Ngoobani kwaye yaqala njani?
"IBhunga [LobuDlelwane Namazwe Angaphandle] lamiselwa, ngokwamazwi omqulu walo oqukayo, ‘ukuba liqhubele phambili inkomfa eqhubekayo yemibuzo yamazwe ngamazwe echaphazela iUnited States.’ Ngengxelo yalo yokuqala yonyaka, ngoNovemba 1922, laqinisekiswa ngenkxaso yemali ukuze lixhase iUnited States. iminyaka yokuqalisa kwaye isondele kuma-300 amalungu 'akhethwe ngononophelo', kubandakanywa [Elihu] Ingcambu ukusuka kwiBhunga elidala, kodwa namanani amatsha nathembisayo afana Herbert H. Lehman, W. Averell Harriman, yaye UJohn Foster Dulles. " UPeter Grose, (1996) – Umbhali-mbali weBhunga elisemthethweni [1]
Njengamaqela amaninzi ocwangciso oluphezulu, iBhunga lezoBudlelwane baNgaphandle (iBhunga) lizingca ngokuzichaza ngokuthi “nonpartisan kunye umbutho wobulungu ozimeleyo”. Nangona kunjalo, njengeminye imibutho elawula idemokhrasi (umzekelo, amaqela amabini ahlukeneyo Inkxaso kaZwelonke yeNdemokhrasi kunye neqabane layo Iziko loXolo lase-US) amagqabantshintshi amancinane ajikeleze umsebenzi wabo. Imisebenzi yeBhunga nangona kunjalo ichasene nedemokhrasi: oko kukuthi, ikhuthaza uhlobo oluphezulu lwedemokhrasi, edla ngokubizwa ngokuba ulawulo lwentando yesininzi or polyarchy, ngokuchaseneyo nokwahluka kwayo okuthatha inxaxheba ngakumbi. Ukanti, xa kujongwa indima enempembelelo iBhunga eliye layisebenzisa ekuphuhliseni ‘idemokhrasi’ eUnited States nangaphaya kwayo, iyamangalisa into yokuba izazinzulu zezopolitiko ehlabathini lonke zityekele ekungayihoyi le arhente inamandla ye-US hegemony.
“Enye yeempawu eziphambili zodidi oluphezulu lwaseU.S. linqanaba eliphezulu lolungelelwano. Omnye wemibutho esembindini, ngokuchanileyo ebizwa ngokuba ‘yinqaba yokusekwa kweMerika,’ liBhunga Lezobudlelwane Namazwe Ngamazwe (CFR). Yasekwa ngo-1921, i-CFR yeyona inempembelelo kuwo onke amaqela abucala ocwangciso lomgaqo-nkqubo. Amandla ayo amakhulu asetyenziswa kakhulu emva kwemiboniso kwaye avela kwindawo yawo eyodwa phakathi kwamaqela omgaqo-nkqubo: ngaxeshanye zombini itanki yokucinga yomgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle kunye noqoqosho kwaye inamalungu amakhulu aquka abantu ababalulekileyo kwezoqoqosho, ingqondo yase-US, kunye nobomi bezopolitiko. IBhunga linohlahlo lwabiwo-mali lonyaka olumalunga nezigidi ezingama-30 zeerandi kunye nabasebenzi abangaphezu kwama-200.” [4]
Umbhali-mbali weBhunga elisemthethweni, Peter Grose, uqinisekisa ukufihlakala komsebenzi wabo xa wathi: “Ukususela ekusekweni kwalo, imisebenzi yeBhunga Lobudlelwane Namazwe Ngamazwe yayiyimfihlo yaye iyimfihlo.” Ukanti nangona eyichaza le ngongoma, kumhlathi olandelayo uGrose uyavuma ukuba “Abaseki beli Bhunga babeyixabisa into yokuba idemokhrasi ibandakanya umba woluvo lukawonke-wonke, kodwa ekuqaleni babengaqinisekanga ngendlela olwaluza kusekwa luze luvakaliswe ngayo olo luvo.” [5] Akukho kuphikisana kwenene apha njengoko indima yoluntu ekwenzeni umgaqo-nkqubo wedemokhrasi, njengoko iqwalaselwa ngabaphezulu abalawulayo, mhlawumbi yavakaliswa ngcono ngowayesakuba lilungu lebhodi yeBhunga (1932-7) UWalter Lippmann, ngowe-1922 wabhala wathi “eziqhelekileyo izinto ezinomdla ubukhulu becala aziyifumani ngokupheleleyo imbono yoluntu, kwaye zinokulawulwa kuphela ludidi olukhethekileyo olunomdla wobuqu ufikelela ngaphaya kwendawo.” [6] Mhlawumbi ngeengcinga zeBhunga engqondweni uLippmann (1922, p.31-2) wabhala:
“[R]idemokhrasi yomelo… ayinakusetyenzwa ngempumelelo, nokuba luthini na isiseko sonyulo, ngaphandle kokuba kukho umbutho ozimeleyo, oyingcaphephe wokwenza iinyani ezingabonwayo zicace kwabo kufuneka benze izigqibo… [P]izimvo zoluntu mazibe alungelelaniswe kumaphephandaba ukuba aza kuvakala, hayi ngoonondaba njengoko kunjalo namhlanje.” [7]
U-Inderjeet Parmar (2005, p.17) ubhala ukuba ekuqaleni kwe-1940 amalungu eBhunga kunye neSebe leSizwe "babesoyika ngokupheleleyo imbono yoluntu, eyona nto yayiyi-isolationist, i-pacifist kwaye, ngokuyininzi, i-anticolonilist". [8] Ke iyangqinelana ngokupheleleyo neBhunga licinga ukuba ngo-1947 iBhunga lehlabathi jikelele lenze iqela le-'Propaganda kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo waNgaphandle' - kungekudala emva koko lathiywa ngokutsha njengeqela elithi 'Izimvo zoluNtu kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo waNgaphandle' - elijolise “ekuphanda iingcamango ezinokubakho ifuthe kwaye ifundise uluntu lwaseMelika kwimiba yomgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle”. [9]
Ukulandela amanyathelo e-Lippmann elitist, u-Edward Bernays, omnye wabaseki boBudlelwane boLuntu (endaweni yoko: i propaganda), kamva wanceda ukucokisa izixhobo "zemvume yobunjineli". [10] Ngaphezu koko, iRockefeller Foundation (eyayingelo xesha sesinye sezona ziseko zenkululeko zinempembelelo), yaxhasa kwaye yaququzelela inani leeSemina zoNxibelelwano phakathi ko-1939 no-1940 “eyayivumayo imfuneko yokuphuhlisa iindlela zokwenza imvume yoluntu. kwiinguqu ezinqwenelekayo zomgaqo-nkqubo”. [11] Uphando olwenziwe nguParmar malunga nexesha elibalulekileyo le-1939 ukuya kwi-1945, libonisa indima ephambili edlalwa ziziseko ezikhululekileyo kwimvume yobunjineli "yokwakha isivumelwano esitsha sehlabathi". [12]
Umsebenzi weziseko ezikhululekileyo’ awuzange uphelele ekuphuhliseni iindlela zokwenza imvume yoluntu ukwenzela inzuzo ephezulu; baye badlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuxhaseni oonobangela abaninzi abaqhubekayo. Ukanti, njengoko uNicolas Guilhot (2007, p.449) ebhala, oku akuthethi ukuba umsebenzi wabo wesisa uluncedo lwezopolitiko olungenamdla, kuba njengakwimeko yenkxaso-mali abayibonelele kwimfundo ephakamileyo, “abanobuntu bazama ukuqinisekisa ukuba uhlaziyo lwentlalo luya kuhambelana neminqweno yabo”. Ngaphezu koko:
“Ngotyalo-mali kwiidyunivesithi, abaxhasi bobubele baphumeza iinjongo ezimbini ezikhethekileyo. Okokuqala, ngokucacileyo bafuna ukukhuthaza ukufundiswa kolwazi olusebenzayo nezakhono ezinceda uphuhliso lwezorhwebo noshishino, ngokuchasene nezithethe zemfundo ezazikho. Kodwa olu tyalo-mali lwezemfundo nolwenzululwazi lwalukwayindlela yokubona izidubedube kwezentlalo ezibangelwe lutshintsho olukhawulezileyo ukusuka kuluntu olusathanda ukulima ukuya kuluntu olukhulu lwemizi-mveliso oluphawulwa ngokuvela kweqela elinabantu abaninzi kunye nezidubedube zabasebenzi basezidolophini… Ukuqonda ukuba inguqu kwezentlalo yayingenakuthintelwa, bakhetha ukutyala imali kwingcaciso kunye nonyango lwenzululwazi 'yemibuzo yentlalontle' yexesha labo: ukufudukela kwabantu ezidolophini, imfundo, izindlu, ucoceko lukawonke-wonke, 'ingxaki yabaNigro,' njl. engazange isoyikise ubungxowankulu bentlalontle kodwa yenza “indlela yabucala echasene nesocialism”. (Guilhot, 2007, iphepha.451-2)
Iminqweno yeziseko ze-Liberal yayingaphelelanga kwimfundo, kodwa njengoko uRoelofs (2007, p.480) ephawula, "[t] impembelelo yendlalifa iqhutywe ngeendlela ezininzi" kwaye iquka "ukudala ingcamango kunye nobulumko obuqhelekileyo; …ukulawula ukufikelela kwizibonelelo zedyunivesithi, iinkonzo zentlalontle, kunye nemibutho yobugcisa; ukubuyisela ukusilela kwimarike; ukukhokela iintshukumo zoqhanqalazo kumajelo akhuselekileyo; kunye nokuxhasa amaziko apho imigaqo-nkqubo iqalwa ize iphunyezwe.” [13] Njengoko ndibhalile malunga nezenzo ezichasene nedemokhrasi ngobude kwenye indawo ndiya kuqondisa abafundi abanomdla kwinqaku lam lamva nje. Ngaba oongxowankulu baxhasa ngeNgxowa-mali yoVukelo? (Icandelo 1; Icandelo 2).
I-Liberal Philanthropy kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo wase-US waNgaphandle
Iziseko ze-Liberal 'kunye nee-philanthropoids ezihambelana nazo zihlala zidlala indima ebalulekileyo kumsebenzi weBhunga. NgokukaShoup noMinter (1977, iphe.94-5) iziseko ezibini ezibonelele ngenkxaso enkulu kwiBhunga yiRockefeller Foundation kunye ne ICarnegie Corporation yaseNew York; eneneni izibonelelo ezisisiseko zizonke phambi ko-1936 zazimalunga nama-20,000 eedola ngonyaka, nangona ukususela ngowe-1936 ukuya kowe-1946, oku kwanda ukuya kutsho malunga nee-$90,000 ngonyaka. Kwiminyaka yamva, iFord Foundation nayo yasebenza njengomxhasi ophambili weBhunga, kwaye ngo-1954 banika iBhunga i-1,500,000 yeminyaka elishumi yesibonelelo. [14] Njengomzekelo wesiseko senkululeko enkulu, uGrose ubhala athi: “Lixhaswa yinkxaso-mali engama-50,000 1937 yeedola evela kwiCarnegie Corporation, iBhunga laqalisa iphulo elikhulu ngoDisemba 1977 lokusasaza imisebenzi yalo nendima yalo kulo lonke elaseUnited States, lokuphindaphinda iBhunga laseNew York ngezihlandlo ezisibhozo. Izixeko zaseMelika.” Okona kubalulekileyo, njengoko uShoup noMinter (30, p.1) bephawula, ukusekwa kwezi komiti zeBhunga kwaphumeza iinjongo ezimbini, (2) “zaphembelela [] ukucinga kweenkokeli zasekuhlaleni”, yaye (XNUMX) “zabonelela [ ] iBhunga kunye norhulumente waseUnited States ngolwazi olumalunga neengcamango eziqhubekayo kwimicimbi yezopolitiko kwilizwe lonke”. Ukunikezelwa kokubandakanyeka kweRockefeller Foundation kunye neeSemina zoNxibelelwano ezikhankanywe ngasentla (1939-40) kunomdla ngakumbi ukuba iGrose iphawula ukuba kwi-1939 iSiseko. Kuxhaswa ngemali (ukuya kwisixa-mali seedola ezingama-350,000 iprojekthi yeBhunga eliyimfihlo eyasungulwa ngentsebenziswano neSebe likarhulumente wase-US. [15] Le projekthi ixhaswa ngemali nguRockefeller kamva yaziwa ngokuba yiWar and Peace Studies Group – iprojekthi eyayijolise ekuphuhliseni isicwangciso esibambekayo Ulawulo lwase-US kwihlabathi lasemva kwemfazwe. [16] UGrose uyaqhubeka:
“Kwiminyaka emihlanu ezayo, amadoda amalunga ne-100 aye athabatha inxaxheba kwiZifundo zeMfazwe noXolo [Iqela], ahlulahlulwe yangamaqela ezihloko ezine ezisebenzayo: ezoqoqosho nezemali, ukhuseleko nezixhobo, ilizwe nezopolitiko. La maqela adibana ngaphezu kwamaxesha angama-250, ngokuqhelekileyo eNew York, kwisidlo sangokuhlwa nasebusuku. Bavelise iimemoranda ezingama-682 zeSebe likaRhulumente, eziphawule ukuba zahlulwa zaza zasasazwa kumasebe afanelekileyo karhulumente.”
Ukubhala ukusuka kwimbono ebaluleke kakhulu (engaphezulu kakhulu), F. William Engdahl (2008) inikeza iinkcukacha ezithe vetshe ngomsebenzi wabo:
“Undoqo weZifundo zeMfazwe noXolo, ezayilwa zaza zaphunyezwa liSebe leLizwe lase-US emva kowe-1944, yayikukusekwa kombutho weZizwe eziManyeneyo oza kuthatha indawo yoManyano lweZizwe olulawulwa yiBritani. Inxalenye esembindini yaloo ntlangano entsha ye-UN, eya kusebenza njengomlondolozi we-US-friendly status quo emva kwemfazwe, [17] yayiyindalo eyayibizwa ngokuba ngamaziko eBretton Woods-i-International Monetary Fund kunye ne-International Bank for Ukwakhiwa ngokutsha kunye noPhuhliso okanye iBhanki yehlabathi. Izivumelwano zorhwebo zamazwe ngamazwe ze-GATT zongezwa kamva.
"Abathethathethwano baseMelika eBretton Woods eNew Hampshire, bekhokelwa nguSekela Nobhala kaNondyebo waseMelika uHarry Dexter White, banyanzelise uyilo kwi-IMF kunye neBhanki yehlabathi eqinisekisa ukuba ezi zimbini ziya kuhlala zizixhobo zobukumkani "obungekho sikweni" base-US, ubukhosi, obusekwe ekuqaleni. ngetyala, yaye kamva, malunga nowe-1973, ngamatyala.” [18]
Emva koko, UGrose uyaqaphela ukuba, ebudeni beminyaka yee-1950, iziseko zenkululeko zaqhubeka zinikela inkxaso enkulu kumsebenzi weBhunga: “kwiRockefeller Foundation neCarnegie Corporation kwaphuma ii-$500,000 1.5 inye, ingaphezulu ngeedola ezisisi-1954 sezigidi kwiFord Foundation entsha ngowe-1940.” Phakathi kowe-1970 no-XNUMX David Rockefeller ukwasebenza “njengelungu leBhunga elisebenzayo”, kwaye ukusukela ngo-1950 ukuya kowe-1970 wayengusekela-mongameli weBhunga. Ngowe-1970, Rockefeller ngoko waba ngusihlalo webhodi yeBhunga (isikhundla awasigcinayo de kwangowe-1985), “engena [owayesakuba ngusihlalo weFord foundation] uJohn J. McCloy, owayekhonze kangangeminyaka eli-17.” Kweyakhe I-autobiography, UDavid Rockefeller (2002, p.407) ukhumbula:
“Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi yesiBini, iBhunga ladlala indima ebalulekileyo ekulumkiseni abantu baseMelika ngesisongelo esitsha esenziwe yiSoviet Union nasekuyileni imvisiswano yeepartisan malunga nendlela yokujongana nokwandiswa kwehlabathi jikelele. Ubukomanisi. Ngo-1947, iMicimbi yezaNgaphandle, ijenali ebalaseleyo yeBhunga, yapapasha inqaku elidumileyo elithi, 'X', 'Imithombo yokuziphatha kweSoviet' (ibhalwe ngokungaziwa ngenxa yokuba. UGeorge Kennan wayekhonza kwiSebe likaRhulumente ngelo xesha). Yachaza imfundiso yesithintelo… [Eli] nqaku laba luxwebhu oluchaza umgaqo-nkqubo weMfazwe yase-US.”
Ngexesha elifanayo apho uRockefeller waba ngusihlalo webhodi yeBhunga, owayengumhlalutyi weCIA, uWilliam Bundy, phakathi kwempikiswano eninzi, waba yintloko entsha ye-CIA. Imicimbi yabangaphandle: [19] kuyaphawuleka ukuphawula ukuba umntakwabo William, uMcGeorge Bundy, wayedityaniswe kakuhle nesisangqa sangaphakathi sobubele njengoko wayesebenza njengomongameli weFord Foundation ukusuka ngo-1966 ukuya ku-1979. Ngaphezu koko, kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuba imisebenzi ye Rockefeller, Carnegie and Ford Foundations' – iqela elidla ngokubizwa ngokuba ngamaqela amathathu amakhulu – zazimanyene kakhulu neCIA kunye nabaphezulu benkqubo yangaphandle yase-US ngeli xesha. Ngokungathandabuzekiyo, uVictor Marchetti noJohn Marks '(1980, p.237) kwincwadi yabo. I-CIA kunye neCult of Intelligence yaphawula ukuba i-CFR “kudala yaba yeyona ndawo iphambili yeCIA kuluntu lwaseMelika. Xa i-arhente ifuna abemi abaziwayo ukuba bamele iinkampani zayo okanye ezinye izinto ezinomdla okhethekileyo, idla ngokubhenela kwiBhunga [ngoBudlelwane baNgaphandle].” Kwi-1977, uShoup kunye noMinter babhale kwakhona ukuba ukusukela ekusekweni kwayo, "ulawulo lweCIA lusezandleni zenkokeli yeBhunga okanye ilungu rhoqo kunokuba kungenjalo". [20]
Icandelo 2 liza kulandela...
UMichael Barker ngumgqatswa wobugqirha kwiDyunivesithi yaseGriffith, eOstreliya. Unokufumaneka kuMichael. J. Barker [e] griffith.edu.au. Uninzi lwakhe amanye amanqaku anokufumaneka apha.
Endnotes
[2] Umsebenzi weBhunga nangona kunjalo uye wavavanywa ngumbhali ogcina isithethe, uEmanuel M. Josephson kwincwadi yakhe. Rockefeller, 'Internationalist': Indoda eLawula iHlabathi ngokungalunganga (Chedney Press, 1952). IBhunga likwafumana ukukhankanywa ngokufutshane (kwiphepha elinye) kuyo UHorace Coon obalaseleyo Imali yokutshisa: Iziseko ezinkulu zaseMelika kunye nemali yazo (Intengiselwano, 1938).
Kutshanje I-Inderjeet Parmar ubhale ngeBhunga, yabona I-Liberal-Imperial Brain Trust: Ukubaluleka kwezopolitiko kwiProjekthi yePrinceton kuKhuseleko lweSizwe (Iphepha elilungiselelwe ukunikezelwa kwindibano yonyaka ye-International Studies Association, eChicago, ngo-2007); Cinga ngamaTanki kunye naMandla kuMgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle: Uphononongo oluthelekisayo lwendima kunye nempembelelo yeBhunga kuBudlelwane bamazwe angaphandle kunye neRoyal Institute of International Affairs, 1939-1945. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). UVimba weBhunga usekwe eHarold Pratt House, 58 East 68th Isitalato, kwisiXeko saseNew York.
[5] Shoup and Minter (1977, p.12) babonisa indlela umbono weBhunga “ikakhulu lowo wombhali-mbali waseBritani uLionel Curtis” owathi ngaphambi kokusekwa kweBhunga “wayephethe ukuseka uthungelwano lwesiqingatha sesibini. -imibutho eyimfihlo… ebizwa ngokuba ngamaQela eTafile eRound” (eyasekwa nguLord Milner, owayesakuba ngunobhala waseBritani wemfazwe, kunye namahlakani akhe ngo-1908-1911”). Ukufumana iinkcukacha zangaphakathi-akhawunti yembali yeRound Table Groups, bona uCarroll Quigley, Ukusekwa kweAnglo-American (Iincwadi ezikuFocus, 1981). Isahluko 1 sale ncwadi sinokuba ifunyenwe kwi-intanethi. (Ngowe-1984, UJohn G. Albert, ngelo xesha eyayisekelwe kwi-Academy ye-Air Force yase-US, iphonononge le ncwadi iqukumbela ukuba "umyalezo wayo uphikisana ngamandla kwaye ubeka umthunzi omde malunga nokutolikwa kwangaphambili kweziganeko zesiqingatha sokuqala sale nkulungwane". Imicimbi yomkhosi, Umqulu. 48 (1), iphe.47.) Imidla yoshishino ibekwe phezulu kumsebenzi weBhunga kwasekuqaleni: uGrose ubhala athi: “Yabo bonke ukukrokra kwabo, abaphathi bezemali phakathi kwamalungu bamkele ngokucacileyo ukuvuselela kwengqondo kunye nokwahlukana, i-synergy eyodwa yezinto ezinomdla ezibonwayo ekuqaleni. Benza konke okulungileyo ngeBhunga labo. Amalungu awayengabalawuli beenkampani ezinkulu axhakamfule elo thuba ukuze afakele iinkxalabo zeshishini kwiingcamango zabaphengululi.” UMichael Wala (1994, p.xii) uthi: “Into yokuba iBhunga alinalawulo lwangaphandle kwaye lizikhwebula kupapasho, lihleli lizikhethele ngasemva, kuye kwanceda ukukhuthaza uphuhliso lweethiyori zeyelenqe malunga nempembelelo yalo nokusebenza kwalo kwezi zintathu zidlulileyo. amashumi eminyaka.”
[6] UWalter Lippmann, Uluvo loluntu (Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1922), p.310
[7] ULippmann (1922, iphe.43-4) ubhala oku: “Ngaphandle kohlobo oluthile lokuvalelwa, ukusasazwa kwenkcazelo engqongqo yeli gama akunakwenzeka. Ukuze kuqhutywe ipropaganda kufuneka kubekho umqobo phakathi koluntu kunye nesiganeko. Ukufikelela kwimo engqongileyo yokwenyani kufuneka kuthintelwe, phambi kokuba nabani na enze i-pseudo-indalo acinga ukuba ilumkile okanye iyanqweneleka. Kuba ngelixa abantu abanokufikelela ngokuthe ngqo bengayiqondi kakuhle into abayibonayo, akukho mntu wumbi unokuthatha isigqibo ngendlela abaya kucinga ngayo, ngaphandle kokuba unokugqiba ukuba bajonge phi, nokuba yintoni na.” Uphawula ngokudumileyo ukuba "ukwenziwa kwemvume", "kwakucingelwa ukuba kuphelile ngenkangeleko yedemokhrasi", kodwa "akunjalo". Ngapha koko, uphawula ukuba “iphucuke kakhulu kwezobuchwephesha, kuba ngoku isekelwe kuhlalutyo kunokuba isekelwe kumgaqo oqhelekileyo.” Wandula ke uLippmann aphawule ukuba “ukweyisela kuye kwaba bubugcisa bokungazithembi yaye licandelo eliqhelekileyo likarhulumente odumileyo.” (Lippmann, 1922, p.248)
Kuyaphawuleka ukuba, ngowe-1914, uLippmann wadlala indima ebalulekileyo kwimpapasho entsha I-Republic entsha. Oku kungenxa yokuba, njengoBill Clinton umcebisi, uCarroll Quigley (1966, iphe.938), ubonisa ukuba kwakungelo xesha apho “ [JP] Morgan Inkampani yagqiba kwelokuba ingenelele kwimibutho yezopolitiko yasekhohlo eUnited States.” Wongezelela ngelithi: “Injongo yayingekokutshabalalisa, ukongamela, okanye ukuthatha iintambo kodwa eneneni yayintlu-ntathu: (1) ukuhlala unolwazi ngeengcinga zamaqela asekhohlo okanye enkululeko; (2) ukubanika into yokuthetha ukuze ‘bavuthulule umphunga,’ yaye (3) babe nesigqibo sokugqibela sokungavakaliswa kwabo yaye mhlawumbi ngezenzo zabo, ukuba baye baba ‘namandla.’” Oku kuphathelele uLippmann. , njengoko uQuigley eqhubeka ngokuphawula ukuba “owona mzekelo ubalaseleyo wolu manyano lweWall Street kunye nempapasho yephiko lasekhohlo yaba I-Republic entsha,” iphephancwadi elasekwa ngumlingani kaMorgan uWillard Straight kunye nomfazi wakhe uDorothy (owayexhaswa ngemali yephephancwadi de kwangowe-1953) (p.939). NgokukaQuigley: “Injongo yantlandlolo yokuseka eli phepha yayikukubonelela ngokuphuma kweKhohlo eliqhubela phambili nokulikhokela ngokuzolileyo kwicala leAnglophile.” Uthi “[t]umsebenzi wakhe wokugqibela wanikwa” (ngo-1914) kuWalter Lippman (p.939). I-Morgan-connection ibaluleke kakhulu kweli nqaku kuba uQuigley uchaza iBhunga lezoBudlelwane bamazwe angaphandle njenge "front for J.P. Morgan kunye neNkampani". Wongezelela ngelithi isebe leBhunga laseNew York “lalilawulwa ngamahlakani eMorgan Bank. Ngokomzekelo, ngowe-1928 iBhunga Elijongene Nobudlelwane Namazwe Ngamazwe linoJohn. W. Davis njengomongameli, uPaul Cravath njengosekela-mongameli, kunye nebhunga labanye abalishumi elinesithathu, elaliquka UOwen D. Oselula, Russell C. Leffingwell, UNorman Davis, UAllen Dulles, George W. Wickersham, UFrank L. Polk, Whitney Shepardson, UIsaya Bowman, UStephen P. Duggan, yaye Otto Kahn.” (p.952) Ngaphezu koko, uShoup noMinter (1977, p.23) babhala ukuba “unyulo lukaHerbet Hoover kumongameli ngo-1928… lwandisa[d] impembelelo yeBhunga kuqulunqo lomgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle.” Oku kungenxa yokuba uHoover ngokwakhe wayelilungu laseParis leRoyal Institute of International Affairs (umanduleli weBhunga oseBritani), unobhala wakhe welizwe, uHenry L. Stimson, wayelilungu leBhunga, yaye umcebisi wezoqoqosho weStimson naye wayeliBhunga. umsebenzi. Kubalulekile ukuba ubunkokeli beBhunga bubonise amandla oluntu lwezezimali lwaseNew York, njengoko "kude kube ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1950, eyona ndawo ibalulekileyo kwiBhunga yayibanjwe ngamadoda abophelelekile kuMorgan." Nangona kunjalo, emva koko uRockefeller oqhagamshelweyo wayedlale indima ebaluleke ngakumbi ekwalathiseni imicimbi yeBhunga. Jonga uShoup kunye noMinter (1977, p.104).
[8] I-Indedjeet Parmar, i-Catalysing Events, i-Think Tanks kunye ne-American Foreign Policy Shifts: Uhlalutyo oluthelekisayo lweeMpembelelo zePearl Harbour 1941 kunye ne-11 Septemba 2001, Urhulumente kunye nabachasi 40 (1), 2000, iphepha 1-25. Ngendlela eyoyikisayo efana neyo Iprojekthi yeXesha Elitsha laseMelika (2000, iphe.51) ‘imfuno’ ye “‘intlekele ethile kunye nesiganeko esichukumisayo-njengeZibuko elitsha lasePearl” (okt 9/11), uParmar uthi ngo-1941 amalungu eBhunga aye aqaphela ukuze asebenzise izicwangciso zawo zehlabathi: “Abantu baseMelika 'bafuna ukothuka (ngokukhethekileyo umkhosi)' ukuze baqhubele phambili. basebenze, ukuze ‘babuyele ezingqondweni’ baze baqonde ukuba imfazwe yaseYurophu yayiyinkxalabo yabo.” NgoDisemba 1941, lo mkhwa ufika ngendlela yePearl Harbor.Ukufumana okungakumbi malunga nokufana phakathi kwePearl Harbor kunye ne-9/11, bona uDavid Ray Griffin, I-New Pearl Harbor: Imibuzo ephazamisayo malunga noLawulo lweBush kunye ne-9/11 (I-Interlink, i-2004).
[9] UMichael Wala (1994, p.158) ukwagxininisa ukuba iqela "laqalwa" nguLester Markel, ngelo xesha wayengumhleli weCawa. ENew York Times. UMarkel uye waba ngusihlalo wokuseka i-International Press Institute (1951-4), iqela leendaba elimisebenzi, njengoko ndiphawula kwenye indawo, idityaniswe ngokusondeleyo noluntu olulawula ngedemokhrasi. Amajelo osasazo aqhelekileyo nawo adityaniswe ngokusondeleyo nomsebenzi weBhunga: umzekelo, “[ngo-1972, abalawuli abathathu kwabalishumi beNkampani yeNew York Times kunye nabahlanu kwabasithoba abahleli bomhleli babengamalungu eBhunga” (uShoup and Minter, 1977, p.66).
[10] UStewart Ewen (1996) ubhala kwincwadi yakhe yakudala I-PR: Imbali yeNtlalo ye-Spin ukuba: “Ebudeni beMfazwe Yehlabathi Yokuqala, uBernays wayesebenza njengejoni elihamba ngeenyawo kwiKomiti Yenkcazelo Kawonke-wonke yaseU. Ikhuselekile kwiDemokhrasi.'”
[11] UMichael Barker, “Iziseko zeLiberal zoHlaziyo lweMedia? Ukudala amathuba eNkxaso-mali aZinzileyo kuHlaziyo lweMedia yeRadical,” Imidiya yehlabathi (KuCofa). Ayiyomfihlo into yokuba umgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle wawudelele uluntu ngokubanzi; njengoko uMichael Wala (1994, iphe.11) echaza: “‘Uluvo lukawonke-wonke,’ lwamalungu ala maqela, lwalunenkcazelo elinganiselweyo yaye lwalusisithetha-ntonye neqaqobana labantu abanobuchule bokwazisa nokuphembelela iindawo ezinkulu esidlangalaleni.” Ngaphezu koko, ngokubhekisele kwiBhunga kuphela kwamalungu "oluntu awayefanele afundiswe" "yayingaloo malungu oluntu ayenempembelelo kumajelo eendaba nezopolitiko nakwiingcali kwiinkalo ezininzi ezibalulekileyo" (iphe.12) ).
[12] Indedjeet Parmar, 'Ukudibanisa ulwazi kunye nesenzo': Impembelelo yeRockefeller Foundation kwiNgcinga yePolisi yezangaphandle ngexesha lokunyuka kweMelika ukuya kwiGlobalism 1939-1945, Minerva,40 (3), 2002, iphepha.235-263; I-Carnegie Corporation kunye nokuHlanganisa iimbono Ngexesha lokunyuka kwe-United States kwi-Globalism, 1939-1945, Minerva, 37 (4), 1999, iphepha 355-378; Imvume yobuNjineli: ICarnegie Endowment yoXolo lwaMazwe ngaMazwe kunye nokuHlanganisa iimbono zoLuntu lwaseMelika, ngo-1939-1945, Uphononongo lweZifundo zaMazwe ngaMazwe, 26 (1), 2000, iphepha 35-48.
[13] Roelofs (2007, p.502) uqukumbela ngelithi "imodeli yobuninzi boluntu ifihla intsebenziswano ebanzi phakathi kwabantu abaphezulu ababonelela ngezibonelelo kunye nemeko exhomekeke kwimibutho emininzi ephantsi. Ngelixa aba bamva banokuthethathethana neziseko malunga neenkcukacha, kwaye bade baphumelele eminye iminyinyiva, i-capitalist hegemony (kubandakanywa ne-imperial perquisites) ayinakubuzwa ngaphandle kwezohlwayo eziqatha zombutho. Ngokubanzi, ngabaxhasi bezimali ababiza ingoma. Oku kuya kubonakala ngakumbi ukuba bekukho uphando olwaneleyo olupapashiweyo lo mmandla mkhulu nobalulekileyo. Isibakala sokuba lo mbandela ‘usikelwe umda’ kwizifundiswa nakwiintatheli bubungqina obubambekayo bamandla amakhulu.”
[14] Shoup and Minter, 1977, iphepha 95-6. Iziseko zenkululeko ziyaqhubeka nokuxhasa umsebenzi weBhunga, umz. i Ingxelo yoNyaka ka-2006 yeFord Foundation (p.62) iphawula ukuba banike iBhunga isibonelelo se-$ 200,000 "ngophando, iisemina kunye nopapasho malunga nendima yabasetyhini ekuthinteleni ungquzulwano, ukwakhiwa kwakhona emva kongquzulwano kunye nokwakhiwa kombuso".
[15] UMichael Wala (1994, p.33) uyaphawula, ukuba ngoMeyi 1943, iBhunga laseka iQela leeNjongo zoXolo "ebelixhaswa ngemali ekhethekileyo evela kwiRockefeller Foundation". Eli Qela “lalungiselela iintlanganiso ezizinyaswa ngabameli bamazwe aseYurophu aphantsi kolawulo naMazwe Amanyeneyo. Kwezi ntlanganiso, banokuvakalisa iziphakamiso zabo zoxolo kunye nembuyekezo, ngaloo ndlela banike iSebe likaRhulumente ulwazi olubalulekileyo lokulungelelaniswa kweenjongo zalo zomgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle "(iphe.33-4). Emva kwemfazwe, iRockefeller Foundation yanikezela iBhunga nge-55,000 yeedola ukuseka iqela elaziwa ngokuba yi-Economic Co-operation Administration (ECA) eyayilawulwa nguPaul G. Hoffman (owahamba waba ngumongameli wokuqala weFord Foundation) . “UDwight D. Eisnehower waba ngusihlalo welo qela lesifundo ‘ngoNcedo oluya eYurophu,’ yaye ‘nantoni na uGeneral Eisenhower ayaziyo ngezoqoqosho,’ umcholacholi weendaba uJoseph Kraft wacaphula ilungu leqela lisithi, ‘uye wafunda kwiintlanganiso zeqela lofundo-nzulu. .’ IRockefeller Foundation yahlabela mgama yaza yacebisa ukuba eli qela lofundisiso ‘lisebenze njengohlobo oluthile lwemfundo kwimicimbi yangaphandle kulowo wayeza kuba ngumongameli waseUnited States.’” ( Wala, 1994, iphe.125-6)
[16] Kwakhona umdla, UJames Martin (1981) wabonisa ukuba umbhali-mbali owayenempembelelo enkulu, uCharles A. Beard, “wavula esinye isilonda ngoxa wayebhala incwadi yakhe enenqaku elaziwayo kwiSaturday Evening Post kaOktobha 4, 1947, elithi, ‘Ngubani Oza Kubhala Imbali Yemfazwe? apho watyhila ukuba iRockefeller Foundation, esebenzisana ne-alter ego yayo, iBhunga lezoBudlelwane bamazwe angaphandle, ibonelele nge-139,000 yeedola ukuze isetyenziswe ekubhaleni imbali yomgca osemthethweni wendlela imfazwe eyenzeka ngayo, kumzamo wokoyisa. kwaqalisa iphulo elifanayo lembali elathi emva kokuphela kweMfazwe Yehlabathi I.” Kwakhona bona uShoup and Minter (1977, p.118-125) ngolwazi oluthe kratya malunga nomsebenzi weQela leZifundo zeMfazwe kunye noXolo.
[17] Ngengxelo emfutshane yendima ebalulekileyo edlalwe liBhunga ekudalweni kweZizwe eziManyeneyo, bona uShoup and Minter (1977, p.169-72).
[18] F. William Engdahl (2008) yongeza ngelithi “intloko yocwangciso yeSebe likarhulumente, uGeorge F. Kennan wabhala kwimemo yangaphakathi eyimfihlo ngo-1948, 'Sine-50% yobutyebi behlabathi kodwa yi-6.3% kuphela yabemi balo…Owona msebenzi wethu kweli xesha lizayo kukuqulunqa ubutyebi behlabathi. indlela yobudlelwane eya kusivumela ukuba silondoloze le meko yantlukwano ngaphandle kokubek’ engozini ukhuseleko lwelizwe lethu.’” UEngdahl ukwaphawula oku: “Ukugcina indima yedola yaseMerika njengemali enguvimba wehlabathi bekuyeyona ntsika iphambili kwiNkulungwane yaseMerika ukususela ngowe-1945 , enxulumene kodwa enobuchule ngakumbi kunokongama emkhosini wase-US. Indlela ubungangamsha bedola bugcinwe ngayo ngoku bubandakanya imbali yeemfazwe ezininzi zasemva kwemfazwe, imfazwe yezemali, iingxaki zamatyala, kunye nezoyikiso zemfazwe yenyukliya ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. " Ukongezelela, uJoan Roelofs (2003, iphe.74) ubhala oku: “Amaziko amatsha emali ezizwe ngezizwe, awayilwa ngowe-1944 eBretton Woods, eNew Hampshire, ayengamele abekwe esichengeni kukungazinzi kweU.S. Ngenxa yoko, emva kweMfazwe yesiBini, ‘uBongameli boLawulo’ bandiswa ukuze baquke iBhunga labaCebisi ngezoQoqosho (CEA). Indima ye-CEA yayikukumisela ucwangciso lwezoqoqosho lwaseKeynesian ukuzinza kwezoqoqosho kunye nokuphumeza uMthetho weNgqesho we-1946. "
[19] UDavid Rockefeller (2002, p.408) ubhala "wayexhasa ngamandla" ukukhethwa kukaWilliam Bundy njengentloko entsha yeMicimbi yezaNgaphandle, nangona oku "kwacaphukisa amalungu amaninzi eBhunga", "wacinga ukuba iBhili njengolwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe" kwingqesho yakhe yangaphambili njengonobhala woncedo kwezokhuselo phakathi kwiminyaka yoo-1960 (ixesha apho isikali sokubulala "Imfazwe" yaseVietnam yaya isanda). Ukukwazi kukaDavid ukutyeshela igazi likaBundy elifakwe kwixesha elidlulileyo liyahambelana ngokupheleleyo. (Ngokuqinisekileyo, uqhanqalazo oluchasene nokunyuswa kukaWilliam Bundy lwalukhokelwa URichard Falk, kodwa abanye abantu abathathu abazibandakanya noFalk kuqhanqalazo lokuqala URichard Barnet, URichard H. Ullman, yaye URonald Steel, bona uShoup and Minter (1977, p.46).) Njengoko uPeter Collier noDavid Horowitz bebhala kwincwadi yabo ebalaseleyo. IiRockefellers: Ubukhosi baseMelika ( ENew York: Holt, Rinehart noWinston, 1976), iphepha 416-7: “Ukuba oorhulumente bomkhosi olutsha abaqalisa ukubonakala kummandla wezobupolitika owawusele umfiliba wakuMbindi Merika baqhubana ngokuqatha nenkcaso yabo, kwakhona bazisa uzinzo oluthile. Kungeso sizathu ke apho uDavid wamkela i-conservatism entsha yomanyano lwaseWashington kunye neriphabliki zaseLatin. Ebhala kwiMicimbi yaNgaphandle… ngo-1966, uDavid waqaphela ukuba inguqulelo ehlaziyiweyo nethotyiweyo Umanyano lweNkqubela yayilunge ngakumbi ‘kuneengcamango zamabhongo ngokugqithiseleyo zotshintsho lweminyaka yokuqala yenkqubo, kuba yabangela imeko-bume enomtsalane ngakumbi kushishino lwaseUnited States.’” Elandela le ndlela yokuqiqa akumangalisi ukuba ngowe-1979 uDavid Rockefeller, umgcini-bhanki welo shishini lishenxisiwe. (ngaphambili US-backed) U-Shah wase-Iran, wasebenza noHenry Kissinger ukuba "abeke uxinzelelo lukawonkewonke kunye nolwabucala kwi-Carter administraton ukuba ivumele i-Shah yase-Iran echithiweyo kwilizwe [US], igxininiswe ngenxa yezizathu zoluntu kunye nesizathu sombuso". Baye baphumelela ukukholisa uMongameli ukuba avumele u-Shah ukuba eze e-United States, isiganeko "esibangele ukubanjwa kwe-Ambassy yaseMelika e-Tehran kunye nokuthathwa kwabathinjwa abangamashumi amahlanu anesithathu". Jonga uLeonard Silk kunye noMark Silk, Ukusekwa kweMelika (ENew York: Iincwadi Ezisisiseko, ngowe-1980), iphepha 224-5. Ukufumana ingxelo epheleleyo yokubandakanyeka kukaDavid Rockefeller kwintlekele yokubanjelwa eIran, bona uRobert Parry, Isimangaliso sikaOkthobha soqobo, News Consortium, ngo-Oktobha 29, 2006. Ukufumana iinkcukacha zendlela iKomishoni yeZithathu ephumelele ngayo ekuqaleni ekufumaneni uCarter ukuba abe ngumongameli, jonga uShoup, UMongameli weCarter kunye naNgaphesheya:Amandla kunye nezopolitiko kwiminyaka yee-1980 (Ramparts Press, 1980).
[20] Shoup and Minter, 1977, p.61.
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