Ukuba sifuna ukwakha inkxaso yendlela eyenye endaweni yobukhapitali sifuna ingcaciso kwizizathu neziphumo zephulo longxowankulu bale mihla lokukhulula inkululeko enkulu kunye noshishino lwabucala, kunye neenzuzo kunye nemida kwisikhokelo sikarhulumente somsebenzi woqoqosho longxowankulu. Nangona ililizwe elincinci, amava ase-Iceland akutsha nje anokuninzi okusifundisayo malunga ne-capitalist dynamics kunye nezicwangciso zenguqu.
Ngo-1991, urhulumente wase-Icelandic waqala inkqubo engqongqo yokukhulula kunye nokuthengisa izinto zabucala eziye zakhokelela ekwandeni kweebhanki ezintathu zase-Icelandic. Ukukhula kwabo okunempembelelo ephezulu kuphembelele imakethi enkulu yesitokhwe kunye namaqamza ezindlu, konke oku kudityaniswe ukwenza i-GDP ye-Iceland ibe yenye yezona ziphakamileyo zehlabathi phakathi kweminyaka yoo-2000. Uqoqosho lwase-Iceland lwawa ngo-Oktobha 2008 xa iibhanki ezintathu zaphoqeleka ukuba zibe yimali; eli lizwe lithwaxwa lelinye lawona maxesha anzima ehlabathini.
Kwimpendulo ehlala iyingqayizivele eYurophu, abantu base-Iceland banyanzelisa iinkokeli zezopolitiko ezijongene neprogram ye-neoliberal ukuba ziyeke. Emva koko banyula urhulumente womdibaniso wedemokhrasi yezentlalo owangenelela ngokungqongqo kwezemali, imali, kunye neemarike zezindlu, kwaye wazibandakanya ekwandiseni okujoliswe kuko kweenkqubo eziphambili zentlalo. Ngenxa yoko, i-Island iye yafumana enye yezona zinto zikhawulezayo nezinesiseko sokubuyisela uqoqosho lwaseYurophu. Ngelishwa, umda wezi zenzo zombuso wathintelwa bubudlelwane obusenamandla odidi longxowankulu. Iinzuzo zabasebenzi zisenokuhlehliswa, ngakumbi ngokuguquka kwezopolitiko ngo-Epreli wama-2013, kunye nonyulo lorhulumente olondolozayo omele iimfuno eziphambili.
I-Capitalist Class Dynamics kunye ne-neoliberalism
I-Iceland ngokuqinisekileyo ayifani neyama-1990 okanye kutshanje ekunyuleni urhulumente ophakamisa imigaqo-nkqubo ye-neoliberal. Ngaphezu koko, amandla eklasi avelisa isiphumo esinjalo akafani kwilizwe ngalinye. Nangona kunjalo, uphononongo lwenkqubo yase-Icelandic lubonelela ngeembono eziluncedo kwinto ebanzi. Phakathi kwezona zinto zibalulekileyo kukuba neoliberalism, ngaphezu kwako konke, yiprojekthi yodidi longxowankulu. Ngokunjalo, izigqibo zombuso malunga nenkululeko kunye noshishino lwabucala zenziwe ngononophelo ngenjongo yokwandisa amathuba okwenza inzuzo yongxowankulu, injongo ehlala iphikisana namabango enkululeko asetyenziselwa ukubanika ukuba semthethweni.
I-Iceland yayilelona lizwe lihlwempuzekileyo eNtshona Yurophu ekupheleni kweMfazwe Yehlabathi yesiBini. Yayikade iyithanga laseDenmark yaze yafumana inkululeko yayo epheleleyo ngo-1944. Ngenxa yembali yobukoloniyali, โi-capitalism yase-Iceland yayilawulwa kwasekuqaleni yimbumba yeentsapho ezilishumi elinesine, ezaziwa ngokuba yiOctopus, eyayiquka zombini ezi ntsapho. Abalawuli bezoqoqosho nezopolitiko.โ1
I-Octopus yayingeloqela elisemthethweni. Endaweni yoko igama libonise into yokuba ezi ntsapho zilawula ngokudibeneyo awona mashishini abalulekileyo. I-Octopus yabonisa amandla ayo ngokulawula iqela lezopolitiko elinamandla kweli lizwe, i-Independence Party; uninzi lweenkokeli eziphambili zeqela zazingamalungu eentsapho ezinempembelelo enkulu yeOctopus. Iqela lesibini leentsapho, elingenamandla kangako lalisaziwa ngokuba yiSkwidi. Baye balawula iQela eliQhubelayo, elalihlala lisebenza njengeqabane lomdibaniso leqela le-Independence Party.
I-Iceland, njengoninzi lweYurophu ngexesha lasemva kweMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi, yayinoqoqosho olulawulwa kakhulu. Ukuqala ngeminyaka yoo-1960, i-Iceland, iphinda ilandela iindlela zaseYurophu, yaqalisa ukukhululeka okulawulwayo kwemisebenzi yezoqoqosho. Nangona kunjalo, ngenxa yembali yayo, uqoqosho lwase-Iceland lwahlala lulawulwa ngakumbi kwaye lubunjwe kubathengi kunolunye uqoqosho lwaseNtshona Yurophu.
Umzekelo, ezona bhanki zinkulu zazizezaseburhulumenteni, โimali yahlulwe phakathi kwamashishini ahlukeneyo ngurhulumente, inzala yemali-mboleko yamiselwa yiBhanki Enkulu yaseIceland (CBI), eyayilawulwa ngurhulumente, kwaye inzala yokwenyani yagcinwa ingalunganga. kude kube sekupheleni kweminyaka yee-1980.โ2 Kwangaxeshanye, ezi bhanki ubukhulu becala bezilawulwa ukuze kuxhamle amaqela amakhulu ezopolitiko kunye nabaxhasi bawo. Ngokomzekelo, abaqeshwa be-Independence Party baqhube i-Landsbanki karhulumente kwaye baqondise iimali mboleko zabo kumashishini alawulwa yi-Octopus.
Kwibrashi ebanzi, uqoqosho lwase-Iceland luqhube kakuhle emva kwexesha leMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi. Nangona yayiqale kakubi, โngeminyaka yee-1980 [I-Iceland] yayisele ifikelele kwinqanaba kunye nolwabiwo lwengeniso enokulahlwa elingana nomyinge weNordic.โ3 Ukanti, kwakusenzeka inkqubela eyayiza kuthi kungekudala iguqule uqoqosho lwelizwe lwezobupolitika.
Olokuqala nolona lubalulekileyo uphuhliso yayikukunyuka kweqela elinomdla lezopolitiko โneoliberal/libertarianโ ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1980 eyaziwa ngokuba ziiLocomotives. Eli qela lalilawulwa ngabafundi bangaphambili boMthetho kunye noLawulo lwezoShishino kwiYunivesithi yase-Iceland. Bathathe igama labo kwijenali ekwafana naleyo ababeyiqhuba ngabafundi ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1970 kwaye babeyisebenzisa ukukhuthaza imibono yentengiso yasimahla.
Amalungu eqela le-Locomotive athi i-Iceland yayidinga ukukhulula amandla emarike ukuze iphule i-state-corporate stranglehold kuqoqosho lwase-Iceland. Umyalezo wabo wafumana abaphulaphuli abasamkelayo ngakumbi njengoko ukukhula kwe-Icelandic kwakucotha kwiminyaka yoo-1980, ungquzulwano lwe-labor-capital capital, kwaye oorhulumente abaxhasa imigaqo-nkqubo ye-neoliberal baqala ukulawula eYurophu nase-United States.
UDavid Oddsson, omnye wabaseki beLocomotive, waba ngusodolophu waseReykjavik ngo-1982. Imigaqo-nkqubo yakhe endlongondlongo yoshishino lwabucala yamenza wafumana inkxaso kwamanye amalungu e-Independence Party kwaye wakhawuleza wenyuka kwizikhundla, ekugqibeleni waba yinkokeli yombutho kunye nenkulumbuso yelizwe ngo-1991. wabamba ulawulo iminyaka elishumi elinesine phambi kokuba arhoxe ekubeni yintloko ye-CBI ngo-2004. U-Oddsson wayengumntu wangaphandle ngokwezopolitiko ze-Independence Party kwaye ukuphumelela kwakhe ukuba yinkulumbuso kunye nomyili wenguqu ye-neoliberal yase-Iceland kwakusekelwe kubuchule bakhe โbokuqinisekisa i-Independence Party. indala, iintsapho ezifumileyo zaseIceland, ukuthengiswa kwamashishini abucala okukhawulezayo nokucwangcisiweyo kwakungayi kuzihlwempuza okanye kunciphise igunya lazo.โ4
Iintsapho ezilawulayo zaseIceland zazisanda ngokwanda zinganeliseki yimeko yazo yezoqoqosho. Ubuncinci belizwe kunye nokuqhubekeka kobunini borhulumente beebhanki kunye namanye amacandelo abalulekileyo oshishino babeke imida kumathuba abo okufumana inzuzo. Kwaye, njengoko iingxaki zoqoqosho kunye neengxabano zezopolitiko zazikhula, ubunkokeli buka-Oddsson be-Independence Party baba nomtsalane ngakumbi kubo.
Kungekudala emva kokuba yinkulumbuso, u-Oddsson waqala ukuthoba amaxabiso erhafu yenkampani kwaye wathengisa iinkampani zikarhulumente. Utshintsho olunzima lweza kuphela emva kwe-1994, xa i-Iceland yajoyina i-European Economic Area (EEA), i-bloc ye-free-trade ye-European Union. Ubulungu bunike i-Iceland ithuba lokufikelela okuvulelekileyo kwiimarike zaseYurophu kwaye iinkokeli zelizwe zezopolitiko kunye nezoshishino zakhawuleza zaqonda ukuba icandelo lezemali elizimeleyo, elichithwe, kunye nelokwandisa icandelo lezemali yayiyeyona ndlela yabo yokuphumelela ubungakanani bemalike yelizwe enyanzelela inzuzo.5
Ushishino lwabucala lwebhanki lwaqala ekupheleni kweminyaka yoo-1990 ngenkqubo elawulwa kakhulu nenepolitiki eyathi yaqukunjelwa ngo-2003. Intsapho enxulumene neqela elitsha leshishini elaziwa ngokuba yi-Orcas yafumana ulawulo lwaloo bhanki, kwaye ngokudibana kunye nokuthengwa kwakha i-Glitnir, eyaba yenye yeebhanki ezinkulu ezintathu zase-Iceland. Iibhanki zombuso ezimbini ezinkulu-i-Landsbanki kunye ne-Buradarbanki (kamva eyaba yi-Kaupthing)-yayiyeyona ibhaso liphambili, kwaye urhulumente waqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo yokubhida yayiza kunikezela ngobuninzi bobunini bangaphambili kubaxhasi be-Independence Party, okuthetha ukuba iintsapho ze-Octopus, kunye umva kubalandeli beProgressive Party, nto leyo ethetha iintsapho zeskwidi. Abanini abatsha emva koko baseka iinkampani zabucala ezithe zachwetheza kwiibhanki zabo ukuze bafumane imali yokuqalisa amashishini amatsha, kwaye kwezinye iimeko bathathela amashishini asele ekho ngabanye abantu abaphezulu. Abanini abatsha baphinde babuyisela imali kumaqela abo kunye neenkokheli zeqela.6
Isiphumo sotshintsho kuqoqosho lwase-Iceland luye lwavelisa utshintsho kubudlelwane phakathi korhulumente kunye nabaphathi abaphezulu, kunye nokugqibela konyusa amandla alo. Kukwakhokelele kuhlengahlengiso lobudlelwane obuphezulu, ngakumbi ukudodobala kobudlelwane phakathi kweentsapho eziphambili kunye nokwanda kwamaziko ombane amatsha. Nangona kunjalo, ngaphandle kwentengiso yasimahla / i-libertarian rhetoric ehamba nayo, inguqu ayizange yenzelwe, kwaye ayizange itshabalalise amaqhina asondeleyo kushishino lukarhulumente okanye ukuphelisa ukongamela kwemonopoly kuqoqosho.
Ukukhula kunye neNgxaki
Uqoqosho lwase-Iceland lwenyuka, ngakumbi kwiminyaka ye-2003 ukuya ku-2007. Ukukhula okuphakathi konyaka kwi-GDP kwakungama-5.5 ekhulwini kwaye ukungabikho kwemisebenzi kwehla ukusuka kwi-3.4 yeepesenti ephantsi ukuya kwi-1 ekhulwini.7 I-IMF iqikelela ukuba i-Iceland yaba lilizwe lesithathu elinobutyebi behlabathi ngokwemiqathango yomntu ngamnye ngo-2005.8 Njengoko sibona ngokulandelayo, ezi nzuzo zakhuthazwa kukwanda okuxhaphakileyo kweebhanki ezintathu eziphambili zelizwe, ukwandiswa okuqulethe imbewu yokuwa kwezoqoqosho kwelizwe ngo-2008.
Izinga lokukhula kwenkqubo yebhanki yase-Iceland ukusuka kwi-2003 ukuya kwi-2007 yayingakaze ibonwe ngaphambili.9 Ii-asethi zokuphela konyaka ezigcinwe zezona bhanki zinkulu zintathu zinyuke ukusuka ngaphantsi kwe-GDP yelizwe eliphindwe kabini ngo-2003 ukuya ngaphezu kwamaxesha asibhozo ngo-2007, kwaye phantse kalishumi ukususela ngoJuni ka-2008.10
Iibhanki zazithembele kakhulu kwimali yangaphandle ekwandiseni kwazo. Inkxaso-mali yangoko yavela ubukhulu becala ekuthengiseni iibhondi kwimarike yaseYurophu. Xa i-arhente yamazwe angaphandle izilumkiso malunga nempilo yeebhanki zase-Icelandic ivale imarike yaseYurophu ngo-2006, iibhanki zajika ngokufutshane kwimarike yebhondi yase-US. Kunyaka olandelayo, iLandsbanki kunye neKaupthing zaguqukela kwenye imarike, iidiphozithi zokuthengisa zangaphandle, ngakumbi eUnited Kingdom naseNetherlands. Zontathu iibhanki nazo zasebenzisa amasebe azo eLuxemburg ukubandakanyeka ekubolekeni okungathanga ngqo kwi-Eurosystem. Ekupheleni kuka-2004, i-Iceland yaba lelona lizwe linamatyala amaninzi kwihlabathi elilinganiswe ngokwetyala elipheleleyo langaphandle kwi-GDP.11
Ukuxhasa kunye nokuphelisa inkqubo yokukhula kwe-Iceland yaba bubudlelwane obunzima phakathi kunye naphakathi kweebhanki kunye namaqela abo abanini. Umzekelo, olu dlelwane lwalungundoqo ekwenzeni iibhanki zase-Icelandic zifumane iimarike zebhondi zangaphandle. Iibhanki zaseIceland ziye zabonakala zifanelekile ukuba zityala imali ngenxa yokulingana kwazo okukhulu. Ezi reshiyo ziphezulu bezikhohlisa nangona kunjalo, njengoko ubukhulu becala bezisisiphumo sokunyuswa kwamaxabiso ezabelo. Njengoko uRobert Wade noSilla Sigurgeirsdottir bechaza:
I-elite entsha yebhanki yase-Iceland yakhwela i-bubble, enenjongo yokwandisa ubunini babo boqoqosho lwelizwe, bobabini bakhuphisana kunye nokusebenzisana omnye nomnye. Besebenzisa izabelo zabo njengesibambiso, baye bathabatha iimali-mboleko ezinkulu kwiibhanki zabo, ezinye abazichitha ekuthengeni izabelo ezingakumbi kwiibhanki ezifanayo, benyusa amaxabiso ezabelo. Abaphathi babo bayalelwa ukuba balandele umzekelo wabo. Benza umsebenzi ofanayo nakwabanye abathengi, kuquka nezinye iibhanki. IBhanki A yaboleka abaninizabelo kwiBhanki B, abathenge izabelo ezingakumbi ku-B ngokuchasene nezabelo njengesibambiso, inyusa ixabiso lesabelo sika-B. I-Bank B ibuyise ububele kubaninizabelo kwi-Bank A. Isiphumo soko yaba kukuba amaxabiso ezabelo azo zombini ezi bhanki anyukile, kungakhange kungene imali entsha.12
Ngelixa i-banking elite isebenzise ukufikelela kwabo kwiimali zokuthenga ulawulo lwamashishini amaninzi e-Icelandic, nabo babandakanyeka kutyalo-mali olunzima ngaphandle kwe-Iceland. Olona sukelo luphambili yayiziivenkile zefashoni, iindawo zokudlala, amaqela ebhola ekhatywayo eBritani, neevenkile ezinkulu eUnited States nakuyo yonke iScandinavia.13
Lo msebenzi ukhulise amaxabiso e-stock yase-Icelandic, ukudala i-bubble ye-stock market. Umndilili wamaxabiso ezabelo unyuke ngomyinge wonyaka womyinge wama-43.7 ekhulwini phakathi kuka-2003 no-2007. Ityala elilula lidityaniswa nokunyuka kwamaxabiso esitokhwe nako kuvelise iqamza lemarike yezindlu; amaxabiso ezindlu anyuke umyinge we-16.6 ekhulwini ngonyaka kwangelo xesha linye. Olu phuhliso luvelise ukunyuka okuthe kratya kobutyebi beshishini kunye nekhaya, ukuboleka, kunye nenkcitho, kwaye ngaloo ndlela ukukhula koqoqosho. Bakwavelise ukungalingani okukhulu kwezorhwebo; intsilelo ye-akhawunti yangoku ikhule ukusuka kwi-5 yepesenti ye-GDP ngowama-2003 ukuya kuma-20 epesenti ngowama-2006.14
Le nkqubo yokukhula eqhutywa yimali yakhuthazwa ngakumbi ngumgaqo-nkqubo we-CBI. Ixhala malunga nokunyuka kwamaxabiso, i-CBI yanyusa izinga lenzala. Nangona kunjalo, njengoko ulwahlulo lwenzala phakathi kwe-Iceland kunye namanye amazwe lukhula, abahwebi bezemali-i-Icelandic kunye nabangaphandle-bathatha ithuba lokuba banokwenza imali ebolekayo ngaphandle kwe-Iceland kunye nokuboleka e-Iceland.
Iibhanki zaseIceland ziye zaqinisa ukubolekisa ngemali kwasekhaya. "Abarhwebi batyhutyha ilizwe lonke, becenga amakhaya ukuba afake amatyala amaninzi kwaye aguqule amatyala amatsha okanye asele ekhona e-Icelandic krona abe yinzala ephantsi kakhulu yaseSwitzerland okanye yen yaseJapan."15 Iibhanki zamazwe angaphandle zithenge iibhondi zase-Icelandic, kwaye emva koko zipakishwe kwaye zithengise njenge "Glacier" bond; banikela ngenzala ephindwe kahlanu kunaleyo yaseYurophu.
Ukungena kwemali okuye kwakhokelela ekubeni ikrona inyuke xa ithelekiswa ne-euro kunye nezinye iimali zaseYurophu, ityebisa abantu base-Iceland kwaye ibakhuthaze ukuba bazityebisele ngaphandle. Noko ke, njengoko uWade noSigurgeirsdottir bebonisa, โurhwebo lweempahla luyingozi yaye aluzinzanga, yaye abarhwebi bemali bayabaleka xa bebona ingxaki. Kwenzeka loo nto xa iibhankiโzinamatyala amaninzi, zingekho mthethweni yaye zingakwazi ukuhlangabezana neembopheleleko zazo xa amatyala aphelayoโekugqibeleni zawa.โ16
Njengoko kuphawuliwe ngasentla, izilumkiso zikhutshwe kwi-2006 malunga nokuzinza kwenkqubo yebhanki yase-Icelandic. Phakathi kwezinto ezixhalabisayo: umgangatho wee-asethi zebhanki kunye nenyaniso yokuba oovimba bakarhulumente bebenganelanga ukubuyisela iibhanki zelizwe ukuba iingxaki ziphuhlisiwe. Iinkxalabo zaziyinyani. Ngaphandle kokuqhubeka nokungena kwemali yokuhlawula ukusilela kweakhawunti esele ikhule ukuya kuma-20 ekhulwini kwi-GDP, i-krona iya kuwa kakhulu. Loo nto ke ibiya kubangela ingxaki yokuhlawula amatyala kwabo bebeboleke ngemali yangaphandle, nto leyo esongela ukuhlawula amatyala ebhanki. Amaxabiso okuthenga kumazwe angaphandle nawo anganyuka, oko kujongela phantsi inkcitho yangaphakathi kunye nemveliso. Umdibaniso unokulindela ukucwina uqoqosho lwase-Iceland.
Imali iye yawa ngokufutshane ngo-2006, njengoko kwenza i-stock market. Nangona kunjalo, "i-mini-crisis" yoyiswa ngokukhawuleza. Urhulumente wase-Icelandic kunye neChamber of Commerce waqalisa umkhankaso omkhulu wobudlelwane boluntu ukukhanyela ukuba inkqubo yebhanki yase-Iceland yayingenangqiqo. Bobabini iColumbia Business School economist uFrederic Mishkin kunye nonjingalwazi weSikolo soShishino saseLondon uRichard Portes bakhuphe iziqinisekiso ezahlukeneyo. Okubaluleke ngakumbi, iibhanki ziphindaphindeka kabini kwisicwangciso sabo samatyala.
Iibhanki bezibazi kakuhle ubuthathaka bazo kunye nemfuno yenkxaso-mali entsha. Ngaloo ndlela, i-Landsbanki kunye noKaupthing basebenzise ubulungu be-Iceland kwi-EEA ukuseka imisebenzi yokuthengisa kumazwe amaninzi aseYurophu, okwenza ukuba bafikelele ngokuthe ngqo kwiidiphozithi zangaphandle. I-Landsbanki yasungula inkonzo yebhanki esekelwe kwi-Intanethi ebizwa ngokuba yi-Icesave e-United Kingdom ngo-Oktobha 2006 naseNetherlands ngoMeyi 2008. Abantu abangaphezu kwe-300,000 kunye namaziko amaninzi-kuquka iYunivesithi yaseOxford kunye neCambridge, iPolisa yaseMetropolitan, kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni be-116-bafake imali Gcina iiakhawunti. ENetherlands, abantu abangaphezu kwe-125,000 bavula iiakhawunti.17 I-Kaupthing ilandelwa ngokuseka i-Kaupthing Edge kwi-2007 eJamani kunye namanye amazwe amaninzi aseYurophu.
Nangona isicwangciso sasifana, iibhanki ezimbini zilandele ngokuhlukileyo. I-Landsbanki ibisebenza nangona amasebe aphesheya kweelwandle ngelixa i-Kaupthing ibisebenza ngee-subsidiaries. Umahluko ubalulekile: amasebe awela phantsi kweliso kunye ne-inshurensi yelizwe lasekhaya lebhanki, ngelixa ii-subsidiaries ziwela phantsi kweliso kunye ne-inshurensi yelizwe elibamba ibhanki. Ngo-2008, abatyali-zimali baseYurophu babemalunga ne-10.5 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kwiiakhawunti ze-Icesave.18 Loo mali yayingaphezu kwesiqingatha se-GDP ye-Iceland; kwakungekho ndlela yokuba igunya lemali lase-Iceland likwazi ukugubungela ukungaphumeleli kwemisebenzi ye-Icesave.
Ulawulo olukhulayo lwezemali aluzange luphelele e-Iceland, kwaye lwalungekho uhlobo oluphikisanayo lwenkqubo. Ngokukodwa, ukuwohloka koqoqosho lwamaqamza eU.S. kubangele uthotho lwezothuso zemali kunye nemilinganiselo yehlabathi. I-Lehman Brothers, ibhanki yesine enkulu yotyalo-mali e-United States ngexesha lokufa kwayo, ibhengeze i-bankruptcy ngoSeptemba 2008. Ukuwa kwayo kwakhokelela ekukhenkceni kweemarike zekhredithi zamazwe ngamazwe kunye nokuchithwa kweebhanki kunye noqoqosho lwase-Iceland.
I-Glitnir, eyona nto ibuthathaka kwiibhanki ezinkulu ezintathu zase-Iceland, yaziva imiphumo kuqala kwaye yaya kwi-CBI ukuze ifumane uncedo. U-Oddsson, ngoku ophethe i-CBI, wayala ibhanki ephakathi ukuba ithenge ipesenti ze-75 zezabelo ze-Glitnir. Nokuba yayiyintoni na injongo, isenzo sijonge phantsi ukuzithemba kwamazwe ngamazwe kuyo yonke inkqubo yebhanki yelizwe. Iintambo zetyala ziye zacinywa kwaye kwaqaliswa ukubaleka kumasebe e-Icesave aphesheya.
Iibhanki ezinkulu ezintathu zase-Iceland zahluleka kwiiveki ezimbini zokuqala zika-Oktobha 2008 kwaye zathathwa ngurhulumente wase-Icelandic. Ukubeka ngeliso elibukhali ukutshona kwawo, ukuba kuhlanganiswe ndawonye, โโukuvalwa kwawo โkuya kuba kwindawo yesithathu kwimbali yokutshona eUnited States, ngoLehman (iibhiliyoni ezingama-691 zeerandi) ize ibe isibini iWashington Mutual (iibhiliyoni ezingama-328). Njengemibutho eyahlukileyo, iKaupthing (iibhiliyoni ezingama-83 zeerandi) izakuba kwindawo yesihlanu, iLandsbanki (iibhiliyoni ezingama-50 zeerandi) ikwindawo yesithoba ize iGlitnir (iibhiliyoni ezingama-49 zeerandi) ibe kwindawo yeshumi.โ19
Ukungagqibekanga kweebhanki kukhokelele kuluhlu olukhawulezayo nolunxibelelanayo lweengxaki: ingxaki yemali, ingxaki yemarike yemasheya, ingxaki yokuhlawula amashishini ase-Icelandic kunye nemizi, kunye nengxaki yezindlu. I-krona yawa ngaphezu kweepesenti ze-80 malunga ne-euro kwi-2008 kwaye i-stock market yalahlekelwa yi-75 ekhulwini yexabiso layo.20 Umvuzo wokwenene wehle nge-4.2 ekhulwini ngo-2008 kwaye omnye umyinge wesi-8 ngowama-2009.21 Izinga lentswela-ngqesho lenyuka ukusuka kwisi-1 ekhulwini ngowama-2007 laya kutsho kwisi-8 ekhulwini ngowama-2009 kwaye abo banemisebenzi baphulukene neeyure ukongezelela kwimivuzo.22 Akumangalisi ukuba kunikwe ukukhawuleza kunye neziseko eziguquguqukayo zokukhula kwelizwe, i-Iceland yafumana ukuhla kwezoqoqosho oluphuhlileyo kwihlabathi eliphuhlileyo, kunye ne-GDP yayo yehla nge-9.3 yeepesenti edibeneyo ukusuka kwi-2008 ukuya kwi-2010.23
Amakhaya aye abethwa kakhulu yimali kunye nokunyuka kwamaxabiso. Ityala lekhaya ekuqaleni kuka-2008 lalilingana ne-100 lepesenti ye-GDP kunye ne-225 yepesenti eyothusayo yomvuzo olahlwayo. Malunga ne-13 yepesenti yetyala ibiyimali-mboleko ephawulwe ngemali yangaphandle ephindeke kabini ngokwemali yasekhaya ukusuka ku-2008 ukuya ku-2009.24 Malunga nama-80 ekhulwini amatyala ezindlu afakwe kwisalathiso sokunyuka kwamaxabiso, yaye amaxabiso enyuka ngama-27 ekhulwini kwangelo xesha linye. Abantu abaninzi, ngenxa yokungakwazi ukuhlawula amatyala abo, baphulukana neemoto namakhaya abo. Amashishini angengawo awemali nawo abethelwa ngehamile. Ityala labo ekupheleni kuka-2007 lalingaphezu kwama-300 epesenti yeGDP; malunga nama-70 epesenti yazo zonke iimali-mboleko zebhanki kula mashishini yayiyimali-mboleko ephawulwe ngemali yangaphandle.25
Ngenkqubo yayo yebhanki eqandisiweyo kunye nemali yayo ngokukhululeka, urhulumente wase-Icelandic waphendukela kwi-International Monetary Fund (IMF) ngoncedo ngo-Oktobha. Nangona kunjalo, i-IMF yenze uncedo lwayo olunemiqathango yokuba i-Iceland ivume ukubuyisela urhulumente wase-United Kingdom kunye ne-Netherlands ngemali abayisebenzisileyo ukubuyisela abo bagciniweyo be-Icesave. Ekubeni i-Icesave yayilisebe le-Landsbanki, urhulumente wase-Icelandic wayenoxanduva, phantsi kwemimiselo yobulungu bakhe kwi-EEA, ukubonelela nge-inshurensi eqinisekisiweyo ye-deposit-deposit ye-20,887 euro kwi-akhawunti nganye. Kodwa, i-United Kingdom ne-Netherlands yayifuna okungakumbi e-Iceland. Oorhulumente babini, ngaphandle kokulinda ukuba i-Iceland isebenze, baye babuyisela abagcini babo imali epheleleyo abayilahlekileyo-kwaye ngoku bafuna ukuba i-Iceland ibabuyisele, kunye nenzala.
Ngelixa i-United Kingdom kunye ne-Netherlands zicinezele i-Iceland ukuba ivumelane nemimiselo yabo, uninzi lwabantu base-Iceland besichasa ngamandla nasiphi na isivumelwano esinjalo, besazi kakuhle ukuba kuya kufuna ukunyuswa kwerhafu kunye nokucuthwa kwenkcitho karhulumente, kwaye konke ukuhlawulela ukungaphumeleli kwebhanki yabucala phesheya kolwandle. ukusebenza. Efuna ukutshintshiselana ngemali yangaphandle, urhulumente waseIceland ekugqibeleni โwavuma ukubuyisela ubuncinci abanye babagcini bemali ngaxa lithile kwixesha elizayo.โ26 Oku kuzibophelela kwanelisa oorhulumente ababini kunye ne-Iceland ifumene i-2.1 yeebhiliyoni mboleko kwi-IMF kunye ne-3 yeebhiliyoni zeerandi ezongezelelweyo ezivela kumazwe aseNordic naseRashiya.
Ukuchasa, ungenelelo lukaRhulumente, kunye nokuBuyisa
Uqhanqalazo oluchasene norhulumente wase-Icelandic lwaqala ngasekupheleni kuka-Okthobha kwangoko emva kokuqalisa kwengxaki, yaqiniswa ziindibano ezinkulu zangoMgqibelo kwindawo enkulu yaseReykjavik kunye neentlanganiso zangokuhlwa ngoMvulo kwindawo yeqonga yaseReykjavik. Awona mabango axhaphakileyo yayikukurhoxa kwenkulumbuso kuze kunyulwe urhulumente omtsha. NgoJanuwari 2009, amawaka amabini abaqhankqalazi ababebetha iimbiza neepani ngaphandle kwesakhiwo sepalamente bahlaselwa ngamapolisa odushe. Oku kuchukumise into ebhalwe ngumshicileli wase-Icelandic "iimbiza neepani revolution" njengoko imiboniso yayikhula ngobukhulu kunye nemfazwe.
Ayikwazanga ukuthomalalisa umsindo wabantu, umbutho olawulayo we-Independence Party waqala wabhengeza unyulo olutsha luka-Epreli ka-2009. Kwathi, xa imbumba yamahlakani iSocial Democratic Alliance yarhoxisa inkxaso yayo, inkulumbuso kunye nekhabhinethi barhoxa. Urhulumente wexeshana okhokelwa yi-Social Democratic Alliance kunye ne-Left-Green Movement yazalisa i-vacuum kwaye intsebenziswano efanayo yavela iphumelele ngokuvota kuka-Aprili. Ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, i-Iceland isekuphela korhulumente oye warhoxa ngenxa yengxaki yemali yehlabathi. Ikwalilo kuphela ilizwe eliye latshintsha ngokuthe ngqo ngasekhohlo emva kwenyanga kaSeptemba ka-2008.โ27
Urhulumente oqhubela phambili wase-Iceland wathatha uthotho lwemigaqo-nkqubo kule minyaka ilandelayo eyahluke kakhulu kwezo zabanye oorhulumente baseYurophu. Okona kubaluleke kakhulu, kunokuba izame ukuvuselela izakhiwo ezikhoyo kunye neepateni zemisebenzi yezoqoqosho ngokusebenzisa imilinganiselo yokunciphisa, ingenelele ngokubonakalayo kwimali, imali, kunye nemarike yezindlu, kunye nokomeleza iinkqubo zentlalo ekujoliswe kuzo ezikhusela umdla wabantu abaninzi. Iziphumo, njengabahleli be Umbono weBloomberg zichaze, ziye zachukumisa:
Ambalwa amazwe avuthuze ngendlela emangalisayo kune-Iceland kwintlekele yezemali ka-2008โฆ. Ukusukela ngoko, i-Iceland iguqukele kumdlalo oncomekayo. Ibuyise iimali-mboleko zokuhlangula kwiNgxowa-mali yeHlabathi yeHlabathi ngaphambi kwexesha elimiselweyo. Ukukhula kulo nyaka [2012] kuya kuba malunga ne-2.5 yepesenti, ngcono kunoqoqosho oluninzi oluphuhlileyo. Ukungaphangeli kwehle ngesiqingatha. NgoFebruwari, iFitch Ratings ibuyisele imeko yelizwe yotyalo-mali, ngokuvumayo ichaza "impendulo yomgaqo-nkqubo wengxaki engaqhelekanga."28
Nangona ikude ne-radical, impendulo karhulumente wase-Icelandic kwingxaki yelizwe ngokwenene yayingaqhelekanga. Ikwabe nempumelelo ngakumbi ekukhuthazeni ukuvuseleleka koqoqosho kunye nokukhusela intlalo-ntle yabantu abaninzi kuneempendulo eziqhelekileyo zabanye oorhulumente baseYurophu.
Umgaqo-nkqubo wezezimali
Omnye umhlalutyi wase-Iceland uchaze umahluko ongundoqo phakathi komgaqo-nkqubo wemali karhulumente wase-Iceland kunye nowamanye amazwe aseYurophu ngolu hlobo lulandelayo:
Ngokungafaniyo namanye amazwe abi "iKreppa" -afana ne-Ireland, iGrisi kunye neSpain ngoku ... i-Iceland ayizange igcine iibhanki zayo ezingaphumelelanga.29 I-credo ye-European Central Bank kunye neKhomishoni yaseYurophu ibe kukuba akukho bhanki kufuneka ingaphumeleli kummandla we-Euro kwaye akukho bani bamabhondi kufuneka balahlekelwe yilahleko, ukuze bangajongeli phantsi ukholo kwi-euroโฆ. Elinye inyathelo elidityanisiweyo elenza i-Iceland yahluke kwamanye amazwe aseYurophu ekudodobaleni koqoqosho kukuxhaphaka kunye nokubhala phantsi kweemali-mboleko, kwiinkampani nakubantu ngabanye.30
I-Glitnir kunye ne-Landsbanki zagqitywa ngo-Oktobha 7, 2008. I-Kaupthing yathathwa ngosuku olulandelayo. Nganye kwezi bhanki zintathu zahlulwa zibe zimbini, ibhanki entsha nendala. Ezi bhanki zintsha zorhulumente zanikwa zonke iimali mboleko, ezinye iimali-mboleko zebhanki, kunye neediphozithi zeebhanki ezindala, kunye nezibophelelo zamazwe ngamazwe ezishiyekileyo kwiibhanki ezindala. Ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza kakuhle kweebhanki ezintsha, iimali-mboleko ezigcinwe ziibhanki ezindala bezisoloko zigqithiselwa kwiibhanki ezintsha ngesaphulelo esithe kratya.
Ukusabela kumyalelo we-IMF, urhulumente uye wathengisa iibhanki ezimbini kwezo zisanda kwenziwa; ikwinkqubo yokwandisa isabelo sobunini babucala sesithathu, iLandsbankki entsha. Amatyala kwiibhanki ezindala ekugqibeleni aphinde atyala imali kwiibhanki ezintsha. Zontathu ezi bhanki zintsha โzaye zaphinda zaxhaswa ngemali eyinkunziโngaphezu kwe-16 ekhulwini layo yonke impahla yexabisoโyaye zixhaswa ngemali ngama-90 ekhulwini. Uninzi lweebhanki ezincinci zogcino ziye zahlengahlengiswa. Ebudeni benkqubo yonke, zonke iidiphozithi e-Iceland (zombini zabahlali nabangengabo abahlali) zaqinisekiswa ngokupheleleyo. โ31
Urhulumente ukwathathe amanyathelo ngokuthe ngqo okunciphisa umthwalo wamatyala kumakhaya nakumashishini angeyiyo eyemali. NgoJuni 2010, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yagweba ukuba imali-mboleko yemoto ebolekwa ngemali yangaphandle ayisebenzi. NgoDisemba ka-2010, iPalamente yenza isigwebo esifanayo kwimali mboleko yezindlu. NgoJuni 2011, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yayiquka imali-mboleko kwiinkampani. Zonke ezi mboleko โzaye zaguqulelwa kwimali-mboleko yemali yasekhaya, apho imigaqo eseleyo yeemali-mboleko yancitshiswa kakhulu, kunye nenzala yaphinda yabalwa kwakhona (ngokuphinda-phinda kwakhona) kusetyenziswa eyona nzala iphantsi engafakwanga epapashwe yiBhanki Enkulu yaseIceland. โ32
Olu phuhliso alunanto yakwenza ne-Icesave kunye neemfuno zoorhulumente baseUnited Kingdom naseNetherland ukuze bahlawule. Ekugqibeleni, ngo-Oktobha 2009, phantsi koxinzelelo oluvela kwiYurophu yaseYurophu, urhulumente wase-Icelandic wanika ipalamente yase-Iceland kunye nemigaqo yesivumelwano esixoxisanayo apho wayezimisele ukuhlawula oorhulumente ababini i-5.5 yeebhiliyoni zee-euro (malunga ne-50 ekhulwini ye-GDP yase-Iceland) ngaphezu kwesibhozo. ixesha lonyaka, ukusuka kwi-2016 ukuya kwi-2023. Ipalamente yavuma ngokungafuni isivumelwano ngoDisemba, kodwa uMongameli wase-Iceland wachaza ukuba akayi kusayina ngaphandle kwe-referendum yelizwe. NgoMatshi ka-2010, abavoti basikhabile isivumelwano kunye neepesenti ezingama-93 zeevoti ezichaseneyo. Kwathethwathethwana ngesivumelwano esitsha, eso esandisa ixesha lokuhlawula saze sehlisa izinga lenzala. Uvavanyo olutsha lwabanjwa ngoAprili 2011; ngeli xesha ama-66 ekhulwini abavoti bathi hayi.
Emva kolu voti lwesibini, i-European Free Trade Association Surveillance Authority yamangalela i-Iceland kwinkundla ye-European Free Trade Association. Ityala lagqitywa ngoJanuwari 2013. Inkundla, emangalisa abaninzi, yabhengeza ukuba i-Iceland yayingekho phantsi koxanduva lokuhlawulela oorhulumente babini ekubeni imimiselo ye-inshurensi ye-inshurensi ye-cross-border ayizange isebenze phambi "kokusilela kwebhanki yenkqubo. ubukhulu obufunyenwe eIceland. โ Kungakhathaliseki ukuba, i-Iceland isele ihlawule ngaphezu kweepesenti ze-90 zeziqinisekiso zediphozithi ezincinci ezifunwa ngubulungu be-EEA kwimali ephakanyisiweyo yokuthengisa i-Landsbanki asethi.33
Umgaqo-nkqubo weMali
Imali yase-Iceland yahlala yomelele ngexesha lokwandiswa kwentlekele yelizwe nangona intsilelo enkulu ye-akhawunti yangoku ngenxa yokungena okukhulu kwemali yangaphandle. Ngokuwa kwenkqubo yebhanki, loo nto ingenayo yayeka kwaye i-krona yangena ekuwa kwamahhala. Ukuwohloka kuye kwandisa iingxaki zezoqoqosho zelizwe. Amakhaya amaninzi kunye namashishini ayenamatyala anesalathiso semali yamazwe angaphandle aye anda kwiindleko zasekhaya. Njengoko kuphawuliwe ngasentla, urhulumente usebenze ukunciphisa umonakalo wezoqoqosho kolu phuhliso ngokunyanzela iibhanki ukuba zihlengahlengise iimali-mboleko zazo ngemali yasekhaya.
Kwangaxeshanye, kwakukho icala elihle lokuhla kwemali. Ngokukodwa, yenza ukuba ilizwe likhawuleze liphinde libe nako ukukhuphisana namazwe ngamazwe kunye nokutsalwa kwezoqoqosho. I-Iceland irekhode intsalela ye-akhawunti yangoku ngo-2009, ethe yaphunyezwa ngokuyinxenye ngenxa yokubuyiselwa kwezinto ezithunyelwa ngaphandle. "Phakathi kwamazwe angamashumi amathathu anesine apho i-Eurostat ipapasha idatha yexabiso eliqhubekayo ekuthunyelweni kwempahla kunye neenkonzo, i-Iceland yayikuphela kwelizwe apho kwakukho ukukhula kwi-2009 xa kuthelekiswa ne-2008."34 Ukongeza, amaxabiso aphezulu avela kumazwe angaphandle nawo avuselele ukuvuselelwa kwemizi-mveliso yelizwe yokuthengisa izinto ngaphandle.
Amava e-Iceland entlekele ahlala ethelekiswa nawaseIreland naseLatvia. Omathathu la mazwe athembele kakhulu ekubolekeni kwamanye amazwe kunye namaqamza amatyala ukuze aqhube ukukhula, kwaye omathathu aye afumana ukuwohloka okukhulu kwezoqoqosho ngesizathu esifanayo. I-Ireland neLatvia ziye zehla kakhulu kwezoqoqosho kune-Iceland, kwaye ukuchacha kwabo kuye kwaba buthathaka kakhulu kwaye kohlwaya ngakumbi.35
Esinye isizathu sesi siphumo kukuba i-Ireland okanye iLatvia ayizange iguqule ixabiso lemali yabo; owangaphambili usebenzisa i-euro kwimali yayo kwaye umva uhlala uzibophelele kumlinganiselo omiselweyo wokutshintshiselana ngeyuro. Ngenxa yoko, i-Ireland neLatvia zanyanzeleka ukuba zizabalazele uzinzo lwamazwe ngamazwe ngoko kubizwa ngokuba โkukuhla kwexabiso langaphakathi.โ Bathetha ngokwahlukileyo, baxhomekeke ekucutheni imivuzo yasekhaya kunye namaxabiso ukonyusa ukhuphiswano lwabo ngokwezoqoqosho.
Umgaqo-nkqubo wemali wase-Iceland uquka ukusetyenziswa kolawulo olungqongqo lwemali eyenza ukuba uninzi lweentshukumo zenkunzi yelizwe zibe ngekho mthethweni.36 Olu lawulo luthintele i-8 yeebhiliyoni eziqikelelwayo, malunga ne-50 yepesenti ye-GDP ye-Iceland, ukusuka ekuphumeni kwelizwe. Ukuba urhulumente ebengathabathi manyathelo, ukuphuma kwesiphumo ngaphandle kwamathandabuzo bekuya kukhokelela ekuhleni ngokupheleleyo kwemali. Ngombulelo kulawulo, i-krona, nangona ithengiswa ngokukhawuleza, ngokukhawuleza yomeleza kwaye yazinza.
Umgaqo-nkqubo weZindlu
Urhulumente uthathe amanyathelo aqatha ukunciphisa isoyikiso kwiimali zamakhaya ezibangelwe kukudilika kweqamza lezindlu kunye nokubuyisela uzinzo kwimarike yezindlu. Njengoko i-IMF icacisa, urhulumente wakhawuleza waphumeza inani lamanyathelo "ukuqinisekisa ukuba iintsapho aziphulukani namakhaya ngenxa yeengxaki zexeshana kunye nokuthintela ulwamvila olukhokelela ekuwohlokeni kwemarike yezindlu." Loo manyathelo aquka:
ukumiswa kokuvalwa, ukunqunyanyiswa okwethutyana kwenkonzo yetyala lotshintshiselwano lwexabiso-kunye ne-CPI-i-indexed loans, kunye nokuhlenga-hlengiswa (intlawulo egudileyo) kwezi mboleko. Malunga nesiqingatha samakhaya aneemali-mboleko ezifanelekileyo athathe ithuba lokulungisa intlawulo, nto leyo eyanciphisa iintlawulo zenkonzo yamatyala angoku nge-15 ukuya kuma-20 ekhulwini kunye nama-30 ukuya kuma-40 eepesenti kwi-CPI-indexed kunye ne-exchange-indexed-loans, ngokulandelanayo.37
Urhulumente emva koko wazisa amalinge amatsha aliqela enzelwe ukunika uncedo lwexesha elide. Oku kuthotyiwe amatyala ezindlu kunye neentlawulo zenzala yendlu kunye nokubonelela ngenkxaso kwezinye izindlu kunye nabarentayo. Ngokomzekelo, urhulumente waqala wasebenzisa iqhinga lokukhuthaza abaninimzi ukuba bathethe ngokungqalileyo nababolekisa ngemali, ngokufuthi encedwa ngunozikhalazo. Ngenxa yenkqubela-phambili ecothayo, urhulumente wazisa isicwangciso sokuxolela amatyala esabhala phantsi imali yokubambisa engaphantsi kwamanzi ukuya kwi-110 yeepesenti yempahla yekhaya. Ukuqinisekisa ukuba abantu abasebenzayo ngabona baxhamli baphambili kwesi sicwangciso, isixa soncedo sasibotshelelwe kwixabiso lendlu eqhelekileyo kunye nobukhulu bentsapho. Iimviwo ezithe vetshe zezemali bezikhona kumakhaya akwingxaki enkulu yezemali, kunye nokuba nokwenzeka kokubhalwa phantsi.38
Njengoko kuphawuliwe ngasentla, urhulumente ugwebe iimali-mboleko zezindlu ezifakwe kwiimali zamazwe angaphandle ngokungekho mthethweni, nto leyo ethetha ukuba amakhaya awasayiboni intlawulo yokunyuka ngenxa yokuhla kwexabiso lemali. Ikwabonelele ngezaphulelo zerhafu ezivavanyiweyo, kwinzala yemali-mboleko kunye nenkxaso-mali ekhethekileyo ukunceda abaninimzi abakwiimeko ezinzima ukuhlangabezana nezibophelelo zabo zenzala; ezi zaxhaswa ngemali ngerhafu ekhethekileyo kumaziko emali kunye neengxowa-mali zomhlalaphantsi.39
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