Zinthu ziwiri zosangalatsa zinachitika pa msonkhano wa BRICS ku South Africa mu August. Mamembala angapo atsopano adaitanidwa kuti alowe nawo ku BRICS mu 2024: Argentina, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, ndi UAE. Ndipo, polimbikitsidwa ndi Brazil, bungwe linakhazikitsidwa kuti liphunzire kuthekera kwa ndalama zatsopano kuti ilowe m'malo mwa dola mu malonda a mayiko. Mapangano osinthana ndi ndalama adzapitilirabe momwe ntchitoyi ikuyendera pakanthawi kochepa, chifukwa dola silingasinthidwe mwachangu.
Kuti athawe maunyolo akukwera kwa madola, mayiko a Global South ali ndi njira yowopsa yoyendamo. Mavuto aakulu, Monga tafotokozera ndi akatswiri azachuma a ndale Michael Hudson ndi Radhika Desai, ndi motere: Mayiko aku South South ali ndi ngongole zambiri za madola, ndipo mabungwe a azungu amati ndi eni ake pa chuma chawo. Bungwe lazamalamulo lapadziko lonse lapansi limakonda Kumadzulo, kutengera mabungwe aku America ndi ndalama za vulture. Maukonde obisika a US akupitilizabe kuyambitsa nkhondo ndi zigawenga kwa iwo omwe amaphwanya malamulo aku Western kuphatikiza azachuma. Mavutowa tsopano akukumana ndi mayiko ambiri padziko lapansi.
Mpaka pano, ambiri padziko lapansi alibe polarized. Maiko ochepa kwambiri (makamaka ku Europe) ndi othandizira mopanda malire a Kumadzulo motsogozedwa ndi US. Kumbali inayi, ndi mayiko ochepa chabe (monga Russia, China, Iran) omwe angayerekeze kukana mwatsatanetsatane mayiko akumadzulo akafuna.
Aliyenseโkumene tsogolo la chuma cha padziko lonse lidzakhalapoโali pakati. Kodi adzapeza njira yopulumukira ku misampha imeneyi?
Ngongole Yandale Zaku Argentina
Kwa zaka pafupifupi 200, Argentina wakhala malo oyamba a British, ndiyeno US kuyesa kugonjetsa ngongole. Nthawi zonse pamene boma lachitukuko linkayamba kulamulira nโkuyesa kuchotsa dzikoli mโmavuto, linkatsatiridwa ndi boma lamanja lomwe linkabweza dzikoli mโmavuto.
Pakati pa mayiko apakati, Argentina ili ndi gawo lapadera. Dzikoli lili pa mndandanda wa oitanidwa atsopano ku BRICS. Chuma chake chasokonekera, ndipo mtsogoleri wawo wamkulu wa pulezidenti, amene amatsatira malangizo a zachuma kwa agalu ake anayi, akufuna kutseka ambiri a boma pansi ndikugwiritsa ntchito dola yaku US ngati ndalama. Monga andale ambiri akumadzulo akumadzulo, kuchokera ku Berlusconi ndi Sarkozy kupita ku Trump ndi Bolsonaro, zisankho za Milei sizikuwonongeka osati chifukwa chachinyengo kapena mapulani osatheka azachuma.
Ndipo iwo ali osatheka. The Economist ikunena kuti "Milei akulonjeza kuti adzadula 15 [peresenti] ...
Komanso sakudziwa
"Motaniโฆ Boma la Milei lipeza $40 [mabiliyoni] omwe gulu lake likuganiza kuti ndizofunikira kuti lisinthe kukhala madola. Pakadali pano, dziko la Argentina silingabweze nkomwe [International Monetary Fund (IMF)]โฆkumene ili ndi ngongole ya $44 biliyoni. Popeza ndalama za ku America zatha, banki yayikulu ikuwotcha yuan yomwe idabwerekedwa ku Chinaโฆ Milei wati agulitsa makampani aboma ndi ngongole zaboma ku thumba lakunja kuti akweze ndalama zomwe zikufunika. Ndizovuta kulingalira kuti padzakhala ogula ambiri. โ
Tsogolo la Argentina lakhala likulamuliridwa ndi ngongole za mfumu kuyambira 1824 pamene banki ya British Empire (Barings-omwe Ambuye Cromer adagwiritsa ntchito njira zachuma kuti atenge ulamuliro. Egypt, mwa ntchito zina zodziwika) poyamba adapereka ngongole wa mapaundi miliyoni imodzi ku Argentina yomwe idangodziyimira yokha. Izi zinali zosakwana zaka 20 kuchokera pamene asilikali a Britain adatera kuti ayese kulanda dziko la Argentina molephera. Pomalizira pake adapeza chida chachuma chogwira mtima kwambiri. Zosasintha zoyambirira mwa zisanu ndi zinayi zidatsatiridwa mu 1827. Zaposachedwa kwambiri zinali mu 2020 (Economist ikulimbikitsa chakhumi).
M'zaka za zana la 20, dziko la Argentina lidasinthana pakati pa maboma osankhidwa ndi maulamuliro ankhanza ankhondo ndikusintha njira zachitukuko ndi zandale zandale. M'nthaลตi zaulamuliro wausilikali, Argentina anali malo opangira zatsopano-zoyesera zatsopano zofunkha dziko zinapangidwa. Zina mwa izo zinali zomwe Esteban Almiron adatchulidwa monga "njinga yandalama" yotheka ndi chikhomo cha peso kupita ku dollar yaku US:
"Pamene oyerekeza mabiliyoni amaloledwa kusinthanitsa ma pesos aku Argentina ndi ndalama zopanda malire za madola, kupindula ndi [chiwongola dzanja chachikulu] ... mitengo ya pesos, dziko linali lomwe limayenera kubwereka madola amenewo ku [US] ... mabanki apadera kapena ku IMF ndi perekani chiwongola dzanja pa iwo. Atangosinthana, ndalama zomwe anthu ofufuzawo anazipeza zinasamutsidwa mโdzikolo, nโkusiya ngongoleyo ku boma.โ
Mu 2001, Argentina osakhazikika nagwetsa msomali. Kenako idalipira ngongole yake yonse ya $9.5 biliyoni ya IMF mu 2005, kupulumutsa dzikolo $842 miliyoni pachiwongola dzanja m'zaka zotsatila. Inakambirananso, mpaka 2010, kukonzanso kwa 92 peresenti ya ngongole yonse ya dziko.
Mbiri ya Almiron mbiri ya ngongole yaku Argentina akufotokoza zomwe zinachitika pambuyo pake: nkhani ya Argentina ndi miimba ya ku America. Maperesenti 8 otsala a ngongoleyo amapereka kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi malamulo adziko lonse omwe amathandizira kulandidwa kwachuma kwa US ku Global South. Idachitidwa ndi ndalama za vulture zomwe zimayendetsedwa ndi bilionea waku America Paul Singer ndi ena. Mbalamezi zinatembenukira ku makhoti a ku United States ndipo, mwachidziwikire, mu 2012, adapeza zomwe ankafuna - woweruza wa ku United States adagamula kuti dziko la Argentina liyenera kuwalipira ndalama zonse.
Purezidenti ndiye Cristina Fernรกndez de Kirchner anakana kulipira, koma zisankho zotsatila zidabweretsa a Mauricio Macri pampando. Macri adakulitsa chiลตerengero cha ngongole ku GDP ku Argentina kuchoka pa 52.6 peresenti kufika pa 90.2 peresenti ndipo amayang'anira kuwonjezeka kwa umphawi kuchoka pa 30 peresenti kufika pa 40 peresenti (anthu mamiliyoni anayi omwe alowa umphawi). Pofika pomwe amachoka mu 2019, Argentina anali atakumana ndi $ 79.8 biliyoni pakuthawa kwakukulu - ndipo adalepheranso. Almiron akulemba kuti "Macri ndi gulu lake adasokoneza chuma cha dziko la Argentina pasanathe zaka ziwiri." Macri adabweretsanso njinga yachuma:
"Chinyengo chawo chinali kugula ma pesos, kupindula kuchokera ku [chiwongola dzanja chambiri] ... mitengo ya pesos, kenako kuwasintha kukhala madola ndikusamutsa madolawo kunja kwa dziko. Pakadali pano, boma lidayenera kupereka ndalama zopanda malire kwa oyerekeza, ndipo idatsala ndi pesos. โ
Potuluka pakhomo, Macri adatenga ngongole ya $ 57 biliyoni ku IMF, pambuyo pake idatsitsidwa mpaka $ 44 biliyoni, yomwe "inasowa m'miyezi 11 yokha."
Wolowa m'malo mwake Alberto Fernรกndez adayesa kumanganso unduna wa zaumoyo pa COVID-19 koma adakakamira ngongole ya $ 44 biliyoni. Chifukwa cha kusimidwa monganso chifukwa cha malingaliro achitukuko, Fernรกndez adatembenukira ku China, kujowina Belt and Road Initiative mu 2022 ndikugwiritsa ntchito - bwino, zidapezeka - ku BRICS. Argentina adzalowa nawo mu 2024. Komabe, mgwirizano ndi China (ndi Qatar) mpaka pano ndi nkhani yoti tipeze ngongole zowonjezera kuchokera ku China kulipira IMF. Uwu siwo mtundu wa "kupambana-kupambana" komwe China ikufuna ndi mayiko a Global South muzachuma zake zamapangidwe komanso mabizinesi okhudzana ndi chuma.
Ngati atasankhidwa, Milei akuyembekezeka kuchotsa pempho la BRICS. Ngati asunga Argentina ku BRICS, adzagwiritsa ntchito luso lake lazachuma (ndi agalu ake) kuti athandize US kugwiritsa ntchito Argentina osati kukhetsa Argentina, koma China (ndiponso ena obwereketsa mwadzidzidzi) komanso.
Ndi kulowa kwatsopano kulikonse m'ngongole, mapiko akumanja a dziko amayesa kumiza boma mozama kwambiri kotero kuti silingawonekere. Atafika paudindo, wonong'oneza agalu Milei walonjeza kuti adzaposa mbiri yachiwonongeko ya Macri.
Zovuta za Pakistan, Ally of the US and China
Monga Argentina, Pakistan yakhala ikulamulidwa ndi maboma a ngongole zachifumu-choyamba British, kenako US-kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Dziko lomwe panopa limatchedwa Pakistan kale linali gulu la zigawo zolemera za British India. Ufumu uliwonse umene East India Company ya Britain inabweretsa pansi pa nsapato yake unali wodzaza ndi ngongole, njira yaikulu (pali ena) Britain idawononga $45 thililiyoni kuchokera ku subcontinent. Kenako Britain idagawa dzikolo kukhala India ndi Pakistan isanapereke. Lero dziko la India likuchitapo kanthu mosadziwika bwino mu BRICS, pomwe boma la Pakistan pambuyo pa kulanda boma lachita ziwawa zazikulu pofuna kuyesa kuti dzikoli lilamulire.
Komanso monga Argentina, Pakistan ndi malo omwe BRICS ndi IMF zili ndi chuma chochuluka. Mu April, pafupifupi chaka chimodzi kuchokera pamene Pulezidenti wakale Imran Khan anachotsedwa, bungwe la US Institute for Peace inanena kuti Pakistan ikukumana ndi mavuto azachuma "omwe alipo". Pogawa ngongoleyo m'mitundu itatu (yamayiko osiyanasiyana, yachinsinsi, ndi yaku China), USIP idapereka chidule cha ngongole za Pakistan ndi omwe idabweza: "Pofika Disembala 2022, Pakistan ili ndi ngongole zakunja ndi ngongole za $ 126.3 biliyoni. Pafupifupi 77 peresenti ya ngongole imeneyi, yokwana madola 97.5 biliyoni ali ndi ngongole mwachindunji ndi boma la Pakistan kwa angongole osiyanasiyana; ndalama zina zokwana $7.9 biliyoni zili ndi ngongole zamabizinesi oyendetsedwa ndi boma kwa obwereketsa mayiko osiyanasiyana. "
Ngongole ya Pakistani ya $45 biliyoni idagwa motere: Banki Yadziko Lonse ($ 18 biliyoni), Asia Development Bank ($ 15 biliyoni), ndi IMF ($ 7.6 biliyoni), yokhala ndi ndalama zocheperako ku Islamic Development Bank ndi Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank. . Ilinso ndi ngongole zina zokwana madola 8.5 biliyoni ku mayiko akuluakulu angongole Japan, Germany, France, ndi United States.
Ngongole zachinsinsi za Pakistan zidatsogozedwa ndi Eurobonds komanso padziko lonse lapansi Sukuk bonds, zokwana madola 7.8 biliyoni. Inalinso ndi ngongole zamalonda zakunja zokwana pafupifupi $7 biliyoni, zomwe zikuyembekezeka kukwera mpaka pafupifupi $9 biliyoni pakutha kwa chaka chachuma chomwe chilipo.
Pomaliza, USIP idayika "ngongole yaku China" ya $27 biliyoni mgulu lina:
"Izi zikuphatikiza ngongole zokwana madola 10 biliyoni ndi ngongole zokwana $6.2 biliyoni zomwe boma la China limapereka kumabizinesi aku Pakistani, komanso ngongole zamalonda zaku China zokwana $7 biliyoni. Kuonjezera apo, bungwe loona za chuma cha dziko la China State Administration of Foreign Exchange (SAFE) laika ndalama zakunja zokwana madola 4 biliyoni ku banki yaikulu ya Pakistan.โ
Ndi GDP ya $ 376 biliyoni ndi ngongole ya $ 126 biliyoni mu 2022, chiลตerengero cha ngongole ku GDP ya Pakistan ya 34 peresenti ndi yabwino kwambiri kuposa ya Argentina ngakhale tsoka la Macri lisanachitike. Komabe, obwereketsa akumadzulo aku Pakistan adawonetsa ngati zosatheka ndipo kukwera kwamitengo kunalidi kubweretsa mavuto ambiri.
The 2022-23 bajeti yaboma ndalama zokwana $24 biliyoni ndi ndalama zokwana $33 biliyoni. Kubweza ngongole, zomwe sizinakhazikitsidwe, kumawoneka ngati kupitilira ndalama zaboma, pafupifupi $25 biliyoni.
Ngongole yaku China akhoza kusinthidwa monga mwa chitsanzo cha mโmbiriโkoma chinali 30 peresenti yokha ya chiwonkhetso. Nanga bwanji ena onse? Kwa zaka zambiri, maboma achitukuko ku Argentina adayesa kugwiritsa ntchito kukula kwachuma kuti akweze misonkho ndi zotumiza kunja kuti achepetse ngongoleyo akadali ndi mphamvu, koma Pakistan idachita izi. Zoneneratu za kukula sizikuwoneka bwino. Momwemonso, m'nthawi yayitali, monga zalembedwa m'buku la 2020 la Jawad Syed ndi Yung-Hsiang Ying. China's Belt and Road Initiative mu Global Context Volume II: China Pakistan Economic Corridor ndi Zotsatira zake pa Bizinesi, CPEC ikuwona kukweza maunyolo amtengo wapatali ndi zomangamanga ku Pakistan ngati njira yotukula chuma m'maiko onsewa.
Koma bwanji za nthawi yochepa? Pakistan idayesa kupanga luso: Prime Minister Imran Khan anali atangopanga mgwirizano wa mphamvu ndi tirigu - zinthu ziwiri zofunika kwambiri komanso zotsika mtengo mudengu - kuchokera ku Russia pomwe adachotsedwa. Boma la pambuyo pa chiwembu lidasokoneza mgwirizanowu, kuyesera kupewa mavuto ndi US chifukwa chochita malonda ndi mayiko ovomerezeka ndi US kunja kwa ndalama za dollar. Pakistan idatulutsa tsamba pre-Nixon-pitani ku China buku ndi ntchito yosinthanitsa. Koma angongole akumadzulo akadali komweko, akufuna kulipidwa (ndalama). Kaya ndi kutsitsa Chiwonetsero cha ngongole cha Pakistan kapena kuyang'anira ndi kulanga Pakistan ngati wothandizira ndalama zauchigawenga kudzera mu Ntchito Yogwira Ntchito Zachuma (FATF), United States ili ndi zida zambiri zokakamiza kutsata ngongole ku Pakistan.
Kodi zinthu zinafika bwanji poipa chonchi? Ndalama za Pakistan, kuphatikizapo ngongole za US, zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi maubwenzi obisika a mayiko awiriwa komanso kulowererapo kwa mayiko onse ku Afghanistan kuyambira 1970s. Zedi, malonda a United States ndi Pakistan thonje ndi nsalu, zitsulo ndi makina, koma mtima wa ubale zachuma ndi wankhondo. Anthu aku Afghanistan anavutika kwambiri, ndi wolemba Nicolas JS Davies kuyerekezera anthu omwalira ndi 875,000, koma Pakistan nayenso anavutika. Kulowererapo kwa Pakistan ku Afghanistan ndi ntchito za US kumidzi yaku Pakistan mtengo wothandizana ndi US $ 150 biliyoni ndipo 70,000 amakhala ndi moyo malinga ndi kazembe waku Pakistani ku United States mu 2021 ndipo 325,000 afa malinga ndi Davies.
Kuchuluka kwa ndalama zomwe United States idagwiritsa ntchito pantchito ya Afghanistan ndizochuluka ndipo mwina siziwerengeka. Pali manambala ovomerezeka owerengera a $ 100 biliyoni m'mapangano ankhondo yekha. Khawaja Akbar wolemba nkhani amatsitsa kuti ngati Pakistan idapereka ndalama zothandizira asitikali ku a Taliban, zitha kukhala zochepa chabe pazomwe United States idawononga: "$ 1 thililiyoni yomwe US โโidagwiritsidwa ntchito ku Afghanistan panthawi yomweyi idalephera kunyalanyaza zomwe $30 biliyoni idaperekedwa. ku Pakistan."
Imran Khan atamaliza kuthandizira kuyesayesa kwa US ku Afghanistan, masiku omwe adakhalapo adawerengedwa: zida zaku US pankhondo yaku Afghanistan ya 2001-2021 zonse zidadutsa Pakistan. Nkhani ya New York Times yomwe idasindikizidwa atangolanda a Taliban idati "madoko aku Pakistan ndi mabwalo a ndege adapereka malo olowera ndikuperekera zida zankhondo zaku America zomwe zimafunikira ku Afghanistan." Kugwira ntchito ku America kunali vuto lalikulu ndipo ubale wa US-Pakistan unasokonekera nthawi zambiri.
Tariq Ali adalemba za mphindi imodzi yotere m'buku lake la 2008, The Duel:
โDzikoli lili mโmavuto a chakudya ndi magetsi. Kukwera kwa mitengo kukuyandikira 15 [peresenti]โฆ Mtengo wa gasi (omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito pophikira m'nyumba zambiri) wakwera ndi 30 [peresenti]โฆ ndipo mtengo watirigu wakwera ndi 20 [peresenti]โฆ kuyambira Novembala 2007. Mitengo yazakudya ndi yogulitsa kukwera padziko lonse lapansi, koma pali vuto linanso ku Pakistan: tirigu wochuluka akulowetsedwa ku Afghanistan kuti adyetse asilikali a NATO. Malinga ndi kafukufuku waposachedwa, 86 [peresenti]โฆanthu aku Pakistani akupeza kukhala kovuta kwambiri kugula ufa, zomwe amadzudzula boma lawo latsopanolo. [Pulezidenti wakale Asif Ali] Chivomerezo cha Zardari chatsika mpaka 13 [peresenti].โ
Palibe kukambirana za chuma chozembetsa ku Pakistan ndi Afghanistan popanda kutchula opium. Unali chuma chachuma chosawerengeka, mwina $2 biliyoni, mwina zambiri, za US- ndi Pakistan-based mabungwe zobisika, mabungwe zigawenga, ndi mabungwe azachuma kuti Taliban yathetsa vutoli.
Pamene United States inaba Afghanistan $ Biliyoni 7 m'malo osungira pambuyo kulanda a Taliban, Pakistan nayonso idavutika monga bwenzi lalikulu la dziko.
Mkati mwa zaka makumi angapo za nkhondo za ku Afghanistan, United States ndi Pakistan zinapanga zolemba zodzaza ndi chinsinsi zachinsinsi - kotero kuti atagonjetsa Afghanistan mu 2001, United States. anatsimikiza Pakistan idakwanitsa kutulutsa othandizira ake ofunikira kwambiri. Opaleshoni imeneyi pambuyo pake idzatchedwa "ndege ya zoipa." ndi United States.
Titha kunena mwachidule izi motere: M'kati mwa nkhondo ya US ku Afghanistan, Pakistan idagwiritsa ntchito ndalama zambiri zobisika, kuchuluka kwa anthu omwe anamwalira, komanso chuma chosagwirizana ndi malamulo chomwe chinangowononga chuma chokhazikika.
Pambuyo pa kulanda Taliban ndi kuchotsedwa kwa Imran Khan, United States iyambiranso maubwenzi obisika ndi Pakistan - osati ku Afghanistan nthawi ino, koma Ukraine. Malinga ndi Intercept, zokambirana za Pakistan pambuyo pa IMF adakonzedwa ndi mgwirizano wachinsinsi kuti apange zida zankhondo za United Statesโzida zomwe United States ndiyeno zikanatumiza ku Ukraine kukamenyana ndi Russia. Mosafunikira kunena, ngati mgwirizano wa Imran Khan wa mphamvu ya tirigu ndi Russia udadutsa, Pakistan mwina sikanatumiza zida zankhondo zaku Ukraine zankhondo.
Nkhani Zina
Pakati pa Argentina ndi Pakistan, zovuta zambiri za dollar-yolamulidwa ndi dziko la post-dollar zazunguliridwa. Koma ulendo wofulumira wa mayiko ena umawonetsa zochitika zina. IMF ikufuna Egypt (woitanidwa wina watsopano wa BRICS) kuti achepetse mtengo; Purezidenti wa Egypt, yemwe adayamba kulamulira zaka khumi zapitazo kutambasula zokambirana. Kuteteza dziko la Egypt pakusintha momwe dziko la United States limaperekera chitetezo cha Israeli, ndiye yembekezerani kuti zokambiranazo zizipitilirabe. Ku Lebanon, njira ya IMF ndi yosiyana-kusunga Lebanon mumkhalidwe wa kugwa kwachuma ndi thabwa lina la njira za US/Israel, monganso ku Argentina, cholinga chake ndivuto lazachuma losatha. Mpaka pano, ntchito yakwaniritsidwa. Tunisia yabedwa ndi ngongole za neocolonial kuyambira zaka za zana la 19. Izi zikupitirira mosadodometsedwa. Sri Lanka, yomwe inawonongedwa ndi tsunami ya 2004, inalandira Kubwereketsa motsogozedwa ndi IMF kuyambira pamenepo. Ngakhale kuti 10 peresenti yokha ya ngongoleyi ili ndi ngongole ku China, Sri Lanka akutchulidwa Kumadzulo monga kugwidwa mu "msampha wa ngongole wa China." M'malo mwake, chifukwa ngongole yaying'ono ndi yaku China, Sri Lanka ili molunjika mumsampha wangongole waku Western komwe kumakhala kovuta kuthawa.
Milandu ingapo yomaliza yomaliza: Ku Kenya, IMF akukakamiza kwambiri, kumafuna kuvutika kowonjezereka kwa anthu a ku Kenya mwa misonkho yokwera ndi kuwononga ndalama zotsikaโnjira zochepetsera nthaลตi zonse. Akuluakulu aku Kenya adalengeza koyambirira kwa chaka chino iwo sayesera kukonzanso kapena kukonzanso. Kenya ndiyenso malo omwe ali ndi mbiri yakale Ntchito za China-Africa, Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway (SGR), pamodzi ndi zomangamanga zina. Kumbali ina, US Africa Command (AFRICOM) maziko ankhondo ilinso ku Mombasa. Zambia, yomwe inali ndi mwayi wokwanira $4.1 biliyoni pa ngongole yake ya $ 6.3 biliyoni ku China, kusinthidwa mu June. Mwachidziwikire, IMF idati izi ndi chipambano cha kusinthika kwawo komanso masomphenya ake anthawi yayitali, ponena kuti mgwirizanowu "ukuthandizira kuyika Zambia panjira yopita kukukula kwachuma komanso kuchepetsa umphawi." Purezidenti wa France Emmanuel Macron adayamikiranso chifukwa cha "mbiri yakale": "Timakhalabe [olimbikitsidwa] ...
Pazochitika zonsezi, US ndi IMF amasamala kukakamiza pokhapokha atagwira makhadi. China ikakhala ndi ngongole zambiri kapena ikhoza kupereka njira ina yabwino, IMF ikuwoneka kuti ikupeza njira yochepetsera kunyada ndi omwe ali ndi ngongole. IMF iyeneranso kupondaponda mopepuka: salinso masewera okhawo mtawuniyi, ndipo kukambirana molimbika pamaso pa njira zina kumabweretsa kusakhulupirika-mwinamwake komaliza kwa IMF.
Mwachidule: De-dollarization ndi msewu wodzaza ndi zovuta zambiri. Mayiko ambiri sali chuma chambiri padziko lonse lapansi (China) kapena gulu lankhondo la United States (Russia). Mayiko ochepa amagwera m'gulu la Iran, Venezuela, Cuba, Afghanistan, ndi DPRK-omwe avutika ndi zonse zomwe United States ingathe kuwaponyera ndipo alibe kwina kopita koma kukwera.
Ambiri ali ngati Argentina ndi Pakistan, pakati pa mavuto azachuma, zoopsa, ndi zosankha zovuta. Kudzichotsa ku mphamvu yakumadzulo kudzakhala kowawa, koma sikukuwonekanso kosatheka.
Nkhaniyi idapangidwa ndi Chizindikiro. Justin Podur ndi wolemba ku Toronto, ZFriend, ndi mnzake wolemba ku Globetrotter. Mukhoza kumupeza pa webusaiti yake podur.org komanso pa Twitter @justinpodur. Amaphunzitsa ku York University ku yunivesite ya York Faculty of Environmental and Urban Change.
ZNetwork imalandira ndalama kudzera mu kuwolowa manja kwa owerenga ake.
Ndalama