Esikhundleni sokuthembela kumapolisa omda, i-EU kufuneka ihlole imiphumo yemigaqo-nkqubo yayo kumazwe ahluphekileyo, amazwe athumela abafuduki. Ngaphandle kokuba imigaqo-nkqubo eqhubela phambili iimeko zentlupheko kunye nokungabikho kobulungisa zitshintshile, izizathu zokufuduka ziya kuhlala zihleli, utsho uSusan George.
I. Ukhuselo kunye nomfanekiso we-hypothesis
Uhlalutyo olufutshane kunye nesiphakamiso sophando esilandelayo siya kuphelela kwi-EU kodwa uqwalaselo olwenziweyo lungasebenza nakuMntla Melika okanye e-Australia. Ngaphakathi kweYurophu, iimpendulo ekunyukeni koxinzelelo lokufuduka ziye zahluka ukusuka kwilizwe ukuya kwelinye ilizwe kodwa ekuqaleni ubuncinci, bonke baphatha ukufuduka njengengxaki yokhuseleko, ukujongana nayo ngokuyintloko ngamapolisa, umlindi wonxweme, intolongo okanye inkqubo yokugcina iziko kunye, kwiimeko ezigqithisileyo, umkhosi okanye umkhosi waselwandle. Uhlahlo lwabiwo-mali lwe-FRONTEX luphindwe kathathu kule minyaka imbalwa idlulileyo.
Uphawu oluqhelekileyo lweendlela zabo ezahlukeneyo zokhuseleko, nangona kunjalo, ukuba khange basebenze, ubuncinci ukuba inkcazo yamanyathelo athi "umsebenzi" yileyo inciphisa okanye inqande isenzeko sokufuduka, okanye ukuyikhawulela kubantu abafundileyo abafumanayo. ilizwe liyavuya ukwamkela. Iindlela zangoku azikhange ziphele, ingaka zithintele ukuhamba kwabantu abangena eYurophu kwiimeko ezininzi ezifihlakeleyo okanye ezingaphantsi. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, bafika bebaninzi nangakumbi, ngokufuthi befika phantsi kweemeko ezimanyumnyezi. Bayanda abantu ababhubhileyo xa behamba benikwa ingxelo kodwa basazama. Uninzi lwabafuduki abaninzi "abafihliweyo" ngabantu abafika kwi-visa yabakhenkethi kwaye abazange bahambe.
Makhe sibuze umbuzo ocacileyo ocacileyo: Ngaba ukufuduka ngaphandle ukusuka โkuMzantsiโ ukuya โeMantlaโ ngokomlinganiselo ololo hlobo yinto โeqhelekileyoโ? Ulutsha lufuna ukuhambahamba, kodwa bambalwa, abanikwe ukhetho, abanokukhetha ukushiya amazwe abo, iindawo abaziqhelileyo, ukutya, ubuntwana, iintsapho, abahlobo, iinkumbulo, iilwimiโฆ.ngaphandle kweenjongo ezinzulu. Abanakuze babeke ubomi babo esichengeni kwaye bangcakaze ngekamva labo ukuze bawele imida okanye bafikelele kunxweme lwaseYurophu, kodwa baya kujongana-ukuba bayaphumelela-nobomi bomntu ongabhalwanga "sans papiers", umntu ongabhalwanga phantsi ojongene nehlazo. , imisebenzi engahlawulelwayo, iimeko zokuhlala ezimaxongo, izindlu ezixineneyo ezikumgangatho ophantsi, akukho malungelo oluntu, ukuvalelwa entolongweni nokugxothwa, ubuhlanga, ubuzweโฆ.
Ngaba ke ngoko akufanele sivume ubuncinci ingcamango yokuba imfuduko yabantu abaninzi "ayisiyonto eqhelekileyo"; ukuba abaviwa bomfuduko baya, amaxesha amaninzi kunokungabikho, bayiphephe ukuba bebenolunye ukhetho; ukuba โizinto ezityhalayoโ ezibangela ukuba abantu bashiye amazwe abo ngamanani anjalo zifuna ukuhlolisiswa ngokucokisekileyo kunokuba sele bezifumene ukuza kuthi ga ngoku? Phakathi kwezinto ezinjalo akufanele na ukuba sikwamkele ingcamango yokuba, kwimeko yaseYurophu [njengoko bekuya kuba njalo kwamanye amazwe e-OECD], imigaqo-nkqubo yayo inokuba nento yokwenza nokufudukela ngaphandle?
Nokuba uphando olukhawulezayo loncwadi lokufuduka lubonisa ukungabikho okumangalisayo kwayo nayiphi na ingcamango enjalo. Ngaphakathi kwemithintelo yam yexesha kunye nakwimidla yokusebenza kakuhle, andizange ndizame ukukhangela okupheleleyo; Ndenze, nangona kunjalo ndijonge umsebenzi owenziwe yi-United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research [UNU-WIDER] eququzelele iinkomfa ezahlukeneyo kwaye yavelisa amaphepha eengxoxo amaninzi kunye neempapasho malunga nomba wokufuduka.(1) Eminye imithombo evavanyiweyo iquka upapasho lweZiko lokuFudukela, uMgaqo-nkqubo noMbutho [COMPAS] kwiYunivesithi yaseOxford.(2) kunye neminyaka engamashumi amabini anexabiso lamanqaku apapashwe yi REMIโRevue Europรฉenne des Migrations Internationales. (3)
Eminye imiba yempembelelo yemigaqo-nkqubo ye-European Union ekufudukeni [โukufuduka ngenkaniโ] iye yaphononongwa ngabaphengululi abafana noStephen Castles we-International Migration Institute eOxford. Sekunjalo, andizange ndifumane mibuzo ecwangcisiweyo malunga neendlela imigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu enokuthi idale okanye iqinise ngayo uxinzelelo lokufudukela kuMntla Afrika kunye noluntu lwase-Sub-Sahara. Oku kubonakala kuyinyani kwimpembelelo yemigaqo-nkqubo yase-United States kubamelwane bayo basemazantsi, xa kujongwa iminyaka engamashumi amabini anexabiso lemveliso liZiko leZifundo zokuFudukela eWashington elizichaza โnjengetanki yokucinga enikelwe kuphela kuphando nakumgaqo-nkqubo kunye .... eUnited States [yokufuduka]โ [kodwa ngokucacileyo kungekhona ngenye indlelaโimpembelelo ye-US ekufudukeni].(4)
Kwelinye icala sijamelene phantse yonke imihla nobungqina babantu abakhula ngokuphelelwa lithemba abakulungeleyo ukuhamba imigama eyoyikisayo, eyingozi, imigama emideโuhambo olusoloko lufuna ukulondolozwa ubomi beentsapho zonke yaye maxa wambi luphela ngokufa. Kwelinye icala, phantse lonke uncwadi lugxininisa ukuba ukufudukela eYurophu kubangelwa โbubuhlwempuโ okanye โukuwohloka kwemeko yentlalo-ntleโ ekhaya; okanye โumsantsa okhulayoโ phakathi koMntla noMzantsi. Ezi zisebenza njengezinto eziluncedo, zibambe zonke iingcaciso.
Uhlalutyo oluntsonkothileyo lukwabonisa ukungabikho konqabiseko kumazwe athwaxwa yimfazwe yamakhaya; uphuculo lwenkqubo yonxibelelwano nengcaciso enika umfanekiso ongekho ngqiqweni wobomi bamazwe atyebileyo; uthungelwano lomanyano lwentlalo olusekwe ngabaphambukeli kunye nabafuduki bangaphambili; ukuvela okutsha nje kweshishini lonke lezorhwebo, elidla ngolwaphulo-mthetho, amashishini arhweba ngabantu azinikele ekufuneni nasekuthubelezeni abafuduki ukuwela imida yamazwe ngamazwe njalo njalo. Uhlalutyo olubiza โintluphekoโ, โukuwohlokaโ kunye โnezikhewuโ alubonakali ngathi luyingxaki yalo ukubuza ukuba kutheni na ezi zinto kufanele zibekho ngomkhamo omkhulu kangakaโizibetho ezinjalo ngandlelโ ithile zikho nje.
Kunokufikelelwa kwizigqibo ezibini ngokusuka kula magqabaza. Nokuba [1] imigaqo-nkqubo yoqoqosho/urhwebo/yoncedo yaseYurophu iluncedo jikelele kumazwe asezantsi โathumelayoโ kwaye ke ngoko anegalelo kwanto kuxinzelelo lokufuduka okanye [2] ubume obucingelwayo bemigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu vis ร vis ukuthumela amazwe kukungathethwa, quasi- Ingqikelelo yehlabathi jikelele yoorhulumente, amaziko ophando, izifundiswa kunye neKomishoni ngokwayo. Ngaloo ndlela umbuzo weempembelelo ezingalunganga ezinokubakho awuphakami kwaukuvela. Ukuba, nangona kunjalo, imigaqo-nkqubo ye-EU iluncedo jikelele, njengenye indlela yokuqukumbela [1], kufanele ukuba sikwazi ukufumana ubungqina bokuxhasa elo bango-ubungqina obuya kuba โbubuxokiโ ngokwengqiqo kaKarl Popper. Ukuba, kwelinye icala, le yingcinga engekathethwa kodwa engaphononongwanga njengenye indlela yokuqukumbela [2], amakhonkco phakathi kwemigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu kunye noxinzelelo lokufuduka ngaphandle kunokuboniswa ukuba ikhona kodwa ayizange ikhangelwe nzulu, ngaphandle kwezinye iindawo. . Kuyo nayiphi na imeko, kodwa ngakumbi kweyesibini, kubonakala ngathi sijongana nomsantsa wophando wemilinganiselo ekhwankqisayo efuna umzamo wophando olucwangcisiweyo, olunentsebenziswano kuMntla-Mzantsi.
Ngokucacileyo umntu akafuni ukuwela kumgibe we "mono-causal explanation" kuyo nayiphi na into, kodwa kwimeko yokuxakeka komgaqo-nkqubo onjalo koorhulumente baseYurophu kunye nabemi baseYurophu njengokufuduka, ngokuqinisekileyo kuyafaneleka ukuvavanya ngokunzulu impembelelo Imigaqo-nkqubo ye-EU malunga neentshukumo zabemi. Ngokuqinisekileyo amava ukuza kuthi ga ngoku abonisa ukuba indlela yokhuseleko-yamapolisa yeyona ilungileyo; okona kubi kakhulu ukusilela nokuba oonobangela abaziwayo abakhange bachongwe, singasathethi ke ngokuba kuthathelwa ingqalelo kuze kujongwane nabo.
Abenzi bezigqibo baseYurophu bazo zonke iimpembelelo zezopolitiko bayaqaphela ukuba ukuhamba ngokufudukayo ukusuka eMzantsi ukuya kuMantla kuyingxaki. Aba bathathi-zigqibo kufuneka bamkele ulwazi oluchanekileyo ngakumbi kunye novavanyo lwempembelelo yemigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu kungekuphela nje koorhulumente baseMazantsi, kodwa nakubomi boluntu kunye noninzi lwabantu bamaZantsi abenza iqula labantu apho imfuduko ivela khona. Ngolwazi olunjalo, ubuncinane babenokugqiba enoba ukugcina oku okanye lo mgaqo-nkqubo kwakufanelekile na โumphumo we-boomerangโ wokuxhokonxa iinzame zokufuduka okwandisiweyo okanye enoba iYurophu ibiya kuba bhetele na xa iwushiya.
Ngokufanelekileyo, injongo ephambili yomgaqo-nkqubo waseYurophu ngokubhekiselele kumazwe athumelayo kufuneka ibe yi-Hippocratic oath: "Okokuqala, musa ukulimaza". Inkqubo yophando enesibindi inomsebenzi wokuvavanya umonakalo onjalo, ukuba ukhona, kwaye ukuba kunjalo, ukuyila iindlela zokuyiphelisa kwaye endaweni yayo ngeendlela ezilungileyo. Akukho nto inokuphucula ubume beManyano yaseYurophu namaqabane ayo aseMazantsi ngaphezu koku. Liyinyaniso elokuba iYurophu, njengalo naliphi na elinye iqumrhu lezobupolitika, inamacandelo amaninzi ovoto anokwanelisa kwakunye nezinto ezininzi ezinomdla kwezoqoqosho nezobupolitika yaye akunakulindeleka ukuba izishiye. Ezinye zezi ndawo zovoto kunye nemidla inokuthi, nangona kunjalo, ilinganiselwe kakhulu ngokubaluleka kunye nexabiso lexeshana elifutshane kuphela. Zisenokuthi kwaye zitshintshwe yindlela ebikade yaziwa ngokuba โkukukhanyiseleka kokuzingcaโ efanelwe yimvuselelo.
Yintoni enokuba yimiba yenkqubo yophando enjalo? Apha kulandela indlela โyekhathaloguโ engenamda. Amaqela ophando akuMntla-Mzantsi ayakufuneka ukuba ajongane nawo. Ndinqwenela ukutsho kwasekuqaleni ukuba ucalucalulo lwam luya kubonakala kwezinye zeengcebiso ezibekwe phambili kumsebenzi wophando. Andikholelwa "kwinjongo" kwisayensi yezentlalo kwaye ndenze umsebenzi omningi kwiminyaka emashumi edlulileyo malunga nefuthe lemigaqo-nkqubo ethile yaseMntla kuluntu lwaseMzantsi ukubeka phambili iziphakamiso ze-EU ngesimo sengqondo "sokungathathi hlangothi".
Oku kucacile, imimandla ephambili yemigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu yokuphonononga inkxalabo yamatyala kunye nohlengahlengiso lwesakhiwo, urhwebo [ingakumbi ngokubhekiselele kukutya nempahla yezolimo] kunye nolwakhiwo lweerhafu; izibonelelo, amaxabiso eemveliso; ukuloba, ifuthe leenkampani zamazwe aseYurophu; IziVumelwano zeNtsebenziswano kwezoQoqosho [EPAs].
Kwicala loorhulumente bamazwe abathumela abafuduki, umntu kufuneka kwakhona athathele ingqalelo inkuthazo yokungasebenzisani ne-EU kunye nokukhuthaza ukufuduka ngokuphandle okanye ngokucokisekileyo. Oorhulumente basemazantsi bazi kakuhle ukuba iimali ezithunyelwa ekhaya ngabafuduki zenza inxalenye enkulu yengeniso yabo kwaye zikhulula intlupheko yabemi abaninzi kunye neelali zabo. Kumazwe aliqela, abafuduki sele bemele ezona mpahla zithengwayo zixabisekileyo. Oorhulumente nabo bayazi ukuba โukuthunyelwa kwabantu kumazwe angaphandleโ kunciphisa ezabo iingxaki eziqatha zokungaqeshwa. Kwaba rhulumente, inokuba lulutho kuphela ukuba nabafana abambalwa abangonelisekanga, abangazixabisiyo nababangela ingxaki. Aba rhulumente bonwabe kakhulu ukuba aba bantu bangaphandle, hayi ekhaya.
Ukongeza kule miba yangoku yaseMntla-Mzantsi, ngakumbi leyo idibanisa i-EU kunye noMntla/i-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Saharan, umntu kufuneka kwakhona afunde kwaye acwangcisele iimpembelelo zexesha elide zokutshintsha kwemozulu. Sele sisazi ukuba iindawo ezithandwa yimbalela zimiselwe ukuba zome nangakumbi kwaye abantu abacinezelekileyo ngamanzi baya kwanda. Kwangokunjalo, iindawo esele zifumile kusenokwenzeka ukuba zibe neemvula ezininzi nezikhukula. Ukunyuka kwamanzi aselunxwemeni kuya kudala inani elingenakulinganiswa leembacu zemozulu ezifuna uncedo kuyo nayiphi na indleko kunye neemeko zemozulu ezimbi zimiselwe ukuba zinyuke, nazo zonke iintshukumo zabo zokugxothwa. Ezi ayizontelekelelo malunga neziganeko ezikude kodwa zingqinwe kakuhle kwizigqibo zenzululwazi.
II. Imigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu enefuthe elinokubakho okanye elinokuphembelela abantu abafudukela kwelinye ilizwe
1. Ityala
Ngaphandle kokunciphisa okuthobekileyo, ukuphuma okusuka eMzantsi ukuya eNyakatho kuhlala kungumthwalo onzima kumazwe aseMzantsi kwaye kuphazamisa uphuhliso lwabo. Uphando kufuneka lulinganise lo mthwalo kwaye luvavanye ixabiso langoku-kubandakanywa nemali kunye nexabiso elingelonamali-lokubuyisela kumazwe e-EU kunye ne-EU ngokubanzi. Ithini inqanaba leemali "ezihlawulweyo" ngokuhlawulwa kwamatyala kwaye ngenxa yoko azifumaneki kuphuhliso? Zeziphi iimpembelelo zokwenyani zemiqulu yohlengahlengiso olubangelwa ngamatyala, ingakumbi ukuthengiswa kweenkonzo zabucala kunye nokuqhelaniswa nemveliso kumazwe angaphandle, ngakumbi ezolimo? Ityala "ingxaki" ngokwenene sisifo esingapheliyo kwaye ngokufanelekileyo i-EU kufuneka, ngoncedo lophando, iqulunqe isicwangciso esikhawulezayo, esicocekileyo, sedemokhrasi, esingenabuqhophololo, esingenabuqhophololo, "kanye-for-all" esinokuthi sibeke isiphelo sengxaki esele iqina isithuba esingaphezu kwekota yenkulungwane.
Ityala laqokelelwa ngenxa yezizathu ezininzi; imali ebolekiweyo ivela kwimithombo yoluntu kunye neyabucala kodwa kwimeko ye-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Saharan, yayiyeyoluntu ngokubanzi. Iimali-mboleko koorhulumente abacinezelayo ziye zaqikelelwa malunga neebhiliyoni ezingama-500 zeerandi ehlabathini lonke [kuquka iidola ezingama-22 eebhiliyoni kuMzantsi Afrika wocalucalulo]. Ubani kuya kufuneka ahlolisise imiba โyetyala elididayoโ [umthetho ukususela ngeminyaka yee-1920s ukohlula ityala elisemthethweni nelibi โelidikayoโ, elokugqibela liya koozwilakhe nokuba akukho nzuzo kubemi okanye bacinezele abantu ngakumbi]; kodwa isincomo esilapha siya kuba sokucinywa kwazo zonke iintlobo zamatyala. (5)
Iimali-mboleko kwiincwadi eziya kuMazwe aNgenisa uMvuzo oPhantsi [LICs], zilinganiselwa ku-2004-2005 ukuya malunga ne-523 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kwihlabathi jikelele. Ityala langaphandle le-Afrika, kuqukwa nelo laseMntla Afrika, ngo-2004 lafikelela kwi-300 yeebhiliyoni zeerandi kunye ne-227 yeebhiliyoni zeerandi kwi-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Sahara kuphela. Ezi mali zincinane kakhulu ngokwemigangatho yezizwe ngezizwe kodwa azikholeki eAfrika: ngowama-2004, i-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Saharan yayihlawula i-$28.000 ngomzuzu [iibhiliyoni ezili-15 zeerandi ngonyaka] kwinkonzo yamatyala, ngokutsho kwamanani eBhanki yeHlabathi ye-OECD. Zonke ii-LICs ezithatyathiweyo kunye zazihlawula i-100 lezigidi zeedola ngosuku/ phantse i-$70.000 ngomzuzu.
Ukusukela ngoJulayi ka-2005 ngexesha leNgqungquthela ye-G-8 yaseGleneagles, amazwe angama-28 aye aqinisekiswa nge-56 yeebhiliyoni zeerandi ekuhlawuleni amatyala kwaye amazwe ali-18 ahlwempuzeke kakhulu, kubandakanywa ne-14 e-Afrika, athenjiswa ukucinywa ngokupheleleyo. Kumazwe anjalo anamatyala kakhulu, iMillennium Development Goals [MDGs] iya kuthatha iminyaka eyi-100 ukuphumeza imigqaliselo yangoku. Amaphulo oluntu afana neJubilee ka-2000 akhokelele kuxinzelelo koorhulumente abatyalwayo, ukanti isiqabu esithenjisiweyo besihlala sicotha kakhulu ukuguqulela ekubeni yinyani kuba amazwe ekujoliswe kuwo anyanzelekile ukuba enze amanye amaxesha ohlengahlengiso phambi kokuba ukucinywa kuqale ukusebenza. Ubuncinci amazwe angama-65 aqikelelwa ukuba afuna ukucinywa ngokupheleleyo kwamatyala ukuze abe nethuba lokuhlangabezana nokujoliswe kuko kwe-MDG. Oku kuya kubiza abatyalwayo malunga ne-80 yeebhiliyoni zeedola ngonyaka. I-G-8 kunye nezinye iintlanganiso zikholisa ukwenza izibhengezo ezimangalisayo ezithi emva koviwo olusondeleyo zilahlekise okanye zihlale zingaphunyezwa.(6)
Okunxulunyaniswa ngokusondeleyo nengxaki yamatyala ngumthwalo omkhulu obekwe yimali evela eAfrika kweli lizwekazi lihlwempuzekileyo. Umsebenzi wakutsha nje kaLรฉonce Ndikumana noJames K. Boyce weYunivesithi yaseMassachusetts ufikelela kwisigqibo sokuba izityebi zaseAfrika, ngexesha elisusela kowe-1970 ukuya kowama-2004, ziye zathumela ngaphandle isixa-mali seerandi ezingama-420 eebhiliyoni, phantse ngokuphindwe kabini kumthwalo wamatyala e-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Saharan Africa. 2004, nto leyo ngo-2004 kwaba $227 billion. Uninzi lwale mali aluzange lufunyanwe ngokusemthethweni. Ngomdla le mali inokuthi iqokelele kwixesha le-35 leminyaka, ababhali baqikelela ilahleko epheleleyo e-Afrika kwi-607 yeebhiliyoni zeedola. Zazibandakanyeke kangakanani iibhanki zaseYurophu-kwaye babenokuyekelela njani oorhulumente baseYurophu-ekuvumeleni okanye ekukhuthazeni le mijelo ingapheliyo? (7)
2. Uhlengahlengiso lwesakhiwo
Ngaphandle kokuvavanya izixa-mali ezityalwayo ngoku, uphando kufuneka lushwankathele uncwadi oluninzi ngefuthe lemigaqo-nkqubo yohlengahlengiso olukhapha amatyala, olwenziwa yiBhanki yeHlabathi kunye neNgxowa-mali yeMali yaMazwe ngaMazwe, isebenzisana ngokusondeleyo noNondyebo waseMelika. Izinto zohlengahlengiso lwesakhiwo [ekwabizwa ngokuba yi โWashington Consensusโ] imigaqo-nkqubo ifundwe rhoqo kwaye yaphononongwa ngokupheleleyo; ngamashumi amabini ukuba ayingomakhulu eemeko zophononongo olukhoyo kwiimpembelelo zemilinganiselo yenzala ephezulu, ukuziqhelanisa nokuthumela ngaphandle kunye nokukhululwa kwemarike, ushishino lwabucala; 'ukubuyiswa kweendleko' [ukuhlawula] kubandakanywa iifizi zezikolo kunye nokhathalelo lwempilo-ingakumbi eyingozi kubasetyhini kunye namantombazana-njalo njalo.
Le migaqo-nkqubo ibangele ukwanda kwendlala nokuswela, amanani amancinane abantwana abasesikolweni, ukungaqeshwa okungapheliyo kunye nobunzima; izigidi kuye kwafuneka zibuyele umva kwicandelo elingekho sikweni. (8) Nangona abemi basekuhlaleni baxhamle kancinci okanye bengazuzanga kwaphela kwimali ebolekiweyo, uninzi lwabo besiya kudidi oluphakathi nophezulu, iiprojekthi โzendlovu emhlopheโ, ukuthengwa kwezixhobo okanye iiakhawunti zabucala phesheya; aba bantu banyanzelekile ukuba bayibuyisele ngemibingelelo yabo.
Sele sisazi ukuba ukucinywa kwamatyala kuyafikeleleka. Uphando luya kufuna ukuhlola iimali ezityalwa amazwe athile e-EU kunye nesixa sisonke iYurophu enokuba nempembelelo kuso [kuquka iimali ezisatyalwa iBhanki yeHlabathi kunye neNgxowa-mali yeMali yeZizwe ngeZizwe]. Imithombo yomsebenzi onjalo ikho: IBhanki yehlabathi, i-OECD neLondon Club kunye neParis Club zezona ziphambiliโnangona ndifumanise ukuba iParis Club ayinantsebenziswano, eneneni idelela izicelo zangaphandle zolwazi. Isigunyaziso esivela kwi-EU ngokungathandabuzekiyo siya kufuneka ukufumana ukufikelela kwidatha yayo.
Ngokuphathelele iBhanki kunye neNgxowa-mali, i-IMF inokuqhubeka nokuthengisa igolide yayo ngaphandle kokuphazamisa iimarike. I-Bhanki, nokuba ibinokucima lonke ityala ebelityala kuyo zizo zonke ii-LDCs, ingabuyela nje kumanqanaba ayo enkunzi ka-1997, xa ibiqhuba kakuhle. I-Bhanki inemali eyi-400 yeepesenti ngaphezulu kunokufuneka igcine i-AAA kathathu yokulinganisa kwiibhondi zayo [zonke ii-arhente zokulinganisa ezintathu ezaziwa kakhulu zilinganise iibhondi zayo AAA ngo-1997]. Ukongeza, kule minyaka ili-15 idlulileyo, iBhanki yenze ngaphezulu kwebhiliyoni yeedola ngonyaka kwingeniso. Izabelo zokuvota zaseYurophu kwiNgxowa-mali/iBhanki zifikelela kwi-16 leepesenti eJamani, eFransi naseBritani kuphela, kunye nenye ipesenti ezili-14 ukuba ubani ubala amaqela aphethwe yiBelgium, Netherland neItali. Ngokuqinisekileyo i-30 pesenti yesitokhwe sokuvota inika i-EU impembelelo eyaneleyo kula Maziko eZimali aMazwe ngaMazwe ukuba atyhale ukucinywa ngokupheleleyo kwabatyalayo baseMntla/eMazantsi e-Afrika, ngokusekelwe kuphando oluluqilima lophuculo olunokulindeleka kula mazwe xa sele ekhululwe kubukhoboka bamatyala.
Abaninzi baxoxa ngelithi ukucinywa kwamatyala kuya kukhokelela ekubeni babe netyala kwakhona. Umntu, nangona kunjalo, angabonisa-nangona uphando malunga nale miba lusencinci-ukuba xa ukucinywa kwetyala kusenzeka, imali isetyenziswa kakuhle, kwizikolo, iikliniki, ugonyo, ukufikelela emanziniโฆ. [ubungqina obuhlanganiswe yi-NGO Jubilee 2000 bubonisa iziphumo ezinomdla ezivela eTanzania, eUganda, eBenin, eMozambiqueโฆ.]. I-EU, ukuba ibinokufuna ukuba oorhulumente baseAfrika banxulumanise abantu babo ekukhetheni izinto eziphambili ukuze bachithe imali ekhululwe ngokucinywa, inokuqinisekisa ukuba ukonga ekuhlawuleni amatyala kusetyenziswa ngobulumko kuyo yonke indawo.
Ngokwenene, ukutshintshiselana nokucinywa ngokupheleleyo, amazwe abolekisa ngemali aseYurophu kufuneka abe nelungelo lokufuna ukuba oorhulumente abafumanayo baphendule kubantu babo ngokuchitha imali yokonga. Ukwahluka kwenkqubo yothatho-nxaxheba lohlahlo lwabiwo-mali olusetyenziswa kwizixeko ezininzi zaseBrazil kunokusetyenziswa; umntu unokumema ukuba kunyulwe ibhunga elakhiwe ngabantu abanyulwe ngokwejografi nangokwecandelo [oko kukuthi, amafama, abasebenzi, oosomashishini, abasetyhini, abasebenzi bakarhulumenteโฆ] ukuze bahlale ecaleni kukarhulumente bajonge izinto eziphambili ngokubaluleka kwenkcitho.
Abanye bathi akunakwenzeka ukuba kunyanzeliswe "imeko" kwaba rhulumente bazimeleyo, kodwa le ngxoxo ayimanga njengoko imeko ye-IMF-Bank ibekwe amashumi eminyaka. Imeko yedemokhrasi inokuba negalelo ngaxeshanye ekusombululeni imiba emininzi yolawulo kumazwe afumana uncedo. Apho kuye kwazanywa iifomula ezinjalo [eBrazil, eTanzaniaโฆ] inkcitho kunye nokuphathwa kakubi kwemali kuyathotywa ukuya kuthi ga kwiqanda. I-Arhente encinci ye-UN-okanye i-arhente yaseYurophu-inokuthi ikhuphe iimali ezichaphazelekayo kwibhanki ephakathi yelizwe ngalinye elinetyala; urhulumente encediswa liBhunga labemi balo uya kugqiba ngendlela yokuyisebenzisa. Ukuba isisombululo seZizwe eziManyeneyo sikhethiwe, lowo ukhupha โirhafu yetikiti lenqwelo-moyaโ yamazwe ngamazwe ecetywe ngumongameli waseFransi ngelo xesha uJacques Chirac neyamkelwa ukuza kuthi ga ngoku ngamazwe amalunga ne-15 inokwenza umsebenzi onjalo; le arhente ibizwa ngokuba yi-UNITAID.
Ukucinywa kwamatyala ngokwesiqhelo kufanele kudala amanani amakhulu emisebenzi kwii-LDCs kunye nokuvumela inkcitho ephezulu kakhulu kwezempilo, imfundo kunye nezinye izinto eziyimfuneko. Iza kuba negalelo ekudalweni kwemisebenzi eYurophu ngokunjalo, njengoko amazwe awayekade enamatyala aqala ukukwazi ukuchitha imali kwizinto eziyinkunzi, endaweni yeentlawulo zenzala yezoqoqosho.
3. Amaxabiso eemveliso kunye norhwebo
Enye yezona mpembelelo zigwenxa zetyala yi-export syndrome. Onke amazwe anamatyala kufuneka afumane imali eyimali enzima ukuhlawula inzala ayityalayo kwaye ke kufuneka athumele kumazwe angaphandle. Ingakumbi e-Afrika, amazwe asematyaleni athanda ukuthumela ngaphandle uluhlu olumxinwa olufanayo lweemveliso eziphambili ngesiphumo sokuba avelise ngaphezu kokuba iimarike zinokufunxa kwaye ngaloo ndlela ehlise amaxabiso kuye wonke umntu. Amaxabiso ezinto ezithengiswayo aye ehla ukusukela ngeminyaka yoo-1970. Amaxabiso asezantsi akhuthaza imveliso egqithisileyo ngenxa yokuba amazwe azama ukugcina ingeniso yawo izinzile ngokuthumela ngaphandle nangakumbi. Iinkxaso-mali zamazwe asemantla, oko kukuthi, iinkxaso-mali zase-US kubavelisi bayo bomqhaphu zenza izinto zibe mbi kakhulu kwaye izibongozo kuMbutho wezoRhwebo weHlabathi azisebenzi kangako.
Isabelo seemveliso [ioli engabandakanywanga] kurhwebo lwehlabathi sehlile ukusuka kwisinye kwisithathu ukuya kwikota enye ukususela phakathi koo-1990. Ngenxa yorhwebo lwabucala ngobuninzi phantsi kwemigaqo-nkqubo yohlengahlengiso lwezakhiwo, oorhulumente abasenazo izixhobo zokulawula isitokhwe se-carryover okanye ukulawula ubungakanani obuveliswayo nokuthengiswayo. Ngokutsho kwe-UNCTAD, amazwe angamashumi amahlanu anengeniso ephantsi axhomekeke kwiimveliso ze-2-3; Ama-39 axhomekeke komnye kuphela. Imiqathango yorhwebo ibekwe ngokumandla ngokuchasene nabavelisi bezinto ezikrwada, ngesiphumo sokuba kufuneka bathumele ngaphandle isinye kwisithathu namhlanje kunango-1975-85 ukuze bathenge ubungakanani obufanayo bempahla eyenziweyo.
Nangona ukuthengwa kweTshayina kutsha nje kuphuculwe amaxabiso eemveliso zokuqala ngandlelโ ithile, ngakumbi ezesinyithi [ezingazange ziveliswe ngabafaki-zimigodi abancinci kodwa ubukhulu becala, ngokuqhelekileyo ngamashishini emigodi angaphandle] ukuhla kwezityalo ezinkozo kuye kwafana, umz. umyinge we-5.1 yepesenti/ngonyaka wekofu. ; 6.9 ekhulwini kwikoko; isi-3.4 ekhulwini somqhaphu, ukususela ngowe-1977. Umlimi wekofu waseUganda ufumana i-14 leesenti zekhilogram yeembotyi; ikofu kwivenkile enkulu yase-UK ekugqibeleni ixabisa umthengi i-$26.40/kilo. [la manani asusela ku-2005]. Amaxabiso aseYurophu aphantsi ukuya kokungabikho kwimathiriyeli ekrwada kodwa aphezulu xa iimpahla zilungiswa kumazwe abavelisi ukuba zibe yimpahla eyongezelelekileyo. Amazwe ahlwempuzekileyo akakwazi ukukhuphisana ekulungiseni imveliso yawo ukuba nje ejongene nale miqobo iphakamileyo. Umgaqo-nkqubo waseYurophu โYonke into ngaphandle kweArmsโ, nangona kunjalo, ibe linyathelo elilungileyo elinokuthi likhuthaze utshintsho oluluncedo ngakumbi.
4. Imigaqo-nkqubo yorhwebo yaseYurophu kunye nokuthunyelwa eAfrika
Inkxaso-mali eMntla inokuba negalelo ekonakalisa amafama amancinci; jonga umzekelo ifuthe lenkxaso-mali yomqhaphu ekhankanywe ngasentla yaseMelika kubavelisi baseAfrika. Imveliso yezolimo yase-EU ixhaswa ngemali emalunga nebhiliyoni yee-euro ngosuku. Leliphi icandelo lezo nkxaso-mali linxulumene neemveliso ezithunyelwa kumazwe angaphandle kwiimarike zaseAfrika ngamaxabiso angaphantsi kweendleko zokwenyani zemveliso? Kufuneka sazi ngakumbi malunga nefuthe lorhwebo lwaseYurophu kumafama amancinci kunye namashishini asakhulayo e-Afrika, ngakumbi ukulahlwa kwemveliso exhaswa ngemali.
Uphononongo olumbalwa, ingakumbi kwiimveliso zobisi, iitumato kunye neenkukhu, lubonisa ukuba ukuthunyelwa kwempahla kumazwe angaphandle ukusuka eYurophu ngamaxabiso aphantsi ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto kuye kwanciphisa abavelisi balapha ekhaya kunye namashishini okulungisa [umzekelo, imveliso yentlama yetumata eGhana]. Nangona kukho uncwadi olubalulekileyo olumalunga ne-NAFTA-iSivumelwano soRhwebo ngokuKhululwa kuMntla Merika-kunye nefuthe laso kumafama aseMexico, kubonakala kuncinci kwiimpembelelo ze-EU kumafama aseAfrika. [I-NAFTA yonakalise ubuncinci i-350.000 yamafama ahluphekayo aseMexico ahlala kwezona ndawo zihlwempuzekileyo njengombona wase-US owenziwe ngexabiso eliphantsi, oveliswe kwimizi-mveliso uye wakhukulisa iimarike zaseMexico].
Amagosa eManyano yaseYurophu mhlawumbi aya kukwazi ukugxekwa okuzingisileyo kwe-NGO ye-EU yemigaqo-nkqubo yangoku yorhwebo, nokuba kukwi-WTO okanye kwizivumelwano ezahlukeneyo zamazwe amabini/amazwe amaninzi kunye nee-EPAs [Izivumelwano zeNtsebenziswano yezoQoqosho], zonke eziqulathe utyalo-mali oluneenkcukacha, ukufikelela kwizinto ezingafunekiyo. kunye nezibonelelo zokuthengwa kwempahla karhulumente. Ukuthambekela okungaphaya kwemidla yemibutho yamazwe ngamazwe yaseYurophu kunye nefuthe lamva kumgaqo-nkqubo worhwebo we-EU kubonakala kungamathandabuzo amancinci. Ii-EPAs ziye zacelwa umngeni ngamazwe ambalwa ase-Afrika [iSenegal, uMzantsi Afrika] kodwa uninzi luyazivuma kwaye iqela leCaribbean lamazwe e-ACP sele lityikitye isivumelwano esipheleleyo.
Obona buncinci iKomishoni enokuyenza inokuba kukuxhasa ngezimali ukubekwa kweliso kweyona ndlela yokuziphatha kunye nefuthe leenkampani zamazwe ngamazwe zaseYurophu, ngakumbi ii-extractors ze-raw-material, kumazwe athumela abafuduki. Ngexesha le-EU-Latin American Summit eyayibanjelwe eVienna ngoMeyi 2006, i Enlazando Alternativas [ingqungquthela eyenye] igunyazise izifundo yi-Latin American NGOs kunye nabaphandi ngefuthe le-TNCs zaseYurophu kuMbindi kunye neLatin America. Iingxelo zabo zokuzibonela ngawabo amehlo zivelise ulwazi oluninzi kunye nobungqina befuthe elibi kakhulu kubemi bengingqi, nokuba iinkampani ezibandakanyekayo bezizibandakanya nemigodi, izinto eziluncedo, ezolimo, amaphepha okanye ushishino lwemali. (9)
5. Ukuloba
Iintlanzi ezibanjiswa kunxweme olusentshona Afrika ziye zehla yaye abalobi abancinane abasakwazi ukuziphilisa. Abaninzi bathi ukuncipha kwezitokhwe kungenxa yokuloba ngokugqithisileyo ngoosomashishini baseYurophu. Abalobi abancinci baziwa ngokuba bathengisa izikhephe zabo kubantu abathengisa amakhonkco abasebenzisa ukuzama ukuthabatha abafuduki kwiiCanaries. Imeko isenokuba njalo nakumazwe akwimida yeMeditera. Ngaphandle kwee-anecdotes, siyazi kancinci malunga nale nto.
III. Imigaqo-nkqubo apho i-eu ingenaxanduva ngokuthe ngqo okanye ngokuyinxenye kuphela kodwa ihlwempuzekisa ngakumbi amazwe athumela abafuduki.
1. Urhwebo lwasimahla: Ekuqaleni, iWorld Bank yabhengeza ukuba amazwe asakhasayo aya kubona iingenelo ezinkulu [ngaphezu kweebhiliyoni ezingama-300 zeerandi ngonyaka] kurhwebo lwasimahla lokwenene. Phantsi koxinzelelo oluvela koosoqoqosho kwezinye iindawo, iBhanki iye yanyanzeleka ngokwamanqanaba alandelelanayo ukuhlehlisa uqikelelo lwayo ukuya kutsho kwi-16 yeebhiliyoni zeedola, isiqingatha sayo bekulindeleke ukuba siye eBrazil naseArgentina. Eyona nto amazwe ahlwempuzekileyo anokubona kurhwebelwano olukhululekileyo kukunyuka kwepesenti e-1 kwi-GDP kwiminyaka eli-10 ezayo. (10)
I-WTO iye yabanga ukuba i-"Doha Development Round" emisiweyo iya kubonelela ngeenzuzo zokwenene eMzantsi. Nangona kunjalo, uMntla, kuquka ne-EU, ukuza kuthi ga ngoku ucebise ukuba kunikwe ufikelelo kwiipesenti ezingama-97 kuphela zeempahla zelizwe ngalinye elisemazantsi. Oku kusenokuvakala njengesisa, kodwa ngenxa yokuthembela kwamazwe amaninzi asemaZantsi kwinani elilinganiselweyo leemveliso, uMntla unokubeka ngokulula oko ilizwe ngalinye linokuvelisa ngokoqoqosho kudidi lwesithathu ekhulwini esiseleyo. [QAPHELA: Zonke ii-EPAs ezibekwe phambili yiYurophu โyi-WTO Plusโ, oko kukuthi, zifuna kakhulu kumazwe angamahlakani ukuba naziphi na iimfuno zezivumelwano ze-WTO.
2. Isigqibo sebhanana seWTO: Kusenokuba sele ngokukhawuleza ngokwaneleyo ukuvavanya impembelelo kubavelisi basekhaya be-WTO elawulayo kwingxabano yebhanana ye-EU-ACP. Ulawulo olukhethekileyo apho iYurophu yaqinisekisa ukuthenga isixa seebhanana kumazwe e-ACP yalawulwa yi-WTO-ingekho mthethweni: IYurophu ayinalo ilungelo lokunika nawaphi na amalungelo kumazwe e-ACP kwaye kufuneka yamkele, umzekelo, iibhanana eziveliswa emasimini yi-US. iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe ezifana neChiquita Brands, e-Ecuador okanye kuMbindi Melika. Sibe yintoni isiphumo sesi sigqibo kumafama ahluphekayo e-ACP? Ngaba iye yandisa utyekelo lwabo lokuzama ukufuduka?
3. IsiVumelwano seeFibre ezininzi: Ukuphela kwesivumelwano seMulti-Fibre kwanika iChina inzuzo enkulu kwizinto ezilukiweyo. Ukuthunyelwa kweTshayina kumazwe angaphandle kunempembelelo enkulu eYurophu ngokwayo, kodwa eMzantsi, umphumo ube yingozi. Imizi-mveliso yelaphu kwiindawo ezifana neBangladesh, iKhambodiya okanye uMbindi Melika akufane kwenzeke ukuba iphinde ibuyele. E-Morocco, ishishini sele lilahle amakhulu amawaka emisebenzi. Aba basebenzi bangaphangeliyo babuyela kwimveliso ye-kif [yeziyobisi] okanye bazama ukufuduka. Ngaba i-EU ingenza nantoni na ukunciphisa ezi mpembelelo? Ngokucacileyo kule meko, abanako ukubalelwa kwimigaqo-nkqubo yaseYurophu, kodwa ngaba bafanele baphembelele isimo sengqondo se-EU ngaphakathi kweWTO okanye kwezinye iinkqubo zamazwe ngamazwe kunye/okanye norhwebo?
4. Iingxaki zemali: Kwanangaphambi kwesiphithiphithi semarike esikhoyo kunye nokudodobala koqoqosho okuvela-kodwa kungapheleliselwanga-kwingxaki ephantsi, ukudodobala kwezemali kuthathe inqanaba elinzima. I-International Labor Organization iye yaqikelela ukuba ngaphezu kwama-90 โiingxaki zemali ezimandunduโ zenzekile phakathi kweminyaka yee-1990 nowama-2002, apho kuye kwaphulukana nokhuseleko lwezoqoqosho, imisebenzi, indlela yokuziphilisa nokonga. Inkcazo ye-ILO ye-crash yemali "enzulu" kukuba ixabiso lemali lehla ubuncinane ipesenti ze-25 kwinyanga enye kwaye oku kwehla ubuncinane bekuyi-10 ekhulwini ngaphezu kokunciphisa kwenyanga edlulileyo. Ngamanye amazwi, ezi ziingxaki apho ixabiso leeakhawunti zebhanki zabantu, i-inshorensi, ukhuseleko loluntu, ipenshoni, njalo njalo lehle ngama-35 ekhulwini kwisithuba seenyanga ezimbini.
Uluhlu lwamazwe angamashumi amabini anesithandathu aseMntla kunye ne-Sub-Saharan Afrika phakathi kwe-1990-2003 yeengxaki zezoqoqosho / zemali njengoko kuchazwe yi-ILO: Algeria, Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, Congo, Cรดte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mali, Malawi, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. (11)
5. Ukutshintsha kwemozulu: Njengoko sele kuphawuliwe, impembelelo yokutshintsha kwemozulu ngokukhawuleza ayisekho mathandabuzo kwaye ayifuni uphando ngeseshini nganye. I-IPCC iseke ukuba iindawo ezomileyo/ezifumileyo ziya kubanembalela/zikhukhula, ukuba amaqondo obushushu agqithisileyo kunye neempembelelo zesibini ziyakubetha abantu abasesichengeni eMzantsi ngamandla amakhulu kunezowuni ezipholileyo zaseMantla. Sele sizibonile izandyondyo zemvula kwi-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Saharan kwaye siyazi ukuba uxinzelelo lwazo zonke iintlobo luya kwanda. Nali ithuba eligqibeleleyo le-S&T yaseYurophu ukwenza isindululo ngeenkqubo zamandla acocekileyo nezininzi [ingakumbi ilanga] kuMazantsi, kwiinzame zophuhliso ezipheleleyo zokutshintsha kungekuphela nje uMzantsi kodwa kunye nemeko yamandla yaseYurophu. Okwangoku, iinkqubo zokuthomalalisa kunye nezoncedo ziya kuba yimfuneko ngakumbi kunangaphambili.
isiphelo
Ngexesha nasemva kwenkqubo yokuphelisa ubukoloniyali, amazwe awayefudula engamathanga kunye/okanye amazwe axhomekeke kuwo avelisa iinkokeli ezininzi ezikrelekrele nezinobubele [ezikhoyo eBandung nangaphayaโฆ.]. La mazwe aseka amaqela ezopolitiko afana neNon-aligned Movement okanye iG-77 [eyathi kamva yabalelwa kumazwe angaphezu kwe-100]. Ukususela kwiminyaka yee-1970 ngokukodwa, babiza uMyalelo oMtsha wezoQoqosho waMazwe ngaMazwe; amaxwebhu awohlukeneyo e-UN afana ne-โBrandt Reportโ yowe-1981 axhasa uninzi lweemfuno zabo. Kwakujonge ixesha ngokungathi ekugqibeleni kwakusenokwabiwa ngokulinganayo kobutyebi ehlabathini nethuba elikhulu kumazwe asahlumayo. AbaseMantla banyanzelekile ubuncinane ukuba bahlawule ngomlomo kwiimfuno ezivela kuMzantsi osanda kuzithemba.
Ngo-1974 kwiNkomfa yeHlabathi yoKutya ye-FAO eRome, uHenry Kissinger [osandulโ ukuvela kubunjineli bobhukuqo-mbuso lwaseChile] wathi โKwisithuba seminyaka elishumi, akukho mntwana uya kulala engatyanga, akukho ntsapho iya koyika isonka sayo sosuku olulandelayoโฆโ Ezinye iinkomfa. walandelwa waza uMzantsi wacinga, ngokuthetheleleka okuthile, ukuba wawusenza inkqubela. Noko ke, ngokuthe ngcembe, uMntla, owawukhokelwa yiUnited States, wayibuyisela phantsi le meko kulawulo lwasemantla. Obunye ubuzwilakhe ngaphandle kobo bePinochet baziswa kwaye baxhaswa nguMntla kwaye ababefudula bengamathanga bahlala bexhasa ulawulo olungenademokhrasi kunye nengcinezelo kwi-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Saharan. E-Jamaica ngo-1981, umongameli omtsha uRonald Reagan wayimisa inkqubo yoMyalelo oMtsha woQoqosho lwaMazwe ngaMazwe kunye nokuzimela okukhulu kube kanye.
I-European Union njengequmrhu lezopolitiko elitsha ngokuthelekisayo inethuba lokwahlukana nale nto yangaphambili ingcolileyo kwaye ibonise ukuba ayinakusebenzisana kuphela kodwa isebenze njengommeli wobudlelwane obusisigxina, obulinganayo kunye noMzantsi. Wonke umlimi owonakeleyo, lonke ulutsha olungaphangeliyo, wonke umlobi ongenazo iindlela zokuziphilisa ungumgqatswa wokufuduka. IYurophu inokuyeka ukusika iindlela zokuphumelela kunye nophuhliso kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yayo kwaye yenze ukufuduka kube yimfuneko.
Ngokwendalo kuya kufuneka kudane iilobbi zaseYurophu ezingakumbi okanye ezingenamandla ngexesha elifutshane, kodwa izibonelelo zabantu baseYurophu kunye nabantu baseMzantsi ziya kuba zikhulu kakhulu. Umgaqo-nkqubo we-Fortress-Europe awuyi kusebenza kwaye, phantsi kweemeko zangoku, ubuncinane, umgaqo-nkqubo "wemida evulekileyo" awamkelekanga kwezopolitiko. Olunye ukhetho kuphela kukuqinisa impendulo engaphumelelanga yokugxothwa kwamapolisa kunye nololiwe wamanyathelo angenabuntu kunye nerekhodi elibi okanye ukufunda izenzo ezikhoyo zaseYurophu kunye nokwenza isigqibo sokuphelisa ukusetyenziswa kakubi-ukusebenzisa iziphumo zophando ukuqinisa ityala. Kungenjalo, akukho mntu-ingakumbi alikho igosa laseYurophu-oyakumangala kwixesha elizayo njengoko ebona ukuhamba okuzingileyo kwabafuduki abafikayo.
amaNqaku
(1) UNU-WIDER, โIsemina yokuFudukela kwaMazwe ngaMazwe kunye noPhuhliso: iiPatheni, iiNgxaki kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo, iZizwe eziManyeneyo, eNew York, ngo-12 Septemba 2006; okanye i-UNU-Wider seminar ngo-2001 โngeMfuduko neNtlupheko yaMazwe ngaMazwe; kunye noTimothy J. Hatton kunye noJeffrey G. Williamson, "Ziziphi iiNgxowa-mali eziqhuba ukufuduka kweHlabathi?", IPhepha leNgxoxo le-UNU-WIDER no.2003/23. Iprojekthi ye-WIDER eqhubekayo kwi-Refugees, i-International Migration kunye neNtlupheko ilawulwa nguGeorge Borjas waseHarvard kunye noJeff Crisp we-UNHCR.
(2) http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/publications. There are ten subheadings of various types of publications.
(3) http://remi.revues.org/entrees.html?type=motcle Keyword search.
(4) Iziko leZifundo zokuFudukela, eWashington, DC
(5) Patricia Adams, Amatyala aManyala, Probe International, Earthscan, Toronto, 1991
(6) USusan George, ILishwa Elibi ngaphezu kweTyala, uPenguin, eLondon 1987; USusan George, iTyala leBoomerang, iPluto Press, eLondon, ngo-1992; amanani akutshanje apapashwa rhoqo yi-Comitรฉ pour l'Annulation de la Dette du Tiers-Monde-CADTM, www.cadtm.org
(7) ULรฉonce Ndikumana noJames K. Boyce, iTax Justice Focus, ijenali yekota yeTax Justice Network, ikota yokuqala ka-2008, uMqulu 4 no.1,
(8) Kwintetho engalibalekiyo, u-AT Moussa Tchangiri, umalathisi wephephancwadi i-Alternative in Niger, kwiWorld Social Forum eBamako [ngoJanuwari 2006] wachaza ngokweenkcukacha indlela ukunyanzeliswa kwemigaqo-nkqubo yokwenza izinto zabucala [zezothutho, ukubamba iisiriyeli, iinkonzo zonyango lwezilwanyana, njl. ] yaba negalelo ngokungqalileyo ekwandeni kwendlala kwelo lizwe.
(9) http://peoplesdialogue.org/en/node/39
(10) U-Kevin Gallagher weYunivesithi yaseTufts, naye oye waya kwi-workshop yophando ye-EU eyavelisa uluhlu lwangoku lwamaphepha, kuquka neyam, ubhale ngokugqibeleleyo kulo mbandela.
(11) I-ILO, iNkqubo yoKhuseleko loLuntu noQoqosho, uKhuseleko lwezoQoqosho lweHlabathi elingcono, i-Geneva 2004, ibhokisi, p.,.40, idatha esekelwe kwi-IMF kunye namanani eBhanki yehlabathi phakathi kwezinye izinto.
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