[Oku kulandelayo luguqulelo oluhlaziyiweyo-nohlaziyo kancinane lwenqaku elivela kuhlelo lukaSeptemba/Okthobha lweNgxelo ye-NACLA kumazwe aseMelika.]
Abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo baseWashington kunye neqela labo leendaba elithembekileyo banezixhobo eziphuhliswe kakuhle zokugxeka oorhulumente bamazwe angaphandle abachasa imigaqo-nkqubo yase-US. Isicwangciso-qhinga esibalulekileyo, esiye sabonakala ngokunyukayo ukusukela oko imeko yoqoqosho lwehlabathi yaba ngundaba-mlonyeni ekupheleni kuka-2008, kukubetha imigaqo-nkqubo yabo yezoqoqosho njengobudenge, ububudenge, kunye nomonakalo. Ngokukodwa, amajelo eendaba ase-US athathele ingqalelo imigaqo-nkqubo yoqoqosho yaseLatin America eyahlukanayo nemiyalelo ye-neoliberal yase-Washington-ngaphandle kwaloo miqathango yegalelo kubunzima bezemali.
IVenezuela yeyona nto ithandwayo. Intatheli uJuan Forero weThe Washington Post wabhala ngo-Epreli ukuba nangona ukucima kwamandla kubangela iingxaki eVenezuela, “uqoqosho luyadodobala kwaye luba mnyama, nalo, lucel’ umngeni inkokeli yaseVenezuela enoburhalarhume, uHugo Chávez, nolingo lwakhe lobusoshiyali ngendlela engazange ibonwe ngaphambili.” Izizathu zokudodobala koqoqosho, ngokutsho kweForero nemithombo yakhe—igosa leBhanki yehlabathi, umongameli wombutho wezoshishino waseVenezuela uCoindustria, irhuluneli ephikisayo, nomongameli wecandelo lezorhwebo lengingqi—“yinkcitho karhulumente ngobuqhophololo,” ukwenziwa kwemizi-mveliso kuzwelonke,” kunye “neminyaka yongenelelo lukarhulumente kuqoqosho” ukususela oko uChávez wonyulwa okokuqala ngowe-1998. 2010,” utshilo uForero. Ecaphula i-IMF, wongezelela wathi: "EPeru, eChile naseBrazil, zonke ezibandakanya ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi [ikhowudi yemigaqo-nkqubo yorhwebo ekhuthazwa yi-US], ukukhula kunokuhamba kakuhle ngaphaya kweepesenti ze-4" [1].
Iziqwenga zomhleli kwiPosi kunye namanye amaphepha ziye zacaphuka ngakumbi. NgoFebruwari abahleli beMiami Herald babhengeze ukuba “uMnu. I-Chávez iqhube uqoqosho, kunye nelizwe, emhlabeni. " Umgaqo-nkqubo worhulumente waseVenezuela, ngokutsho kwabahleli, akukho nto iluncedo kuqoqosho: “Ukuphelelwa ngamandla, ukuhla kwexabiso lemali nokunyuka kwamaxabiso (okubi kakhulu kuMbindi Merika), ukunqongophala kwamanzi nokunqaba kwemveliso—oku koko kanye okwenzeka kwiminyaka eli-11 yobongameli baseChavez. ziye zavelisa,” babhala njalo. NgoMeyi iHerald yapapasha ingxelo kaMarifeli Pérez-Stable, umbhali-mbali waseCuba oneembono ezichasene noCastro, owathi uChávez “ulawulo olugwenxa lwe-pathological luluqhubele phantsi uqoqosho.” Umbhali wemihlathi yeWashington Post uJackson Diehl wabhala isiqwenga esifana kakhulu ngoJanuwari, esinesihloko esithi “A Revolution in Ruins” [2].
Ukongeza “kwinkcitho egwenxa karhulumente” kunye “nongenelelo lukarhulumente kuqoqosho,” enye ingcaciso yokudodobala koqoqosho lwaseVenezuela yafika kuhlelo luka-Aprili Post igxeka urhulumente waseChávez ngenkcitho yakhe emkhosini emva kokuba iVenezuela ithenge enye “iibhiliyoni ezi-5 zeerandi kwizixhobo” eRussia. . Njengoko benzile ngaphambili, abahleli bePost bagxeka kabukhali urhulumente wase-US "ukungakhathali" malunga nokuchasa kweVenezuela umthetho ongathethwanga wokuba yiWashington kuphela kunye namahlakani ayo avunyelweyo ukuba axhobe [3]. Abahleli abazange bachaze isizathu esibambekayo sokusilela kukarhulumente wase-US ukusabela ekuthengeni izixhobo nge-alarm enkulu: Inkcitho yomkhosi waseVenezuela yi-1/600 ye-United States, njengoko u-Obama ngokwakhe waxelela iPosi ngo-Epreli 2009 emva kokuba abagcini be-conservative baqhankqalaza. ukuxhawulana noChavez kwiNgqungquthela yaseMelika [4].
Inyani yezoqoqosho yaseVenezuela yahluke kakhulu kwinto ethethwa yile mifanekiso. Uqoqosho lwaseVenezuela lukhule kakhulu kuninzi lwexesha likaChávez eofisini, sibulela ngokuyinxenye-njengoko abachasi bakaChávez bekhawuleza ukubonisa-kumaxabiso aphezulu eoli kwimarike yehlabathi. Kodwa imigaqo-nkqubo yezoqoqosho karhulumente nayo izise iziphumo ngokunqabileyo okanye ayizange ipapashwe kumajelo eendaba ase-US. Isazi ngezoqoqosho uMark Weisbrot weZiko Lophando Loqoqosho Nomgaqo-nkqubo uthi “iminyaka emihlanu enesiqingatha ukususela kwikota yokuqala yowama-2003, xa urhulumente waseChavez waqalisa ukulawula inkampani yeoli karhulumente, uqoqosho lokwenene lwakhula ngama-95 ekhulwini. ” Uyongezelela: "Intlupheko yanqunyulwa ngesiqingatha kunye nentlupheko enkulu ngaphezu kwe-70%, inkcitho yentlalontle kumntu ngamnye ngaphezu kokuphindwe kathathu, kwaye ukufikelela kukhathalelo lwempilo kunye nemfundo ephakamileyo yenyuka ngokukhawuleza" [5].
Ukunyuka kwenkcitho karhulumente yezentlalo, ukunikezelwa kwezibonelelo kuzwelonke, kunye nolawulo olungqongqo lweenkampani zabucala yimigaqo-nkqubo efanayo ukuba urhulumente wase-US kunye namaziko emali ngamazwe afana ne-World Bank kunye ne-International Monetary Fund bavame ukudimaza okanye ukuvinjelwa kumazwe angaphuhliswanga. Nangona amazwe atyebileyo kudala ethembele ekubandakanyekeni okubanzi korhulumente kuqoqosho lwawo kunye nenkcitho enkulu yentsilelo, abeke imigaqo-nkqubo eyahluke kakhulu kumazwe ahlwempuzekileyo [6]. Inzuzo yentlalontle yeminyaka elishumi edlulileyo eVenezuela inokwenzeka kakhulu ngenxa yokuba urhulumente waseChávez uye wayigatya imimiselo yomgaqo-nkqubo wee-economists ze-neoliberal.
Ngaphandle nje kokuba ibhalwe "socialist" ngushicilelo lwase-US (kunye nabaxhasi abaninzi bakaChávez), iVenezuela isenongxowankulu ngokucokisekileyo, kwaye uqoqosho lwayo lusaqhubeka nokujongana neengxaki ezinzima ezifana nolawulo lwelizwe, ukuthembela kakhulu kwi-oyile, kunye nokungabikho koshishino. Njengoko umhlalutyi uTamara Pearson ephawulile mva nje, uqoqosho lwaseVenezuela lusengongxowankulu abaqeshiweyo, kwaye ulawulo lukarhulumente “lucothisa kakhulu inguqu kwezentlalo.” Iingxaki ezifanayo ziyabonakala eBolivia, e-Ecuador, nakwamanye amazwe anoorhulumente basekhohlo [7]. Kodwa phantsi kwe-Chávez ilizwe liye laqala ubuncinane ukuthatha amanyathelo anesibindi ukunciphisa intlupheko kunye nokungalingani, ukuba ngaphakathi kwesakhelo senkqubo yongxowankulu, kwaye ikhuthaze ubuncinci ubuncinci bokuxhotyiswa okuthandwayo. Ngaphaya koko, iVenezuela ide yabonisa ukukhula koqoqosho olomeleleyo ukuya kuthi ga ngo-2008, ngaloo ndlela iqhuba kakuhle ngomgangatho osemgangathweni wempumelelo osetyenziswa ngoosoqoqosho abaninzi baseNtshona, ababonisa ukukhula kwaye bangakukhathaleli ukulingana okanye ukuxhotyiswa kwabantu abaninzi.
I-Post, Herald, kunye nabanye bebechanekile ngokuyinxenye ekuboniseni iingxaki zoqoqosho zaseVenezuela zakutsha nje, kodwa ukuxilongwa kwabo ngoonobangela bekulahlekisa kakhulu. Ngamaxesha okudodobala koqoqosho, inkcitho yovuselelo ekhokelwa ngononophelo idla ngokuba yimfuneko ukuququzelela ukuchacha kwezoqoqosho. Kodwa xa amaxabiso e-oyile ehlabathi ehla ekupheleni kuka-2008, urhulumente waseChávez wayeka kumgaqo-nkqubo wokwandisa inkcitho owasetyenziswa ngempumelelo yi-China ne-Bolivia. Ayikhange isebenzise oovimba bayo bemali yamazwe angaphandle ukuhlawula izinto ezithengwayo kumazwe angaphandle, okanye ukusebenzisa elo tyala likarhulumente eliphantsi—elingaphantsi kakhulu kunelaseUnited States’—ukuboleka kwamanye amazwe. Endaweni yokuxhasa ngezimali isicwangciso sovuselelo njengoko iTshayina neBolivia zenza, uChávez ngeli xesha ulandele imimiselo ye-IMF kunye norhulumente wase-US, ngeziphumo ezibi ngokuqikelelwa kwangaphambili [8]. Kulo nyaka uphelileyo urhulumente waseChávez uthathe amanyathelo aliqela ukubuyisela umva oku, njengokuthoba ixabiso lemali exatyiswe kakhulu kunye nokulwa noqikelelo, ukuqokelela, kunye neemveliso zokutya ezixabisa ngaphezulu [9].
Njengoko u-Weisbrot ebonisa, oorhulumente baseTshayina nabaseBolivia bobabini baphumelele amazinga okukhula aphawulekayo ngokumalunga nolunye uqoqosho (8.7% kunye ne-3.7%, ngokulandelanayo) ngo-2009 ngokusebenzisa inkcitho enkulu yokuvuselela. Ityala laseBolivia laliphawuleka ngakumbi, kuba "yayiyeyona ntsebenzo ibalaseleyo kwi-hemisphere": Ngelixa uninzi lwamazwe alandela imfundiso ye-neoliberal emile okanye enekhontrakthi, urhulumente kaMongameli u-Evo Morales wasebenzisa umgaqo-nkqubo wokwandiswa kwemali ukuze athambise impembelelo yelizwe. ingxaki yezoqoqosho [10]. Ngenxa yokuphumelela okungenakuphikiswa kwezoqoqosho eBolivia phakathi kokudodobala koqoqosho lwehlabathi, urhulumente weMorales kunzima kakhulu ukugxeka. Uninzi lweengxelo ezijongene nophuhliso loqoqosho eLatin America, kubandakanywa neengxelo zaseVenezuela ezikhankanywe ngasentla, ziye zangakuhoyi ukukhula koqoqosho lwamva nje lwaseBolivia kunye nempumelelo encinci karhulumente ekunciphiseni ukungalingani. NgoMeyi, umzekelo, i-Economist ayithethanga nto kwezi nzuzo kwinqaku malunga neBolivia, endaweni yoko igxile kwizigxeko zikaMorales ezivela kubaxhasi bakhe bomsebenzi. Ngokufanayo, ingxelo kaJanuwari yeForero kwiPost yaphawula kuphela ukuba uMorales "wayenenxalenye yelizwe lezemigodi kwaye wenza ubudlelwane kunye noChávez" -zombini ikhowudi yomgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho ombi kunye nolawulo-melo. (Ngokuqinisekileyo, amabango amalunga “nokwenziwa kwelizwe” laseBolivia - ngabaxhasi kunye nabachasi borhulumente weMorales-phantse ahlala ebaxwa; uninzi lwamashishini amakhulu akhuphayo ahlala ephantsi kolawulo oluluqilima lweshishini, kakhulu ukudana kwabaninzi phakathi kwesiseko senkxaso esiqhubela phambili sikaMorales) [11].
Abahleli bePosi babesele bezicacisile iimbono zabo ngoMorales kuhlelo lukaMeyi ka-2008, bebhala ukuba “uMorales ubanga ukuba ulawula ilizwe lakhe egameni lesininzi sabemi bomthonyama abamalungelo abo avinjwa kangangeenkulungwane ‘yi-oligarchy’ engendawo” (uloyiko. Iingcaphuno zibonisa ngokucacileyo ukuba i-oligarchy yingqungquthela nje ye-demagogic Morales okanye ingcamango yengcamango yaseBolivia). Inqaku lomhleli likwachaze uMorales njenge "acolyte" kaChávez oye walinganisa inkokeli yaseVenezuela "inguqulelo efakwe embizeni kunye neyolawulo yobusoshiyali," abathi abahleli bayibiza ngokuba "yindlela eqinisekileyo yokujongana nentlekele yezoqoqosho" [12]. Olunye upapasho lunyanisekile ngakumbi malunga nokusebenza kwezoqoqosho kweBolivia. I-New York Times ipapashe iingxelo ezininzi ezivuma ukukhula koqoqosho lwaseBolivia, nokuvuma ukuba imigaqo-nkqubo kaMorales "ibambe isibheno esibanzi phakathi kwabavoti baseBolivia, ebonakaliswe kuloyiso lonyulo apha [ngoDisemba 2009] kaMnu. Morales" [13]. Ingxelo engaqhelekanga kwiThe Economist ngoDisemba yavuma: “Ngenxa yokuba iBolivia ivalwe ngokufanelekileyo kurhwebo, kwaye ngokuyinxenye ngenxa yokunyuka kwenkcitho kawonke-wonke, uqoqosho lumiselwe ukukhula malunga ne-3% kulo nyaka, owona msebenzi unamandla kulo mmandla” [ 14].
Ngokuchaseneyo "nobusoshiyali" obulandelwa ziintshaba zaseWashington, imigaqo-nkqubo ye-othodox neoliberal yohlobo olulandelwa yiColombia, iMexico, nePeru ziboniswa njengempumelelo. NgoAprili i<em>Forero ye<em>Post yaxelela abafundi ukuba uqoqosho lwaseColombia “lwahambela phambili” kwiminyaka yakutshanje, “imveliso ephindaphindeke kabini ukususela ngowama-2002, xa [owayesakuba ngumongameli uÁlvaro] Uribe wangena esihlalweni.” UForero uvume umkhwa “wokukhula kokungalingani” eColombia kwangeli xesha linye kodwa noko kunjalo wabonisa u-Uribe ngovelwano. Inkokeli yaseColombia “iyazabalazela ukunciphisa ubuhlwempu,” kodwa phezu kwayo nje imigudu eyenziwa nguUribe, ubuhlwempu buhleli “kumanqanaba aphakamileyo anenkani.” IVenezuela kunye neBolivia, ngakumbi ezo zangaphambili, ziye zabona ukuncipha okukhulu kwentlupheko nokungalingani kwiminyaka yakutshanje, kodwa iForero ngokucacileyo ayizange ibone ukuba ezo nkcukacha zifanelekile (kodwa, nangona kunjalo, wayiqhwabela izandla iBrazil nePeru ngenkqubela phambili kulo mba-inkqubela phambili ephawulekayo. uthozama ngaphezu kweVenezuela) [15].
Omnye umxholo wokunika ingxelo ngoqoqosho lwamahlakani ase-US kulo mmandla kukuba i-fundamentalism yentengiso yasimahla iya ithandwa kakhulu phakathi kwabantu baseLatin America, mhlawumbi ngenxa yempumelelo yayo yasendle. Kwingxelo kaJanuwari ngaphambi nje konyulo lwe-Chile yomongameli we-billionaire wephiko lasekunene, uForero wathi unyulo lubonisa ukukhula kwabavoti baseLatin America "ukukhetha abantu abaphakathi endaweni yokuthanda ilizwe labo abashumayela imfazwe yodidi kunye nokungenelela kukarhulumente kuqoqosho." Endaweni yoko, unyulo lubonisa "ukunyuka kwe-pragmatic centrist." Ubungqina beForero buquke uvavanyo lomlawuli oyintloko womgaqo-nkqubo ovela kwiBhunga laseMelika elizinze eNew York, umbutho wamaqumrhu ezizwe ngezizwe, ukuba “[v]oters babala kakhulu kwaye banengqiqo kunokuba sibanika ikhredithi. . . . Abantu benza ukhetho lokuxhasa uqoqosho lwentengiso kunye neenkokeli ezinengqondo. ” Oku kunyuswa kwengqiqo, i-Forero igxininise, kubonakala "kukhetho lwabo olukhulayo lwamaziko asimahla" [16]. I-New York Times 'u-Alexei Barrionuevo walandela iForero kwiintsuku ezimbalwa kamva ngengxelo eyayincinci kakhulu [17].
Ngokwale ngxelo, isizathu esona sizathu sokuba iinkokeli ezifana noChávez kunye noMorales zigcine nakuphi na ukuthandwa kukuba baye basebenzisa ingeniso yokuthumela ngaphandle ukuthenga inkxaso phakathi kwamahlwempu angenangqiqo, angenangqondo, "abayimfama kakhulu kwiziphumo" [18]. Iinkqubo ezinkulu zezoqoqosho koorhulumente abashiyekileyo azithandwa: uChávez, njengoko uPérez-Stable weMiami Herald exelele abafundi ngoMeyi, "usebenze nzima ukwenza iVenezuela ibe yenye iCuba ngokuchasene neminqweno yabantu baseVenezuela." Kodwa ngoku, unika ingxelo ngethemba, "iinkqubo zentlalo zodwa azisatshintshi isiseko seChavista" [19].
Uphando lwezimvo zoluntu, olunika ujongo oluthe kratya kwizimo zengqondo kunonyulo lukazwelonke, lubalisa ibali elahluke kakhulu. Ngokutsho kophando olwenziwe kwi-2008 kunye ne-2009 yinkampani yokuvota yaseChile yaseLatinobarómetro, ngaphezu kwe-80% yabantu baseLatin America bacinga ukuba izikolo, izibhedlele, amanzi, umbane kunye nezinye iinkonzo ezisisiseko, kunye namashishini amakhulu afana neoli kunye negesi yendalo, "kufuneka ibe sezandleni zikaRhulumente." Kuphela yi-34% enika ingxelo "yokwaneliseka ngeenkonzo zoluntu zabucala." Nangona abantu baseMelika baseLatin America bethanda ukuvuma ukuba ishishini labucala kufuneka lidlale indima kuqoqosho lwabo, bayayikhaba ngamandla isiseko sentengiso yasimahla eqhubeka nokubumba umgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho kuninzi lwalo mmandla, ngakumbi eColombia, ePeru, eMexico nakwezinye izizwe ezisondeleleneyo. eUnited States [20]. Ukushiywa kwezi ziphumo zokuvota kwiPosi, iTimes, kwaye phantse zonke ezinye iimpapasho zenkampani zixela [21]. Iintatheli ezinje ngeForero kunye neBarrionuevo ngokuqinisekileyo bazibonile iziphumo, kuba bobabini bebecaphula iLatinobarómetro ngaphambili. Kodwa bacaphula iingxelo ngokukhetha kakhulu nangaphezulu: Nangona ingxelo nganye inamaphepha ali-113, bagxininise kuloo mibuzo yokuvota eyayicele abantu ukuba bazichonge njengabantu abasekhohlo, abaphakathi, okanye abaphiko lasekunene, ngelixa bengahoyi phantse yonke imibuzo ebaluleke ngakumbi. .
Akukho nto intsha kule ngxelo. Kungekudala emva kwe-Cuban Revolution, amaphephandaba ase-US aqala ukugxininisa indlela "uloyiso lolutsha ekukhuleni" kunye nolawulo lukaCastro "lokungazi kakuhle" luvelise isiphithiphithi sezoqoqosho, sinyanzelela urhulumente waseCuba ukuba aqulunqe "i-aura" yobuxoki ukuze alawule. abemi; Kuncinci okwathethwayo malunga nokubaleka kweengcali eCuba emva ko-1959 okanye eminye imiqobo eyoyikisayo ejongene norhulumente, njengengozi yokwenyani yokuhlaselwa kwezoqoqosho kunye nomkhosi wase-US (nangona ngendlela emangalisayo, amagosa ase-US ngamanye amaxesha ayeqhayisa esidlangalaleni ukuba i-embargo yase-US "iyichithile kakhulu imikhosi. isiseko sezoqoqosho ekufuneka ulawulo lukaCastro luxhomekeke kuso,” ngokuhambelana neenjongo zomgaqo-nkqubo ezicaciswe ngaphakathi) [22]. Ngendlela efanayo, inqaku lemagazini iTime emva nje kobhukuqo-mbuso lwasemkhosini luka-1973 olwaluxhaswa yi-US eChile laphikisa ngelithi “umgaqo-nkqubo wemali wobusoshiyali kamongameli uSalvador Allende waluphanzisa uqoqosho lwaseChile” [23]. Ngeminyaka yoo-1980, kuyo yonke ishumi leminyaka leminyaka yenkxaso yabo kwimfazwe engekho mthethweni yeContra echasene neNicaragua, amajelo eendaba ase-US nawo axoxa ngelithi “ulawulo olugwenxa lwezoqoqosho” yeyona nto ibangela ingxaki yezoqoqosho yaseNicaragua. Isihloko sekholamu eqhelekileyo ye-1985 kwiWashington Post yabhengeza ukuba "amaSandinistas avumela uqoqosho lwaseNicaragua ukuba luwohloke" [24]. Kwiminyaka emithathu kamva, emva kokuba urhulumente wamaSandinista uye wanyanzelwa ukuba amkele uthotho lweenguqulelo zeneoliberal, uFlora Lewis weThe New York Times wabhala wathi “imfazwe yamakhaya iye yalonakalisa uqoqosho lwaseNicaragua, kodwa ayizange ifane nolawulo olugwenxa lwamaSandinista. umgaqo-nkqubo” [25]. Inyaniso, kwakhona, yayahluke kakhulu, kwaye kunqabile kakhulu ukuba kunikwe ingqwalasela enzulu. Nangona urhulumente wamaSandinista wayenetyala lokungakwazi ukwenza izinto ngendlela efanelekileyo, ukuba neenkolelo, nobuqhophololo maxa wambi, oyena nobangela wokuwohloka kwezoqoqosho eNicaragua yayiyimfazwe ekhohlakeleyo eyayixhaswa yiUnited States yimfazwe eyabulala abantu abangama-30,000 1980, yatshabalalisa iziseko zophuhliso ezisemaphandleni, yaza yanyanzelisa iSandinista. urhulumente abeke phambili inkcitho yasemkhosini kunokhathalelo lwempilo nemfundo. Ngowe-18 amaSandinista achitha malunga nesiqingatha sohlahlo lwabiwo-mali lwesizwe kukhathalelo lwempilo nemfundo kunye ne-26% kwezokhuselo; kwiminyaka esixhenxe emva koko, amanani aye umva [XNUMX].
Imizekelo yamajelo osasazo azama ukugxeka imigaqo-nkqubo yoqoqosho engenye ixhaphakile kwimbali yakutshanje, kodwa ingqiqo isoloko ilula: Naliphi na ilinge lophuhliso loqoqosho elahlukileyo kwisicwangciso esimiselwe yi-United States-isicwangciso ebesisoloko sithande ukufaka isandla kwintlupheko eyongezelelekileyo kwaye ukungalingani ngelixa kuxhamla inkunzi yangaphandle kunye ne-oligarchies yasekhaya-idinga ukuchithwa. Namhlanje ungenelelo oluthe kratya lwase-US lunqabile. Xa abantu baseCuba namaChile namaNicaragua babezizidenge ngokwaneleyo ukuba baxhase iinkokeli ezinezimvo ezihlekisayo malunga nemfundo kunye nokhathalelo lwempilo jikelele, iUnited States yaphendula ngomkhosi wamajoni nakwinqanaba lezoqoqosho ngokukhuthaza “indlala, ukuphelelwa lithemba kunye nokubhukuqwa kukarhulumente” nangokwasemkhosini. "ukwenza uqoqosho lukhale," ngamazwi egosa eliphezulu leSebe likaRhulumente kunye noRichard Nixon bethetha ngeCuba neChile, ngokulandelanayo [27]. Namhlanje, ungenelelo lwase-US luhlala lucashile. Kodwa umshicileli wenkampani yase-US nangona kunjalo uyaqhubeka nesiko le-mandarin, eqinisekisa ukuba iimfuno zemfundiso kunye nezobukhosi zithatha indawo yokuqala kunenyani.
amanqaku:
1. UJuan Forero, “IVenezuela Etyebileyo ngeOyile Ibanjwe YiNgxaki yezoQoqosho,” iWashington Post, ka-Aprili 29, 2010. Bona nengxelo yamva nje yekopi yekhabhoni yeForero’s New York Times, uSimon Romero, “iVenezuela, Ibulala Ngakumbi kuneIraq. , Iyamangalisa Kutheni,” ngoAgasti 22, 2010. Ngokutsho kukaRomero, “Ngoxa uqoqosho oluninzi lwaseLatin America lukhula ngokukhawuleza, ilizwe laseVenezuela lisaqhubeka liwohloka”—eli solotya lamva libonisa ukuba uqoqosho lwaseVenezuela belusoloko luwohloka ngendlela engaguqukiyo kangangeminyaka emininzi. Chávez (kunokuba ukususela kwi-2008, eya kuchaneka ngakumbi; bona ngezantsi). URomero ukwakhupha ingxelo egxeka uChávez, esithi “nangona ebhengeze inguqulelo evakalisa imilinganiselo yobusoshiyali,” urhulumente waseChávez “akakwazanga ukuvala umsantsa oyingozi ophakathi kwezityebi namahlwempu”—kwakhona, ukuchazwa ngendlela elahlekisayo kwenyaniso, njengobungqina. ngezantsi kubonisa, kunye nokuhanahanisa okunzulu okuvela kwintatheli eyathi kule minyaka ilishumi idlulileyo iye yanyelisa ngokuqhubekayo yonke imizamo yeChavista yokunciphisa intlupheko nokungalingani.
2. I<em>Miami Herald, “IVenezuela Ijonge Kwintlekele,” inqaku lomhleli, kaFebruwari 8, 2010; Marifeli Pérez-Stable, "Chávez Snubs Colombia," The Miami Herald, op-ed, May 23, 2010; UJackson Diehl, "Uguquko kumabhodlo," iWashington Post, op-ed, ngoJanuwari 25, 2010.
3. IWashington Post, “uMnu. Izixhobo zika-Chávez: Ngelixa uQoqosho Ludodobalisa, i-Strongman Splurges yaseVenezuela,” umhleli, ngoAprili 8, 2010. Ukuze ufumane imizekelo engakumbi yabahleli beThe Washington Post ababemgxeka ngokuqhubekayo urhulumente waseChavez, bona “Inguquko-mbuso yaseVenezuela,” kaJanuwari 14, 2005, kunye “noMthetho Wokuthwala Imali Nokuthwala: UHugo Chávez WaseVenezuela Ubethelela Ulawulo Lolawulo Lomntu NgePetrodollars Nolunye Utyhalela Lo 'Uhlaziyo,'” NgoAgasti 17, 2007.
4. UScott Wilson, "U-Obama Uvala iNgqungquthela, Izifungo zokuBambisana ngokubanzi kunye neLatin America," iWashington Post, ngo-Aprili 20, i-2009.
5. UMark Weisbrot, "Ukubuyiswa kweVenezuela kuxhomekeke kuMgaqo-nkqubo wezoQoqosho," iLe Monde Diplomatique, iphinde yathunyelwa kwiZNet, ngo-Aprili 17, 2010.
6. Kule mbali yohanahaniso, jonga uHa-Joon Chang, amaSamariya amabi: Intsomi yoRhwebo oluKhululwa kunye neMbali eyiMfihlo ye-Capitalism (2007; printing, London: Bloomsbury Press, 2008).
7. UTamara Pearson, "I-Bureocracy efihlakeleyo eVenezuela: Esona sithintelo esikhulu soTshintsho lweNtlalo," Venezuelanalysis.com, ngoMeyi 17, 2010. Bona kwakhona uSteve Ellner, "uChávez Utyhala iMida: Uhlengahlengiso kunye nokunganeliseki eVenezuela," INgxelo ye-NACLA Americas 43, hayi. 4 (Julayi/Agasti 2010): 7-12. EBolivia bona u-Eduardo Gudynas, "El modelo de desarrollo en debate," Le Monde Diplomatique: Edición Boliviana 3, no. 25 (Aprili 2010), 6-8; UJuan Colique noPablo Poveda, "Hegemonía transnacional en la minería boliviana," Le Monde Diplomatique: Edición Boliviana 3, no. 28 (Agasti 2010), 4-7; UJeffery R. Webber, “Imvukelo ePotosí: Uphuhliso olungalinganiyo, ukuQhubelana kweNeoliberal, kunye nokuVukela ubuhlwempu eBolivia,” i-UpsideDownWorld.org, ngo-Agasti 16, 2010.
8. UMark Weisbrot, “Ukubuyiswa kweVenezuela kuxhomekeke kuMgaqo-nkqubo wezoQoqosho.” Bona kwaWeisbrot, “iVenezuela AsiyoGrisi,” The Guardian, Meyi 6, 2010.
9. Bona uFederico Fuentes, “Iingxaki Zezoqoqosho zaseVenezuela?” ZNet, ngoMeyi 23, 2010.
10. Weisbrot, “Ukubuyiswa kweVenezuela kuxhomekeke kuMgaqo-nkqubo wezoQoqosho.” Ndifake endaweni ye-3.7% kwi-3% ye-Weisbrot, kuba elokuqala lilinani elinikwe ku-Simon Romero no-Andrés Schipani, “IiNjongo zaMandla zaMandla e-Bolivia,” i-New York Times, nge-10 kaJanuwari ka-2010.
11. Ngokungalingani bona ingxelo yeKomishoni yezoQoqosho yeLatin America kunye neCaribbean (ECLAC), i-Social Panorama yaseLatin America (iphepha elifutshane, i-2009), i-11-12. Iingcaphuno ezivela kwi "Power Grab: Another Bolivian Nationalisation," I-Economist, May 8, 2010, kunye noJuan Forero, "Umdyarho waseChile ubonakalisa iNdlela eBanzi yeNgingqi: Ukukhula okuKhethekileyo kuMaziko aMahala abonwa kwiLatin America," iWashington Post, ngoJanuwari 17 , 2010. Kwintsingiselo engacacanga (okanye ecacileyo) engalunganga yokwenziwa kuzwelonke kunye negama likaChávez kumajelo eendaba ase-US, jonga ngakumbi amanqaku kuhlelo lukaNovemba/Disemba 2006 lweExtra!.
“Ukwenziwa kobuzwe” kweBolivia kunqunyanyisiwe. Nangona urhulumente ezonyusile iirhafu kumaqumrhu kwaye sele eqalisile ukwaphula imfundiso ye-neoliberal ngeendlela ezithile ezibalulekileyo, uninzi lohlahlelo lwamva nje luye lwabonisa uninzi “lokuqhubeka kwe-neoliberal” kumgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho wamva nje waseBolivia. Jonga, umzekelo, uhlalutyo oluxabisekileyo kwiWebber, “Imvukelo ePotosí,” nangona eli tyala linokuba libaxiweyo kancinane kuba lijongela phantsi iinzuzo ezithobekileyo zentlalo phantsi kweMorales, imiqobo emikhulu yolwakhiwo ethintela utshintsho eBolivia, kunye nomzekelo onamandla womfuziselo wokuba IBolivia imele amanye amazwe kunye neentshukumo zentlalo.
12. “I-Rift yaseBolivia: ilinge likaMongameli u-Evo Morales lokunyanzelisa ubuSoshiyali beSitayile saseVenezuela Lisahlula-hlula ilizwe” (uhlelo), iWashington Post, ngoMeyi 6, 2008.
13. I-Romero kunye ne-Schipani, "IiNjongo zaMandla zaMandla eBolivia"; cf. I-Romero kunye ne-Schipani, "E-Bolivia, i-Force for Change inyamezela," i-New York Times, ngoDisemba 6, 2009.
14. I-Economist, “I-Apex Explosive Apex of Evo’s Power: Unyulo lukaMongameli waseBolivia,” Disemba 12, 2009.
15. UJuan Forero, “Nangona iibhiliyoni zoNcedo lwase-US, iColombia Izamana nokuNciphisa ubuhlwempu,” iWashington Post, ngoAprili 19, 2010; I-ECLAC, i-Social Panorama yaseLatin America, i-11-12.
16. Forero, "Umdyarho waseChile Ubonakalisa iNdlela eBanzi yeNgingqi."
17. U-Alexei Barrionuevo, “Uvoto lwaseChile ngomnye umqondiso wokuBulala kwePolitiko yaseLatin America,” iThe New York Times, kaJanuwari 20, 2010.
18. UJackson Diehl, "Ukuthenga iNkxaso kwiLatin America," op-ed, iWashington Post, ngoSeptemba 26, 2005.
19. UPérez-Stable, “Chávez Snubs Colombia.”
20. Corporación Latinobarómetro, Informe 2008 (Santiago, Chile), 38; Yazisa ngo-2009, 95–96. Uhlalutyo olongezelelweyo, bona uKevin Young, "Umgaqo-nkqubo we-US kunye neDemokhrasi kwiLatin America: I-Latinobarómetro Poll," i-ZNet, ngoMeyi 26, i-2009, kunye ne "I-Poll ye-Latinobarómetro ka-2009" (iblogi), i-ZNet, i-15 kaDisemba 2009. I-Latinobarómetro polls , njengazo zonke ii-poll endizibonileyo, aziphumelelanga ukunika abaphenduli ukhetho lwesithathu ngaphandle kolawulo lwenkampani okanye urhulumente: olo lolawulo lwesiqu sakho, apho "igalelo lokwenza isigqibo" lisetyenziswa ngumsebenzi ngamnye, umthengi, okanye elinye ilungu uluntu “ngokomlinganiselo othile ochaphazelekayo” ( Robin Hahnel, The ABCs of Political Economy: A Modern Approach [London: Pluto Press, 2002], 40; cf. Michael Albert, Parecon: Life After Capitalism [London: Verso , 2003]).
21. Bona iNtsha, "Umgaqo-nkqubo we-US kunye neDemokhrasi kwi-Latin America," n. 1.
22. Iingcaphulo ezivela kuCL Sulzberger, “Xa Ingozi Ikhuselekile Ngaphezu Kokhuseleko,” i<em>The New York Times, kaOktobha 31, 1964. USekela-sosiba weLizwe laseUnited States uEdwin Martin wacaphula amazwi athi “Uqoqosho lwaseCuba Lunqabisekile,” The New York Times, kaSeptemba 21. Ngo-1963. Ubuncinci esinokuthi sikwenze kukuphepha ukuqhayisa malunga nokufezekiswa okunjalo, okunokubangela ukusabela okungathandekiyo ngathi” (ugxininiso longeziweyo). Inqaku lomhleli livakalise amathandabuzo afanayo malunga nengxelo eyakhutshwa ngabathinjwa baseCuba beqhayisa ngelokuba “[b]i-ombings kunye nokonakaliswa kwemikhosi echasayo kuye kwawaphelisa amanzi kwizixeko ezininzi zaseCuba. Isiphumo sisifo se-epidemics kunye ne-gastroenteritis kunye ne-typhoid fever ... "Bona "uQoqosho lwaseCuban," ngoSeptemba 24, 1963. Kwiinjongo zomgaqo-nkqubo wangaphakathi wase-US, jonga ngezantsi, phawula i-27.
23. UCharles Eisendrath, "Ukuphela Kwegazi Lephupha likaMarxist," Ixesha, ngoSeptemba 24, 1973, ecatshulwe kwi-Devon Bancroft, "I-Chilean Coup and Failings of the US Media" (umbhalo wesandla ongashicilelwanga).
24. UJoanne Omang, “Imvukelo Iza Kuqala: AmaSandinista Avumela Uqoqosho lwaseNicaragua Ukuwohloka,” iThe Washington Post, kaOktobha 6, 1985.
25. UFlora Lewis, “Inyathelo elinye eliya Phambili,” iThe New York Times, ngoFebruwari 5, 1988.
26. UThomas W. Walker, eNicaragua: Ukuhlala emthunzini weKhozi, 4th ed. (Westview Press, 2003 [1981]), 95, 129; UWilliam Blum, Ithemba Lokubulala: I-US Military and CIA Interventions Ukususela kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II (Common Courage Press, 1995), 302.
27. "Indlala, ukuphelelwa lithemba kunye nokubhukuqwa kukarhulumente": USekela Nobhala weSizwe kwiMicimbi ye-Inter-American u-Lester Mallory kuNobhala oNcedisayo we-Inter-American uRoy Rubottom, ngo-Aprili 6, 1960, kuBudlelwane bamazwe angaphandle eUnited States, 1958–1960, vol. VI: Cuba (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1991), 885. “Yenza [uqoqosho] lukhale”: Amanqaku abhalwe ngesandla omlawuli weCIA uRichard Helms, “kumanqaku okuHlanganisana noMongameli eChile, ngoSeptemba 15, 1970,” e Chile nase-United States: Declassified Documents ezinxulumene Military Coup, 1970-1976, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book no. 8.
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa ngemali kuphela ngesisa sabafundi bayo.
Nikela