayexoxa ngokusetyenziswa okwandisiweyo โkwemikhosi yokuthunyelwa ngokukhawulezaโ: โIziphithiphithi, isisongelo sogonyamelo nokusetyenziswa komkhosi kusaxhaphakile. [Ezi ngxaki] zinezizathu ezininzi nezahlukeneyo, [ephakathi kwazo kukungaphumeleli kwezizwe ezityebileyo] ukubonelela ngezidingo ezisisiseko zabantu kunye nokucutha umahluko oqhambukayo phakathi kobutyebi nendlalaโ [30].
Ingxoxo yakutsha nje kwizangqa zorhulumente wase-US iqulethe i-echoes yezi ngxelo. Ukulawula izixhobo zaseLatin America, ngakumbi ioyile, ihlala iphambili namhlanje. Ngo-2008 iBhunga elijongene noBudlelwane bamazwe angaphandle ba phi kisana ukuba "iLatin America ayizange ibaluleke ngakumbi kwi-United States." Phakathi kwezizathu ezimbalwa zokuba kutheni, okokuqala kukhankanyiwe kukuba "[t] ummandla ngoyena mthengisi mkhulu wangaphandle weoli e-United States" [31]. Ukukhuthazwa "korhwebo lwamahhala" -oluqondwa kwingqiqo yobugcisa, njengemigaqo-nkqubo ehambisa kwakhona ubutyebi boluntu kwizandla zamashishini abucala, ukuncama intlalontle yabantu kunye nendalo esingqongileyo kwinkqubo-ihlala ingundoqo kwiqhinga lase-US. Ukanti lo mzamo kufuneka woyise imiqobo eqhelekileyo, eyile, ukuchasa kwicala labemi baseLatin America. A 2008 umbiko nguMlawuli Wesizwe Wezobuntlola waseUnited States (DNI) waphawula isisongelo โliqela elincinane loorhulumente abangoophuma-silweโ โabagxininisa ubuzwe bezoqoqosho ngokutyeshela iindlela ezisekelwe kwiimarike,โ ngaloo ndlela โlingqubana ngokuthe ngqo namalinge ase-US. โ Ngelishwa, ingxelo yathi, lo "mbono ukhuphisanayo" uthandwa kakhulu kummandla, apho "amanqanaba aphezulu entlupheko kunye nokungalingani kwemivuzo kuya kuqhubeka ukudala abaphulaphuli abanokuthi bamkele umyalezo we-radical populism." I-DNI ka-2010 umbiko ovela kulowo uqeshwe ngu-Obama uphinda ezi nkxalabo zisisiseko: oorhulumente baseVenezuela, eBolivia, nase-Ecuador "bachasene nemigaqo-nkqubo kunye nomdla wase-US kulo mmandla" ngokuqhubela phambili "izibalo" ezizezinye "kwi-capitalism yentengiso." Kwaye njengoko abanye abahlalutyi baseka kutshanje ikhonjwe ngaphandle, "ukungathembi iinjongo zaseWashington kusaqhuba nzulu kulo mmandla" [32].
UHillary Clinton ngokwakhe uye waba ngomnye wabo uninzi lwazo amazwi kulawulo luka-Obama ngokubhekiselele kwiinjongo zase-US eLatin America. Kulo Matshi uphelileyo bhilizwa urhulumente waseVenezuela kaHugo Chรกvez, efuna iVenezuela โibuyisele indawo yabucala ize ibuyele kuqoqosho lwemarike yasimahla.โ Ukwakhuthaze ukucuthwa kwezithintelo zokuhamba ukuya eCuba ukuze abantu baseCuba baseMelika basebenze "njengonozakuzaku ... kuqoqosho lwentengiso yasimahla." UClinton uye wathelekisa "uzwilakhe" waseVenezuela nabanye oorhulumente bengingqi, esithi "[w]enqwenela ukuba iVenezuela ijonge ngakumbi emazantsi kwaye ijonge eBrazil kwaye ijonge eChile" [33].
Ukukhuthazwa kweendlela ezizezinye zezopolitiko โeziphakathiโ koorhulumente bangoku eVenezuela naseBolivia ibilugxininiso olungaguqukiyo lomgaqo-nkqubo wase-US kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Ngokomzekelo, eBolivia, i-Ofisi yozakuzo yase-US yalitshitshisa igama layo amaxwebhu baye baveza umsebenzi we-USAID ekuxhaseni ngemali amaqela ezopolitiko aphikisayo ukuze โasebenze njengeqela elichasene ne-MAS ebukhali [iqela likaMongameli u-Evo Morales] okanye abalandela ezihlangwini zayo,โ kunye โnokuqinisa imibutho ephantsi ukuze ijongane neMAS.โ Izityhilelo zakutsha nje malunga nobungakanani boncedo lwemali lwase-US kumaqela aphikisayo kunye namajelo eendaba eVenezuela-ukuya kuthi ga $ 40 yezigidi ngonyakaโbaphinde baqaqambisa esi sicwangciso. Amagosa eSebe likaRhulumente nawo Ithethelelwe esidlangalaleni isicwangciso-qhinga sokwahlula "i-radical" ukusuka "phakathi" ngasekhohlo, ukuze benze "i-counterweight koorhulumente njengabo baphetheyo ngoku eVenezuela naseBolivia abalandela imigaqo-nkqubo engenzi mdla wabantu babo okanye ummandla." Ukuqinisekiswa ngakumbi kwesi sicwangciso kuvela kwiifayile zediplomatic zase-US ezisanda kukhutshwa ngu wikileaks, ezinye zazo zibonelela ngobungqina bemizamo yase-US yokunciphisa okanye ukudiliza uHugo Chรกvez [34].
Ezi nkcazo kunye namaxwebhu abonelela ngomfanekiso ohambelana ngokufanelekileyo wezinto eziphambili zase-US kwi-Latin America: ukukhuthaza ulawulo lwezopolitiko olunobuhlobo e-US ngelixa ulawula uqoqosho lwaseLatin America ngendlela engundoqo ye-neoliberal (ukunciphisa okanye ukuphelisa umnatha wokhuseleko loluntu, ukunciphisa imimiselo kumashishini angaphandle, ukubeka phambili izinto eziluhlaza. ukuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe, ukudilizwa kokhuseleko kushishino lwesizwe, njl. njl.). Iifomula zeniyoliberalism kunye nokukhuthazwa kweedemokhrasi zabaxumi abathobelayo zithungelana ngokusondeleyo. Kwaye iingxelo ezicacileyo zikaClinton kunye nabanye, kunokuba iintetho zoxolelwaniso zika-Obama ngokwakhe, zibonakala zibonisa ingqiqo esisiseko emva komgaqo-nkqubo wolawulo lwangoku kummandla, oqhubekayo umvuzo oorhulumente abafana nabaseColombia, Peru, kunye neMexico ethanda ngokungenazintloni abatyali-zimali bamashishini ngaphezu kwamalungelo abantu ngelixa befuna ukujongela phantsi abo baseVenezuela, eBolivia, nakwezinye iindawo [35].
Izizathu zokuxhonywa komkhosi
Kodwa kutheni i-US ibeke ugxininiso olunjalo kwakhona ukulwa ELatin America kule minyaka ilishumi idlulileyo? Ngaphandle kweKholombiya, akukho sisongelo sithe ngqo somkhosi kurhulumente onobubele base-US, njengoko bekunjalo ngamanye amaxesha ngexesha leMfazwe ebandayo xa ukunganeliseki okudumileyo kuvelisa imikhosi yabanqolobi abaxhobileyo. Ngaba iinjongo ze-US azinakufezekiswa nge-imperialism yezoqoqosho nezopolitiko kuphela, njengoko bekunjalo ixesha elifutshane Bholiviya emva kwe revolution yelizwe 1952 [36]?
Ngelixa ukulwa okuqhubekayo komgaqo-nkqubo wehlabathi wase-US kubhalwe kakhulu, iingcambu zawo zifuna ithiyori ecace ngakumbi (isihloko endinethemba lokusiphatha kwixesha elizayo). Okwangoku, nangona kunjalo, ndifuna ukucebisa ngokufutshane izinto ezintlanu ezinegalelo. Ababini bokuqala babonisa oko uDavid Harvey abiza ngokuba yi-capitalist kunye nemimandla "ingqiqo yamandla," okanye i-US idinga ukukhuthaza inzuzo yezoqoqosho kunye nokugcina ulawulo lwe-geopolitical kwiLatin America; ezi zinto zimbini zokuqala zinxulunyaniswa ngokusondeleyo nezinto eziphambili zase-US ezixoxwe ngasentla [37]. Izinto ezintathu ezishiyekileyo ziyadibana nezimbini zokuqala, kodwa zibonisa ngakumbi ubume boqoqosho lwase-US, ubunyani bokuhla kwempembelelo yehlabathi yase-US, kunye nenkcubeko yezopolitiko yaseWashington.
- Ukunciphisa ukuchasa
- Ukugcina ubukho obuqinileyo base-US kummandla
- Impembelelo yezopolitiko yeekontraka zomkhosi kunye nabenzi bezixhobo
- Amandla omkhosi njengenye indawo eseleyo yolawulo lwase-US
- Washington's machista inkcubeko yezopolitiko
- Ukunciphisa ukuchasa. Kumazwe amaninzi, kusaqhubeka kukho izoyikiso ezininzi โzokhuseleko lwangaphakathiโ ngaphandle kwabarhwebi be-narco kunye nabanqolobi abaxhobileyo. Njengoko u-Edward Herman waphawula phantse kwiminyaka engama-30 eyadlulayo, eyona nto iphambili ekunxibelelaneni okude phakathi koncedo lomkhosi wase-US kunye nokunyhashwa kwamalungelo oluntu kukuba ukucinezelwa kwamalungelo oluntu kuthanda ukudala imeko elungele ishishini. Kumazwe ahlwempuzekileyo apho umsebenzi ophantsi kunye nezinto eziphathekayo ziyeyona nto inomtsalane kwimali yamazwe angaphandle, oorhulumente abaqinisekisa amalungelo anamandla ezobupolitika, ezentlalo nezoqoqosho kubo bonke abantu babo abayi kuphumelela kangako ekurhwebeni abatyali-mali bamazwe angaphandle nasekuzuzeni inkoliseko yabo. oorhulumente basekhaya abatyali-mali [38]. Le nyaniso iye yacaca nangakumbi ukususela oko uHerman wakwenza oko ngo-1982, njengoko uhlaziyo lweneoliberal lwezoqoqosho luye lwanyanzeliswa kuninzi lwehlabathi nto leyo eyingozi kubantu abaninzi abaqhelekileyo. Imigaqo-nkqubo ye-neoliberal kudala ikhona ayithandeki phakathi kwabemi baseMelika baseLatin America, kwaye baye banceda ukuvusa intshukumo yentlalo enamandla yaseLatin America kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje; ukususela ekupheleni kweminyaka yoo-1990, njengoko abacwangcisi base-US baye bakhalaza, ezi ntshukumo kunye nokunganeliseki okukhulu kwezentlalo abakumelayo kuye kwavelisa malunga neshumi elinesibini labongameli abasekhohlo abafungayo ukuba bawaphule amazwe abo ngokuxhomekeka kwezoqoqosho, ezopolitiko, kunye nozakuzaku eUnited States [39]. Ukuxhotyiswa komkhosi ngendlela yokwandiswa koncedo lomkhosi namapolisa sesinye sesicwangciso-qhinga sokuqulatha lo mcimbi. Nangona iithagethi ezisesikweni zolu โncedoโ zingabathengisi beziyobisi (kwaye eColombia, abavukeli abaxhobileyo), kumazwe amaninzi olo ncedo luye lwanceda ukuba kuthintelwe imibutho engenabundlobongela kwezentlalo [40]. ukuchasana ukuya kuClinton ngoSeptemba 8th izimvo, abahleli Mexican mihla La Jordan bonisa ukuba enye inzuzo "yemfazwe yeziyobisi" kukuba iboleka ngokulula "ekwenzeni ulwaphulo-mthetho kwiintshukumo zentlalo kunye namatsha ntliziyo phantsi kwesizathu sokulwa nemibutho yeziyobisi" [41]. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, abaqhankqalazi kulo lonke elaseLatin America baye babulawa, bavalelwa, kwaye baxhatshazwa ngenye indlela yimikhosi "yokhuseleko" exhaswa ngemali kwaye ihlala iqeqeshwa ngokuthe ngqo yi-United States: iColombian. iimanyano zabasebenzi, Ma Indiya, yaye abalimi, uluntu luqhankqalaza kushishino lwemveliso kwi IAmazon yasePeru, amatshantliziyo kunye neentatheli ezilandela ubhukuqo-mbuso lukaJuni 2009 Honduras, kunye neentlobo ngeentlobo Abaqhankqalazi baseMexico (kutsha nje ootitshala, abasebenzi basezimayini, kunye nabasebenzi bombane, ukongeza Zapatistas). Ngokubanzi, ukulwa nomkhosi kuye kwaba yindlela ekhethwayo yokujongana nokungazinzi-ukusuka kuqhanqalazo lwentlalo ukuya kwimfuduko ukuya kulwaphulo-mthetho lwasezitalatweni, ukuveliswa kweziyobisi, kunye nobundlobongela-ukuba i-neoliberalism iqikelelwa ukuba iqhubela phambili [42].
- Ukugcina ubukho obuqinileyo base-US kummandla. Ukuthabatheka kwabaqulunqi bemigaqo-nkqubo base-US ekulawuleni iLatin America akubangelwa kukuthanda izinto eziphathekayo kuphela. Ngelixa ezo zinto zinomdla zidlala indima ephambili, lo mmandla ubusoloko uthathwa njengomkhulu ezopolitiko ukubaluleka, okuphuma ikakhulu kwinzala yezoqoqosho kodwa ingeyiyo into enye ncam. Inkxalabo yase-US malunga ne-Latin America kudala imida kwi-obsessive, njengoko kungqinwa kukuzinikela okungagungqiyo kwe-US ngeminyaka yoo-1980 ukucinezela iimpembelelo zohlaziyo kumazwe amathathu akuMbindi we-Amerika awayengabalulekanga ngokuthe ngqo ngokuthe ngqo kumashishini aphakamileyo aseMelika. Ukugcina ulawulo โkummandla wethu omncinane aphaโโkumazwi kaNobhala weMfazwe uHenry Stimsonโngandlelโ ithile yinjongo yona ngokwayo, nangona leyo ngokwesiko ibijongwa njengebalulekile โukuphumeza ucwangco oluyimpumelelo kwenye indawo emhlabeni. ,โ ngokweNational Security Council ngowe-1971 [43]. Ukuphela kweMfazwe yoMlomo kunye nokunyuka kokuzixakekisa kwe-US kuMbindi Mpuma akukayitshintshi le nto iphambili-ngaloo ndlela ukunyanzeliswa kwamva nje ngumgaqo-nkqubo okhokelayo wokucinga ukuba "i-Latin America ayizange ibaluleke ngakumbi kwi-United States." Kwimeko yangoku, ubukho obunamandla base-US okanye obuxhaswe yi-US bomkhosi bubaluleke kakhulu njengento echasene nabo rhulumente basekhohlo ababonwa njengesona soyikiso kulawulo lwase-US, kwaye iVenezuela iphambili kuluhlu. Iziseko zase-US kumazwe afana neKholombiya, iHonduras, i-El Salvador, kunye nePanama, kunye nezixa ezikhulu zoncedo lwasemkhosini eColombia naseMexico, zenzelwe ubukhulu becala njengokuqinisekiswa kwakhona kolawulo lwase-US. Eyokuqala ngo-2009 Isicelo sebhajethi yePentagon kwiCongress yathetha ngesidingo "sokusebenza okugcweleyo kulo lonke elaseMzantsi Melika," ngokuyinxenye ukuchasana nobukho "boorhulumente abachasene ne-US" kunye "nokwandisa amandla okulwa imfazwe" [44]. Nangona olo lwimi lususiwe kuxwebhu lokugqibela, mhlawumbi luphawu oluhle lokucinga kwabaninzi eWashington. Kwaye ngelixa uhlaselo oluthe ngqo lwase-US eVenezuela okanye eBolivia lubonakala lungenakwenzeka kwikamva elingekude, kukho isivumelwano malunga nesidingo sobukho obunamandla bomkhosi wase-US kulo mmandla, ngokuyinxenye njengohlobo lwesithintelo ngokuchasene nokusasazeka โkobupopali obunamandla. .โ
- The impembelelo yezopolitiko yeekontraka zomkhosi zase-US kunye nabenzi bezixhobo. I-Militarization yinkxaso karhulumente kwiinkampani zasekhaya zase-US. Amagosa ase-US abone uncedo lomkhosi eLatin America njengenkxaso eyimfuneko kwizakhiwo zomkhosi-zemizi-mveliso ubuncinci ukusukela ngeminyaka yoo-1940s, xa bathi uncedo lwasemkhosini โluya kunika amandla ongezelelweyo kushishino lweenqwelomoya,โ kulwakhiwo lweenqanawa, nakwamanye amacandelo. . Ukusukela ngoko ishishini lezixhobo liye lakhula kakhulu kwaye ngoku lelona linengeniso ehlabathini, kunye ne-US ehamba phambili emhlabeni ngokuthumela izixhobo ngaphandle. Kwaye njengoko oosoqoqosho bezopolitiko abanjengoSeymour Melman kunye no-Ismael Hossein-Zadeh begxininisile, uqoqosho lwasekhaya lujolise kakhulu kwimfazwe kunye nemizi-mveliso enxulumene nemfazwe- malunga nesiqingatha sayo yonke inkcitho yomanyano yonyaka ukuya kwezi ziphelo-ivelisa iindawo kunye neendawo zokuhlala ezihlala zithandwa. babe phakathi kwawona majoni athetha kakhulu kwaye anceda ukuqinisekisa ukuqhubela phambili kwenkqubo ebancedayo [45]. Ngaphandle koncedo oluthe ngqo lwePentagon yomkhosi kunye namapolisa, ngo-2008 ishishini lezixhobo zase-US kunye norhulumente wase-US bathengise phantse i-2 yeebhiliyoni zeedola. i ingalo ukuya kuMbindi Merika, abangaphezu kwama-60 ekhulwini abaya eMexico naseKholombiya. Kwimeko yePlan yaseColombia, ababoneleli bezixhobo zomkhosi kwaye iinkampani zeoyile ziyaziwa ngokuphembelela nzima ukuba lo mthetho uwiswe, kwaye kwaezo nkampani zikwangoku ukuxhamla ukusuka Plan Mexico ("Mรฉrida Initiative") [46].
- Amandla omkhosi njengenye indawo eseleyo yolawulo lwase-US. Njengoko uqoqosho lwase-US luye lwehla ngokunxulumene nezo zaseTshayina, eIndiya, naseMpuma Asia, indawo enye yase-United States yolongamo olungathandabuzekiyo ihleli ingamandla ayo omkhosi. Njengayo nayiphi na imbaleki ekhuphisanayo-umfanekiso omkhulu, iziko lebhola yomnyazi elinemithi-ngokwemvelo lithanda ukuthembela kumandla alo, ngethemba lokusebenzisa ubungakanani bayo kunye namandla ukodlula abachasi bayo abakhawulezayo nabanamandla. I-slam dunk ngamaxesha athile, okanye ukubonisa amandla, ngokuyinxenye yenzelwe ukukhumbuza wonke umntu ukuba "inkundla," okanye ibala ledabi lezopolitiko. Kurhulumente wase-US, ukomelela kwamandla omkhosi kuye kwanda ukuba yindawo yokuqala yokhetho loluhlu olwahlukeneyo lweengxaki kunye neenjongo, nokuba ekugqibeleni azinamveliso. Olu tyekelo lukwayinto enye emva kokunyuka kuka-Obama kwamva nje kweemfazwe zase-US kuMbindi weAsia, nangona zomelele ubungqina loo mkhosi womkhosi awuyi kusebenza ekuncedeni i-United States ihlanganise urhulumente ozinzileyo wabathengi e-Afghanistan [47].
- Inkcubeko yezopolitiko yaseWashington. Unxulumano lwamandla omzimba nobudoda luxhaphakile, kwaye isikweko sisoloko sisetyenziswa kwiingxoxo zezopolitiko eziphakamileyo ngokubhekiselele kwizizwe-zizwe ukuze kuthethelelwe imigaqo-nkqubo ehlaselayo. Ngexesha leminyaka yokuqala "yemfazwe yobugrogrisi" e-Afghanistan nase-Iraq, abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo base-US kunye nezinja zabo ezithembekileyo kushicilelo lwase-US bahlala bebonisa ubungangamsha base-US ngelixa bephosa iinkokeli ezithile zaseYurophu ezazithandabuza ukuxhasa uhlaselo njengolubuthathaka kwaye luphumelele [48] . Kuyabhiyozelwa ENew York Times Umbhali wemihlathi uThomas Friedman uxelele umsasazi weTV ngo-2003 ukuba ukuhlasela kwe-US eIraq yayiyindlela yokuthi "Suck kule" kuma-Iraqis kunye nabanye abachasayo amandla ase-US. โAmadoda okwenene aya eTehran,โ amagosa ase-US nawaseBritani wathi ekuqaleni kwemfazwe, ukutyhala uhlaselo olulandelayo lwe-Iran [49]. Enyanisweni, amadoda okwenene ze shirk ekusetyenzisweni komkhosi wasemkhosini: nokuba kuMbindi Mpuma, eKholombiya, eMexico, okanye eHiroshima, ukukulungela ukubonisa amandla kabani emfazweni ekuphenduleni kuso nasiphi na โisisongeloโ esicingelwayo yimfuneko yokuqala yobudoda nentlonipho. Kwiimeko ezininzi i-machismo idityaniswe ngokusondeleyo neembono zocalucalulo olunzulu lwabantu basemzini, ngokuqinisekileyo ngabona kujoliswe kuko kumkhosi wase-US.
Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba kunye nasekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, US oopopayi bezopolitiko eboniswa rhoqo abantu baseMelika baseLatin America njengabantu abafayo nabadinga ukhuseleko lwase-US, kwaye amaphephandaba anamhlanje avelisa okufanayo. izizathu ngendlela efihlakeleyo ngakumbi. I-Machismo kunye ne-chauvinistic pride (ehlala ifakwe kucalucalulo) ayiloqhinga nje lokuthethelela ubundlongondlongo, nangona-zifakwe nzulu kwiingqondo zabenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo abaninzi base-US, kwaye bancedisa ukubumba umgaqo-nkqubo kunye ne-rhetoric. I-Machismo mhlawumbi iluncedo kakhulu ekuchazeni ukuzibandakanya kwe-US kwiindawo ezifana neVietnam kunye ne-Afghanistan, imimandla ekubaluleke kwayo ngokuthe ngqo kwezoqoqosho e-US kuye kwagqitywa isigqibo. Umncedisi kaNobhala wezoKhuselo uJohn McNaughton wabhala kwimemo ye-1965 ukuba eyona njongo ibalulekileyo yase-US eVietnam "yayikukunqanda ukoyiswa kwe-US okuhlazisayo," ngaloo ndlela ethethelela ukubulawa kwezigidi ezininzi zabantu abamsulwa [50]. Ngokukwanjalo, kubonakala kunengqiqo ukugqiba kwelokuba ukunyuka kuka-Obama e-Afghanistan ngokuyinxenye kubangelwa yinkcubeko yaseWashington ye-chauvinism, kwaye ngakumbi ukungathandi kweDemocrats ukubonwa "njengobuthathaka" (nangona uninzi loluntu lwase-US luchasene nemfazwe) [51] .
Utshintsho esinokukholelwa kulo: Ukusasaza iModeli
Iziphumo zeniyoliberalism yomkhosi azixoxwa. Ngoxa imbinana yabathengisi beziyobisi, abezobupolitika, nabezoshishino bengenelwa, abantu abangabalulekanga bathwaxwa bubuhlwempu obungakumbi, nto leyo ekhawulezisa yonke into ukususela kuqhankqalazo lwasekuhlaleni ukusa ekufudukeleni nasekuveliseni iziyobisi, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwasezitratweni nogonyameloโzonke ezi zinto zisetyenziselwa ukuthethelela umkhosi ongakumbi. . Lo mjikelo, kunye nabo bonke abaphumeleleyo kunye nabalahlekileyo, kunokwenzeka ukuba uqhubeke eColombia, eMexico, nakuyo yonke indawo apho kusetyenziswa imodeli efanayo.
Ulawulo luka-Obama inkqubo ibonise ukhetho olunamandla lwezithako ezintathu ezisisiseko zaloo modeli-imigaqo-nkqubo yezoqoqosho ye-neoliberal, iinkokeli zezopolitiko ezithobela i-United States, kunye ne-militarization-kwaye ibonise umnqweno omncinci wokuguqula umgaqo-nkqubo kwindlela eqhubekayo (nakwiindlela ezithobeke kakhulu. , utshintsho lwepragmatic cetyiswa liBhunga lezoBudlelwane baNgaphandle kowama-2008). Ukusukela oko u-Obama ethathe iintambo, iMexico iye yalishiya ikhaya laseColombia njengomamkeli ohamba phambili kwi-hemisphere yoncedo lomkhosi waseMelika kunye namapolisa njengenxalenye yomzamo owenziwa ligosa lase-US. ebizwa "Izixhobo ze-NAFTA." Ukudityaniswa kwe kuMbindi Merika kwi-US exhaswa ngemali "Ipaseji yokhuseleko" ukolula ukusuka kumda US-Mexico ukuya Colombia kuqhubeka ngesantya [52]. Ukuba umongameli ka-Obama uzise naluphi na โutshintsho,โ ngokuqinisekileyo ayilulo uhlobo lotshintsho oluya kufunwa ngabantu abaninzi.
Uninzi lwengxoxo-mpikiswano yangoku phakathi kwezangqa ezinenkqubela-phambili zimalunga nombuzo wokuba ingaba u-Obama uyakuthanda na ukuqhubeka nemigaqo-nkqubo yabanduleli bakhe okanye ngokwenene ungumntu oqhubela phambili entliziyweni obotshwe ziintambo zomdla omiliselweyo. Le mbono yokugqibela ibonakala ingenakwenzeka, kuba ukuba u-Obama wayenomdla onyanisekileyo kumgaqo-nkqubo onobubele kunye nongaphantsi kwama impiriyali, wayenokuqalisa utshintsho oluthile, ngokomzekelo, aphelise iinkqubo ezigxekayo zase-US "zokukhuthaza idemokhrasi" kumazwe afana. Venezuela okanye ukubuyisela urhwebo olukhethwayo Bholiviya ukuba wayirhoxisa ngo-2009.
Kodwa inkuthazo ka-Obama yangaphakathi kuyo nayiphi na imeko ayibalulekanga kangako kunemiqobo yesakhiwo kunye neziko kutshintsho olubonakalayo. Iinjongo ezisisiseko zomgaqo-nkqubo kunye nezicwangciso-qhinga zingaphaya kwemida yamaqela kunye neziphumo zonyulo. Nokuba ekugqibeleni kuyingozi kwimidla ethile yexesha elide yase-US, ukuqhubeka komkhosi kuzisa iingenelo ezininzi zexesha elifutshane kumashishini kunye nabachaphazelekayo bakarhulumente. Ngokunikwa amandla akhoyo ngoku e-United States naseLatin America, ukunqunyanyiswa okukhulu komgaqo-nkqubo kuya kubangela ukuchaswa kwabantu abakhethekileyo, kwaye kuzise umvuzo omncinci kakhulu wezopolitiko.
Naluphi na utshintsho olukhulu lomgaqo-nkqubo kwindlela ehamba phambili, ukuba luyenzeka, luya kubangela uxinzelelo oluvela kwi-Latin America kunye / okanye kwimikhosi engekho phantsi korhulumente ngaphakathi kwe-United States ngokwayo.
amaNqaku
*Enkosi kuSue Dorfman, uJohn Feffer, kunye noMichael Schwartz ngamagqabantshintshi aluncedo kuyilo lwangaphambili lweli nqaku.
[1] UCarlos Chirinos, โuHillary Clinton: eMexico sele efikile kwi-'Colombia de hace 20 aรฑos,'" I-BBC Mundo, kaSeptemba 8, 2010; "UClinton: Imfazwe yeziyobisi yaseMexico ifana nokuvukela," Los Angeles Times, ngoSeptemba 8, 2010. Le nkcazo yayingeyokuqala imodeli yePlani yaseColombia iye yadunyiswa ngokucacileyo njengenye yokusetyenziswa kwenye indawo: bona uBill Weinberg, "Cwangcisa iColombia: Ukuthumela iModeli ngaphandle," Ingxelo ye-NACLA kumazwe aseMelika 42, hayi. 4 (2009), kunye noGreg Grandin, "Imisipha yaseLatin America," Wesizwe (ngoJanuwari 21, 2010). Imbono eyakhayo ngePlan Colombia ixhaphakile phakathi kweqela eliphambili kumgaqo-nkqubo welizwe langaphandle eUnited States: ngokomzekelo, uRobert C. Bonner, โThe New Cocaine Cowboys: Indlela Yokoyisa Amashishini Eziyobisi EMexico,โ Imicimbi yabangaphandle (Julayi/Agasti 2010).
[2] Ngokuphathelele icuba bona amaZiko Olawulo Nothintelo Lwezifo, โUkufa Okubangelwa Kukutshaya, Iminyaka Yokuphulukana Nobomi, kunye Nokulahlekelwa KwemvelisoโeUnited States, 2000โ2004,โ Ukuxhatshazwa kunye nokufa kweNgxelo yeveki 57, hayi. I-45 (2008): i-1226-28, ikhankanywe kwi-CDC website; ngotywala bona uDavid J. Nutt, uLeslie A. King, kunye noLawrence D. Phillips, "Iziyobisi ezinobungozi e-UK: Uhlalutyo lweSigqibo se-Multicriteria," Lancet 376, no. 9752 (Novemba 6, 2010): 1558-65. Ngolwazi olongezelelweyo jonga uNoam Chomsky, "Cwangcisa iColombia," in Amazwe angama-Rogue: Ulawulo lweMicimbi yeHlabathi (Boston: South End Press, 2000), 78-80.
Ndiyawutyeshela lo mbuzo ubalulekileyo wokuba ingaba urhulumente unawo nawuphi na umgaqo osemthethweni kunene ukuthintela, kunye nokumisela izohlwayo eziqinileyo, ekusetyenzisweni komntu kwizinto ezithile; Mna andicingi ukuba kuyenzeka, ngaphandle kokuba imveliso yento ethile, ukutshintshiselana, kunye/okanye ukusetyenziswa kwenzakalisa ngokucacileyo abanye abantu okanye okusingqongileyo ngendlela ethile enokubonakaliswa. Kunokwenziwa ityala elinamandla lokuba amachiza athile awela phakathi koku, nto leyo ethetha ukuba izithintelo zokusetyenziswa okanye uthintelo olupheleleyo lunokuba lusengqiqweni; umzekelo, umcimbi wokuqhuba unxilile, ucacile. Nangona kunjalo, uninzi lweziyobisi eziyingozi (umzekelo, utywala kunye necuba) zisemthethweni, ngelixa uninzi lweziyobisi "ezikhuselekileyo" ngokuthelekisa (ingakumbi intsangu, kodwa kunye ne-cocaine) zifumana ezona zohlwayo ziqatha. (Ngokuthelekisa kakhulu ukukhanya Izohlwayo zokuqhuba enxilileโokubulala abantu abamalunga nama-22,000 XNUMX nyaka ngamnye eUnited States, ngaphezu kwawo onke amatyala anxulumene neziyobisiโbona uMichelle Alexander, UJim Crow omtsha: Ukuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi kubudala beMibala engaboniyo [ENew York: iNew Press, 2010], 200-01.)
[3] "Idemokhrasi kunye neSicwangciso saseColombia," Ingxelo ye-NACLA kumazwe aseMelika 40, hayi. I-1 (2007).
[4] Iinkcukacha-manani ze-UN ezicatshulwe kwi โI-Morales: Ukunqunyanyiswa kwezorhwebo eBolivia kubonisa u-Obama 'uxoke kwiLatin America'โ (isihloko), Intando yeninzi Ngoku! 2Julayi 2009; I-Ofisi ye-UN kwiZiyobisi kunye noLwaphulo-mthetho, Ingxelo yeHlabathi yeziyobisi ngo-2009 (ENew York, 2009), 11. Bona kwakhona uSimon Romero, โImveliso yeCoca yenza iBuyback ePeru,โ ENew York Times,Juni 13, 2010; UAndrรฉs Schipani, "Imveliso yeCocaine iyenyuka iSpell ngeNgxaki eBolivia," BBC News, Juni 16, 2010. โIsiphumo sebhaluniโ: Lisa Haugaard, et al., Ukulinda uTshintsho: Iindlela zoNcedo loKhuseleko lwase-US kwiLatin America kunye neCaribbean (CIP/LAWG/WOLA, May 2010), 16.
[5] Icatshulwe kuRory Carroll, "Imveliso yeCocaine ikhupha iWave yoBundlobongela kwiLatin America," Guardian, Matshi 9, 2009. Jonga kwakhona iKhomishini kaFebruwari 2009 umbiko, Iziyobisi kunye neDemokhrasi: Ukusingisa kwiParadigm Shiftkunye noMichael Kenney, Ukusuka ePablo ukuya e-Osama: Uthungelwano lwezoRhwebo kunye nabanqolobi, iiBurefere zikaRhulumente, kunye noLungiso loKhuphiswano (State College, PA: Penn State UP, 2007).
[6] "Isicwangciso saseColombia saseMexico," Umgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle, Septemba 10, 2010. Ekunyukeni kokuthengiswa kweziyobisi eMexico bona uPaul Gootenberg, "Blowback: The Mexican Drug Crisis," Ingxelo ye-NACLA kumazwe aseMelika 43, hayi. 6 (2010): 7-12. Abacholacholi beendaba ababini abanamava exesha elide bechaza iMexico babhala ukuba โinkoliso yamaxhoba okubulala ngabantu baseMexico abatshintsha ngomlingo babe ngamalungu eshishini leziyobisi ngaphambi kokuba igazi labo lome ezitratweni.โ Bakwagxininisa ukungaqiniseki okubalulekileyo malunga nezazisi kunye neenjongo zabo banoxanduva lokunyuka okukhulu kubundlobongela obunxulumene neziyobisi, ukungaqiniseki abathi kubangelwe kukungabikho kophando lukarhulumente waseMexico kunye nokungabikho komdla kurhulumente wase-US. Inyani yokuba i-Plan Mexico iqhubekile ngoku iminyaka eliqela ngaphandle kokungaqiniseki yenye into ebonisa ukuba inkqubo ineenjongo ezifihlakeleyo. Bona uCharles Bowden noMolly Molloy, "Ngubani Osemva Kokufa Kwabayi-25,000 eMexico?" Wesizwe (NgeJulayi 23, 2010).
[7] N. Chomsky, โPlan Colombia,โ 72-73.
[8] Icatshulwe kuTeo Ballvรฉ, โIcala eliMnyama leSicwangciso saseColombia,โ Wesizwe (NgoMeyi 27, 2009).
[9] Ballvรฉ, โIcala Elimnyama leSicwangciso saseColombiaโ; Weinberg, "Plan Colombia"; U-Angel Pรกez, "iPeru: iiCables zeWikileaks zityhila iPolitiko eziBuso eZimbini yi-US," i-Inter Press Service, ngoDisemba 16, 2010.
[10] Ngokubhekiselele kuhlalutyo lweengcali olupapashwe ngaphambi kwe-1999, N. Chomsky, "Plan Colombia," 80-81. "Olunye uphuhliso loqoqosho" lwendalo yokwenyani akufuneki lubhidaniswe neenkqubo zangoku ze-USAID eColombia okanye kwenye indawo. Kwimfazwe โyeZiyobisiโ enobuhlanga kakhulu e-United States ngokwayo, bona eyona ncwadi yamva nje yegqwetha uMichelle Alexander, UJim Crow omtsha: Ukuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi kubudala beMibala engaboniyo (ENew York: iNew Press, 2010). Jonga nakwinkupho ekhethekileyo kaJanuwari/Februwari 2011 I-American Prospect.
[11] UAdam Isacson weOfisi yaseWashington eLatin America, Ungayibizi iModeli: kwiSicwangciso seMinyaka yeShumi yaseColombia, amaBango 'empumelelo' akasukumi ukuba aqwalaselwe. (WOLA, Julayi 2010), iphe. 5.
[12] Kwi-101 eqinisekisiweyo yokubulawa kweemanyano zabasebenzi, i-48 yayiseColombia. Amazwe amathathu alandelayo kuluhlu zonke zisondelene US amaqabane: Guatemala nge 16, Honduras nge 12, Mexico kunye 6; I-Bangladesh idityaniswe neMexico (uManyano lweManyano yoRhwebo lwaMazwe ngaMazwe, UPhando loNyaka lokunyhashwa kwamalungelo emibutho yabasebenzi [2010]). Kwi magama kaSosiba-jikelele we-ITUC uGuy Ryder, โiKholombiya yayiselilizwe kwakhona apho ukumela amalungelo asisiseko abasebenzi kudla ngokubonakala ngakumbi kunayo nayiphi na enye indawo ukuba kuthethe isigwebo sentambo, phezu kwayo nje iphulo likarhulumente waseColombia lokusebenzelana noluntu elichasene noko. Imeko emaxongo eGuatemala, eHonduras nakwamanye amazwe amaninzi ikwangunobangela wokuxhalaba okukhulu.โ Ukufumana imvelaphi kunye nohlaziyo lwamva nje, bona uFederico Fuentes, "I-Colombia: Ukwenza ishishini, Ukubulala Abasebenzi," Luhlaza sasekhohlo veki nganye, ngoNovemba 13, 2010. Ukubulawa kwamatshantliziyo asekhohlo kuye kwaqhubeka ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa ukususela oko owayesakuba nguMphathiswa wezoKhuselo uJuan Manuel Santos wathatha isikhundla sobumongameli ngoAgasti 2010; bona uManuela Kuehr, "Amatshantliziyo angama-22 abulawa kwiintsuku zokuqala ezingama-75 zikaSantos," Iingxelo zaseColombia, Oktobha 29, 2010.
[13] UConn Hallinan, โKutshanje ukufunyanwa kweNgcwaba yeMass Mass yaseColombia Kusenokuba โIzinto Ezinempembelelo Zobuxoki,โโ Umgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle, Agasti 1, 2010; "Informe del Relator Especial sobre las ejecuciones, extrajudiciales, sumarias or arbitrarias, Philip Alston,"A/HRC/14/24/Add.2 (Matshi 31, 2010), 12.
[14] Oeindrila Dube kunye noSuresh Naidu, Iziseko, iimbumbulu, kunye neeBhalothi: Isiphumo soNcedo loMkhosi wase-US kungquzulwano lwezoPolitiko eColombia., i-Working Paper 197 (Januwari 2010), isishwankathelo kunye nephepha lesi-3.
[15] "Isicwangciso saseColombia esiNxulunyaniswe noNyaniso lwasemkhosini olwandisiweyo," Iindaba zeNACLA, Julayi 30, 2010. Ingxelo epheleleyo, ekhutshwe ngoJulayi 2010, inelungelo Uncedo lomkhosi kunye namaLungelo oLuntu: iKholombiya, ukuPhendula kwe-US, kunye neMpembelelo yeHlabathi. Ukuvela kweKholombiya emva ko-1990 njengowona mnyhadala wamalungelo oluntu ngokuyinxenye kungenxa yokuwa, phakathi ukuya ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yoo-1980, kuthotho lolawulo lobuzwilakhe lwasemkhosini oluxhaswa yi-US oluneerekhodi ezoyikekayo zamalungelo abantu.
[16] Kuphononongo olucwangcisiweyo lwerekhodi ye-1975-77, isazinzulu sezopolitiko uLars Schoultz wafumanisa ukuba "[t] unxulumano phakathi kwenqanaba elipheleleyo loncedo lwase-US kwi-Latin America kunye nokuphulwa kwamalungelo oluntu ngoorhulumente abafumanayo ... kulungile ngokufanayo, ebonisa. olo ncedo luthande ukuhamba ngokungafaniyo koorhulumente baseLatin America abangcungcuthekisa abemi baboโ (โUmgaqo-nkqubo wase-US waNgaphandle kunye nokunyhashwa kwamaLungelo oLuntu eLatin America: A Thelekisa Uhlahlelo loLwabiwo loNcedo lwangaphandle,โ Uthelekiso lwePolitiko 13, hayi. 2 [1981]: 155). Bona kwanoEdward S. Herman, The yenene Inethiwekhi yobugrogrisi: Ubunqolobi ngokwenyani kunye nePropaganda (Boston: South End Press, 1982), 126 umgca.
Abanye banokubuza ukuba ulungelelwaniso lukaSchoultz luyaqhubeka na emva kwexesha leMfazwe ebandayo; Ingqondo yam yeyokuba ngelixa ukungcungcuthekiswa kukarhulumente kunye nokubulawa kwabantu kungaxhaphakanga ngoku kunokuba kwakunjalo kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu eyadlulayo, kusekho unxulumano olomeleleyo phakathi kobubele base-US kunye nokucinezelwa kwedemokhrasi yentlalo yoluntu. Unxulumano olufanelekileyo ngoku, ndiyakholwa, luphakathi kwamanqanaba e idemokhrasi kunye nokuthandwa yi-US, kunokuba amanqanaba obundlobongela obuphantsi kunye nokuthandwa yi-US. Ngobunye ubungqina bakutshanje obuxhasa le ngxabano, bona imithombo ecatshulwe kumanqaku 21 kunye nama-40, ngezantsi.
[17] Amaxwebhu ekuthethwa ngawo, ayafumaneka kwi website yoLondolozo lweeNkcukacha eziBalulekileyo zoKhuseleko lweSizwe, lutyhila ulwazi lukarhulumente wase-US kwangoko ngo-1990 lonxibelelwano lomkhosi kumaqela abulalayo.
[18] Ingxelo ye-AP ukususela nge-15 kaJulayi, 2009, nayo yacatshulwa kuNoam Chomsky, "Umkhosi waseLatin America," Ngale maxesha kwi-intanethi, ngoSeptemba 9, 2009. Kwingxelo yamva nje yeSebe likaRhulumente lerekhodi lamalungelo oluntu eColombia, bona uGimena Sรกnchez-Garzoli, "Ukunika iKholombiya iPasi yaMahala: iSebe leLizwe alikuhoyi ukusetyenziswa kakubi kweAfro-Colombian kunye namaLungelo emveli," UpsideDownWorld.org, Septemba 22, 2010. Kwithemba langoku le-US-Colombia "intengiso yorhwebo lwasimahla", bona uDawn Paley, "Yintoni elandelayo kwiSivumelwano soRhwebo ngokuKhululwa kwe-US-Colombia?" Iindaba zeNACLA, UDisemba 3, 2010.
[19] Icatshulwe kwiHaugaard, et al., Ilinde utshintsho, 4.
[20] uIsake, Musa Ukuyibiza ngokuba yiModeli, 10 (icatshulwa), esekelwe kwinxalenye ye-UN Economic Commission yeLatin America kunye neCaribbean (ECLAC), I-Social Panorama yaseLatin America (iphepha lengcaciso, 2009), 11โ12.
[21] iMexico ibekwe kwindawo yokuqala kulo mmandla โkokukhululeka kokwenza ishishiniโ apho, kunye nePeru neColombia kwindawo yesibini neyesithathu (Ukwenza iShishini ngo-2011: Ukwenza umahluko kooSomashishini [Washington, 2010], 4). Ikwaxoxiwe eFuentes, "iColombia: Ukwenza ishishini, Ukubulala Abasebenzi."
[22] "I-Latin America: Izikhokelo ze-United States Policy and Operations" (idrafti), ngo-Aprili 24, 1962, iphe. I-57, kwi-US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), iQela lokurekhoda i-59, i-Entry 3172, iBhokisi 2, ifolda ye-31.
[23] "Ukungena" yayiyinto eqhelekileyo kwintetho yomenzi womgaqo-nkqubo; bona, umzekelo, uMncedisi kaNobhala kaRhulumente kwiMicimbi yeNtshona yeHemisphere uThomas C. Mann kuNobhala Ophantsi kaRhulumente (C. Douglas Dillon), ngoNovemba 10, 1960, kwi-NARA 59/3172/1/30.
[24] "Izimo zengqondo zaseLatin America ngakwi-US," i-NIE 80/90-58, ngoDisemba 2, 1958, Ubudlelwane bamanye amazwe eUnited States [emva koku FRUS], 1958-1960, umqulu. V: IiRiphabhulikhi zaseMelika (eWashington: I-Ofisi yokuprinta kaRhulumente wase-US, i-1991), i-61-62 (icatshulwa). Ngexesha likaKennedy bona uStephen G. Rabe, Eyona ndawo iyingozi kakhulu kwihlabathi: UJohn F. Kennedy ujongene neNguquko yamaKomanisi eLatin America (I-Chapel Hill: I-UNC Press, i-1999), i-125-47. Uloyiko lwase-US lobuzwe baseLatin America lwaluqale ngaphambili, nangona kunjalo, njengoko uDavid Green ebonisa I-Containment yeLatin America: Imbali yeeNtsomi kunye neNyaniso yoMgaqo-nkqubo wommelwane olungileyo (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971). Amanqaku aluhlaza (iphe. 208) athi emva nje kwemfazwe โabakhi-mkhanyo abanolwazi baseMelika eLatin America babesazi kakuhle ukuba ubuzwe bomthonyama, ingebubo ubukomanisi bamazwe ngamazwe, yayiyeyona nto yayisisoyikiso kwimidla yaseUnited States eLatin America.โ Cf. UJames Siekmeier, "Ukulwa neSizwe soQoqosho: Uncedo lwezoQoqosho lwase-US kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo woPhuhliso olubhekiselele kwiLatin America, i-1953-1961" (i-Ph.D. diss., iYunivesithi yaseCornell, i-1993).
[25] US Embassy eBolivia ukuya kwiSebe likaRhulumente, ngo-Aprili 30, 1953, e-NARA 59, iFayile yeDesimali ephakathi, 1950-54, 824.00 / 4-3053; "IPhepha leZikhokelo ezisiShwankathelo: Umgaqo-nkqubo waseUnited States obhekiselele kwiLatin America," Julayi 3, 1961, iphe. 33; โIsisongelo kuMdla woKhuseleko lwaseUnited States kuMmandla weCaribbean,โ iSNIE 80-62, kaJanuwari 17, 1962, iphe. 212; Arthur Schlesinger, Omnci., โXela uMongameli kwiMishini yaseLatin America, ngoFebruwari 12-Matshi 3, 1961โ (ibhalwe ngomhla), 12-13. Amaxwebhu amathathu okugqibela afunyenwe kuwo onke FRUS, 1961-1963, umqulu. XII: IiRiphabliki zaseMelika (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1996).
[26] Ungqamaniso, iingxoxo kunye nezinye, ziyamangalisa. Ngokomzekelo, ngowe-1879 uNjengele uPhilip Sheridan wathetha ngemfuneko yokuzingela amaIndiya angamaCheyenne awayesinde kwiimeko ezimaxongo, esithi โ[u] ngaphandle kokuba abuyiselwe apho ayevela khona [okanye abulawa], onke amaIndiya awazange abuyele kwindawo yawo.โ Inkqubo yogcino izakufumana ukothuka okuya kubeka emngciphekweni uzinzo lwayo.โ U-Sheridan ukwadume ngokwenza ibinzana elithi "okuphela kweIndiya olungileyo ngumIndiya oswelekileyo." Icatshulwe kuDee Brown, Gcoba Intliziyo yam kwiDolo elonakeleyo: Imbali yaseIndiya yaseMelika eNtshona (ENew York: Washington Square Press, 1981), 327-28, 166; cf. iphepha 271, 344.
[27] uDuggan ucatshulwe kwiGreen, Ukunyanzeliswa kweLatin America, 188. Bonsal to Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs uRoy Rubottom, ngoMeyi 20, 1958, eNARA, 59/1162/27/โBolivia 1958โChronologicalโ93โLetters From AmembassiesโJan.-June.โ Kwangalo nyaka, uMongameli Eisenhower waxelela iBhunga leSizwe loKhuseleko ukuba โ[i]ngxaki kukuba sinephulo lentiyo echasene nathi [kuMbindi Mpuma], hayi ngoorhulumente kodwa ngabantuโฆ ecaleniโ (icatshulwe kuDouglas Little, I-American Orientalism: EUnited States nakuMbindi Mpuma ukususela ngowe-1945 [Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002], 136). I-NSC yayisele ibonise ukuba "iminqweno yethu yezoqoqosho kunye nenkcubeko kule ndawo ayizange iholele ngokungekho ngokwemvelo ukuvala ubudlelwane base-US kunye nezinto kwilizwe lama-Arabhu anomdla wabo ophambili ulele ekugcinweni kobudlelwane kunye neNtshona kunye nesimo esikhoyo kumazwe abo" ; ngenxa yoko "uninzi lwama-Arabhu" ngokuchanekileyo "bakholelwa ukuba i-United States ifuna ukukhusela umdla wayo kwi-oyile ekufutshane neMpuma ngokuxhasa imeko ekhoyo kunye nenkqubela phambili yezopolitiko okanye yezoqoqosho echasayo" (icatshulwe kwincwadi kaNoam Chomsky. impendulo kwinqaku elithi โKutheni Befuna Ukusenzakalisa? [Inxalenye yesithathu],โ Ngale maxesha, ngoAprili 2, 2010). Cf. Salim Yaqub, Iqulathe ubuzwe bama-Arabhu: Imfundiso ye-Eisenhower kunye noMbindi Mpuma (I-Chapel Hill: i-UNC Press, i-2004).
[28] Ekudalweni kweqela lokufa laseColombia phantsi kweliso lase-US ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1960 bona uGreg Grandin, Iworkshop yoBukhosi: eLatin America, eUnited States, kunye nokuPhakamisa kwe-Imperialism eNtsha (ENew York: Metropolitan, 2006), 96, 98; UDennis M. Rempe, โAmaGuerrilla, Abaphangi, kunye neeRiphabliki eziZimeleyo: Iinzame zokuLwa nabavukeli base-US eKholombiya, ngowe-1959-1965,โ Iimfazwe ezincinci kunye noTyala 6, hayi. 3 (1995): 304-27; Aviva Chomsky, Iimbali zeMisebenzi eziDityanisiweyo: iNew England, iColombia, kunye nokwenza iKlasi yokuSebenza yeHlabathi (Durham: Duke UP, 2008), 231-40; N. Chomsky, โPlan Colombia,โ 69.
[29] PPS/23: โUphononongo lweeNdlela eziNgqongileyo zangoku kwiPolisi yaNgaphandle yase-US,โ kwi FRUS, 1948, umqu. Mna (Washington: USGPO, 1974), 524-25.
[30] Bobabini bacatshulwe kuMichael Klare, "Yiba ne-RDF, iya kuhamba: Imfundiso eBrown," Wesizwe (Matshi 8, 1980), iphepha elingaphandle nelama-263-66. Cf. Grandin, Iworkshop yoBukhosi, 179.
[31] Ubudlelwane be-US Latin America: Ulwalathiso olutsha lweNqobo entsha (ngoMeyi 2008) (icatshulwa kwisishwankathelo). Inkxalabo efanayo iqatshelwe ngo-2009 umbiko epapashwe liBhunga leMicimbi yeHemispheric: uSebastiรกn Castaรฑeda, โUkuManyaniswa koBukho baseMkhosini base-US eKholombiya Nabo Boyikayo Ngayo,โ ngoSeptemba 25, 2009 (โUkukhuselwa kobutyebi bendalo obubalulekileyo, ngakumbi oovimba beoli, kungundoqo Isicwangciso soqoqosho sase-US kulo mmandla ").
[32] J. Michael McConnell (uMlawuli woBuntlola beSizwe), UVavanyo lweNgozi loNyaka loMlawuli woBuntlola beSizwe kwiKomiti eKhethekileyo yeSenethi yezobuNtlola, kaFebruwari 5, 2008, iphe. 34. Inguqulelo ka-2010, eyanikezelwa ngu-Obama DNI uDennis C. Blair ngomhla we-2 kuFebruwari, igxeka kakhulu oorhulumente abasekhohlo, ngakumbi uChavez waseVenezuela, owanikwa enetyala โlokusebenza ukulwa nempembelelo yase-US eLatin America. โ (iphe. 43; ezinye iingcaphulo kwiphepha 30, 32). Isicatshulwa sokugqibela sivela kuChristopher Sabatini kunye noJason Marczak, "iTango ka-Obama: Ukubuyisela ubuNkokeli base-US eLatin America," Imicimbi yabangaphandle (ifakwe kwi-intanethi ngoJanuwari 13, 2010). Ababhali benza le ngongoma kumxholo wokukhuthaza "ubunkokeli obunamandla ngakumbi" obuvela e-US eLatin America.
[33] "Amagqabantshintshi nguNobhala uClinton, uMphathiswa Wezangaphandle waseBrazil u-Amorim," Ngomhla wesi-3 kuMatshi 2010, efumaneka kwiwebhusayithi ye-america.gov; "Indlebe yoQinisekiso lweSenate: uHillary Clinton," ENew York Times, kaJanuwari 13, 2008; UGarry Leech, "Umgaqo-nkqubo wase-US oya eVenezuela naseColombia uya kutshintsha kancinci phantsi kuka-Obama, "U Ijenali yaseColombia, kaJanuwari 20, 2009; UMark Weisbrot, "IVenezuela, Isisongelo esicingelwayo, "U Guardian, Februwari 18, 2009.
[34] Amaxwebhu asuka ku-2002 kunye no-2007, acatshulwe kuJeremy Bigwood, โIzinto ezintsha ezifunyenweyo zityhila ukungenelela kwe-US eBolivia,โ UpsideDownWorld.org, ngo-Oktobha 13, 2008; UEva Golinger, "Amaxwebhu atyhila iNgxowa-mali yezigidi zeedola kwiiNtatheli zeendaba kunye neMedia eVenezuela," Iiposikhadi ezivela kwiRevolution (iblogi), ngoJulayi 15, 2009; USekela Nobhala weLizwe lase-US uJames Steinberg, ocatshulwe kwi-Weisbrot, "IVenezuela, Isisongelo esicingelwayoโ; uEva Golinger, "I-Wikileaks: Amaxwebhu aqinisekisa iziCwangciso zase-US ezichasene neVenezuela," ZNet Amagqabantshintshi, ngoDisemba 20, 2010 (ukusukela kolu kubhalwa, olunye uxwebhu olunjalo, olunesihloko esithi โA Southern Cone Perspective on Counting Chavez and Resserting US Leadershipโ http://213.251.145.96/cable/2007/06/07SANTIAGO983.html).
[35] Ukufumana isishwankathelo kunye novavanyo lomgaqo-nkqubo wolawulo luka-Obama kwasekuqaleni kwingingqi bona yam "U-Obama kunye neLatin America: Iinyanga ezintandathu zokuqala," Iindaba zeNACLA, Julayi 23, 2009. Akuzange kubekho zilungiso ezibambekayo kulo mgaqo-nkqubo ukususela ngoko. Kwindumiso yase-US ngePeru-โidemokhrasi ekhulayo,โ ngamazwi ka-Obama-bona uLisa Skeen, "Ukudunyiswa kwe-US kuQoqosho lwasePeru luphosa uphawu," Iindaba zeNACLA, Septemba 13, 2010.
[36] IBhunga leSizwe loKhuseleko, ISicwangciso soKhuseleko seSizwe sase-United States of America, ngoMatshi ka-2006, iphe. 25. Ndiyabulela kuMichael Schwartz ngokundikhomba kule ngcaciso.
[37] uStephen Zunes, "I-United States, iBolivia, kunye nokuxhomekeka," Iphepha leNgxoxo leNkqubo yoMgaqo-nkqubo waseMelika (eWashington, DC: Iziko loMgaqo-nkqubo waMazwe ngaMazwe, ngoNovemba 5, 2007); Zunes, "iUnited States kunye neBolivia: Ukulungiswa kweNguquko, 1952-1957," Iingcinga zeLatin American 28, akukho. 5 (2001): 33-49.
[38] I-Imperialism Entsha (ENew York: Oxford UP, 2003), 26-42.
[39] The yenene Inethiwekhi yobugrogrisi, 45, 126-32. Njengoko izifundo ezibini zika-2010 eColombia (ngasentla, amanqaku 14-15) zibonisa, uncedo lomkhosi wase-US nalo luthambekele ekukhuliseni uxinzelelo-oku kuthetha ukuba unxibelelwano luvela kokubini kwinto yokuba. okuqala Ulwabiwo loncedo lwase-US luthanda oorhulumente ababonisa ukuvuma kwabo ukucinezela, kwaye nakwinyani yokuba uncedo lwase-US lwabe lwabiwa ngokusebenzayo. iyabandisa ingxaki.
[40] Uphononongo lwamanani okuvota akutsha nje abonisa inkcaso yabantu baseLatin America kuninzi lwemfundiso yeniyoliberal, bona "Latinobarรณmetro 2010: Uluvo loluntu lwaseLatin America," ZNet, kaDisemba 7, 2010, kunye neziphumo zovoto oludlulileyo ekubhekiselwe kuzo kwinqaku lesi-3 lelo nqaku. Iniyoliberalism eyaqala ukutshayela ihlabathi phakathi kwiminyaka yoo-1970 iqondwa ngokufanelekileyo njengohlobo olukhohlakeleyo longxowankulu bamaqumrhu, nolunemizekelo emininzi kwakudala phambi koo-1970; ayimelanga isenzeko okanye isicwangciso esitsha ngokupheleleyo kwicala labaqulunqi bomgaqo-nkqubo.
[41] Nangona ingelulo ugqaliselo lwam apha, kukho unxulumano olubalulekileyo phakathi kwe-neoliberalism, ukuveliswa kweziyobisi, kunye nomkhosi; elona khonkco liphambili libonakala ngathi njengoko i-neoliberalism yonakalisa uqoqosho lwasekhaya, abavelisi bamachiza baye bangena ukuze bavale isithuba, ngaloo ndlela bebonelela ngezizathu ezingaphezulu zokulwa okukhokelwa yi-US. Iindlela ezahlukeneyo โzokungazinziโ ezithi i-neoliberalism ibe mandundu-ukusuka kuqhankqalazo, ukuya kulwaphulo-mthetho lwasezitalatweni, ukuya kwimveliso yeziyobisi ezinkulu-zithi ke zifakwe kudidi olufanayo, ubuncinci ngokwentetho, ngentsingiselo yokuba kufuneka zipheliswe ngomkhosi nangamapolisa. isenzo. UGreg Grandin uthi โugonyamelo [lweziyobisi] luqiniswa kukwanda ngokukhawuleza kwemigodi, umbane ophehlwa ngamanzi, i-biofuel nepetroleum, nto leyo eyonakalisa indalo yasekuhlaleni, ityhefa umhlaba namanzi, nokuvulwa kweemarike zelizwe. I-US agroindustry, etshabalalisa uqoqosho lwasekhaya. Ukufuduswa okulandelayo mhlawumbi kudala izoyikiso zolwaphulo-mthetho olwahlukileyo, imfazwe ebanzi ilwelwa ukuchasa okanye ukuxhokonxa uqhanqalazo, olusingathwa ngabaphindezeli abaxhotyiswa yimfazwe ebanziโ (โMuscling Latin Americaโ).
[42] "UClinton: Ubhidanisa i-peligrosas," ngoSeptemba 9, 2010.
[43] EColombia jonga amanqaku 11-13 ngasentla plus Mario A. Murillo, "Imbali iyaziphinda kuluntu lwemveli phantsi kohlaselo eColombia," Iindaba zeNACLA, ngo-Oktobha 15, 2008; ePeru: uKristina Aiello, "IBagua, ePeru: Emva konyaka," Iindaba zeNACLA, Juni 25, 2010; IHonduras: uLinda Cooper kunye noJames Hodge, "Inkokeli ye-Honduran Coup ithweswe isidanga se-SOA yamaxesha amabini," WeNational Catholic Reporter, Juni 29, 2009; Imibutho yaseMexico: UJames D. Cockroft, "IMexico: 'Amazwe Ahlulekileyo,' Iimfazwe Ezintsha, Ukuxhathisa," Ukuhlaziywa ngenyanga 62, hayi. 6 (Novemba 2010), 37.
[44] UStimson ucatshulwe kwiGreen, Ukunyanzeliswa kweLatin America, 230; I-NSC icatshulwe kwi-N. Chomsky, "Militarizing Latin America." Njengoko uNoam Chomsky ephawula kwenye indawo, abacwangcisi baseMelika bahlala โbeqonda ukuba ukhuseleko lwase-US lufuna ulawulo olugqibeleleyoโฆ Njengoko yonke iMafia Don isazi, nokuphulukana nolawulo kuncinci kunokukhokelela [ekutyhilweni] kwenkqubo yolawulo njengoko abanye bekhuthazwa ukuba balandele indlela efanayo. indlelaโ ("Ukhuseleko kunye noLawulo I," ZNet, Septemba 16, 2010). Cf. amanqaku 25-26 ngasentla.
[45] Icatshulwe kwiGranin, โMuscling Latin America.โ Cf. Haugaard, et al., Ilinde utshintsho, 4.
[46] Njengoko uSenator uWilliam Fulbright waphawula ngexesha leVietnam, "Izigidi zabantu baseMelika abanomdla kuphela wokuphila ubomi obufanelekileyo baye bafumana umdla kuqoqosho olulungiselelwe imfazwe ... โ Icatshulwe kwiHossein-Zadeh, UQoqosho lwezoPolitiko lwe-US Militarism (ENew York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 15. Cf. Melman, I-Pentagon capitalism: Uqoqosho lwezoPolitiko lweMfazwe (ENew York: McGraw-Hill, 1970).
[47] Isicatshulwa esivela kwi-Air Force General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, ethetha ngo-1947, ekhankanywe kuGreen, Ukunyanzeliswa kweLatin America, 260. Amanani ezixhobo athathwe kwiJust the Facts website. Ekufuneni iCebo laseColombia bona iZiko leMfezeko yoluntu, "Imfazwe yeeHelikopta," engabhalwanga umhla, kunye nemithombo ecatshulwe kwiN. Chomsky, โPlan Colombia,โ 77. EMexico bona uLaura Carlsen, "Indlu kunye neSeneti badlulisela uncedo olutsha lwasemkhosini eMexico," Inkqubo yaseMelika (iphinde yapotwa kwi-UpsideDownWorld.org), ngoMeyi 18, 2009.
[48] โโUSeth G. Jones kunye noMartin C. Libicki, Aphela Njani Amaqela Abanqolobi: Izifundo Zokulwa ne-al Qaida (RAND Corporation, 2008). Abaphengululi abahlukeneyo baye baqaphela ukuba urhulumente wase-US uye wathambekela "ekuguquleni izihlunu zakhe zasemkhosini njengekuphela kwamandla acacileyo ashiyekileyo" (Harvey, I-Imperialism Entsha, 77).
[49] UNoam Chomsky, Amazwe aFaileyo: Ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwaMandla kunye noHlaselo kwiDemokhrasi (ENew York: Metropolitan, 2006), 35.
[50] UFriedman ucatshulwe kuDavid Swanson, Imfazwe Lixoki (Charlottesville, VA, 2010), 187; Igosa laseBritani licatshulwe kuDavid Remnick, โImfazwe Engenasiphelo?โ New Yorker (Epreli 21, 2003).
[51] Icatshulwe kwiSwanson, Imfazwe Lixoki, 184.
[52] Ukanti kwenye yezinto ezixakayo kwimbali yamva nje, ukongama emkhosini waseMelika kuye kwayivumela ukuba yoyise iIraq okanye iAfghanistan.
[53] Grandin, "Muscling Latin America" โโ(kubandakanywa isicatshulwa se-NAFTA esivela kwigosa lase-US); Kevin Alvarez, "Imfazwe Yeziyobisi: Ngokubhekiselele 'kwiSicwangciso esiseMbindi Merika,'" Iindaba zeNACLA, Oktobha 28, 2010.
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