Chomsky
Ngakhale
kuyesayesa kosimidwa kwa akatswiri amalingaliro kuti atsimikizire kuti mabwalo ndi apakati, alipo
palibe kukayikira kwakukulu kuti kuphulika kwa mabomba a NATO kumasokoneza zomwe zatsalira
dongosolo losalimba la malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. A U.S. anamveketsa zimenezo mโmikangano
zomwe zidapangitsa kuti NATO ipange chisankho. Woyandikira kwambiri adayandikira wotsutsana
dera, chachikulu kwambiri chinali kutsutsa kukakamira kwa Washington
pa mphamvu, ngakhale mkati mwa NATO (Greece ndi Italy). Apanso, zimenezo si zachilendo
chodabwitsa: Chitsanzo china chaposachedwa ndi bomba la US/UK ku Iraq, lomwe lachitika
December 1998 ndi zizindikiro zonyansa kwambiri zonyoza Security
Council - ngakhale nthawi, yogwirizana ndi gawo ladzidzidzi lothana ndi vutoli
zovuta. Chitsanzo chinanso ndikuwononga kwa Clinton theka la theka
kupanga mankhwala kudziko laling'ono la ku Africa miyezi ingapo m'mbuyomo. Iwo
adachotsedwa pano ngati chidwi chochepa, ngakhale chiwonongeko chofanana cha
Maofesi aku US opangidwa ndi zigawenga zachisilamu atha kubweretsa kusintha kosiyana.
Mwina ichi ndi chitsanzo cha mtundu wa "creative deterrence" akulangizidwa ndi
U.S. Strategic Command, 1995, lolunjika pa zomwe "ndi zamtengo wapatali mkati mwa a
chikhalidwe,โ monga tsogolo la ana akufa ndi matenda ochiritsika mosavuta.
Ziyenera kukhala
zosafunikira kutsindika kuti pali mbiri yochulukirapo yomwe ingakhale
zowunikiridwa bwino pakali pano ngati zowona zimaganiziridwa kuti ndizofunikira pakutsimikiza
"Mchitidwe ndi machitidwe" zomwe zimafunidwa kuti ziperekedwe kwambiri
kuunikira kunena ufulu "kuchita zomwe ukuganiza kuti ndi zabwino" mokakamiza.
Izo zikhoza kukhala
anatsutsa, m'malo momveka, kuti kuwonongedwa kwina kwa malamulo a dongosolo la dziko ndi
pakali pano alibe tanthauzo, monga chakumapeto kwa zaka za mโma 1930. Kuwonongeka kwa dziko
mphamvu zotsogola za dongosolo la dongosolo la dziko lapansi zafika poipa kwambiri
zatsala pang'ono kukambirana. Ndemanga ya zolemba zamkati
Zimasonyeza kuti chikhalidwecho chimachokera ku masiku oyambirira, ngakhale oyambirira
chikumbutso cha National Security Council yomwe idakhazikitsidwa chatsopano mu 1947
Kennedy zaka, malingaliro adayamba kuwonekera, monga, mwachitsanzo, liti
nduna yayikulu komanso mlangizi wa Kennedy Dean Acheson adalungamitsa kutsekereza kwa
Cuba mu 1962 podziwitsa American Society of International Law kuti
"kuyenerera" kwa yankho la U.S. ku "vutoโฆ[ku]โฆmphamvu,
udindo, ndi kutchuka kwa United Statesโฆsi nkhani yazamalamulo." "The
Cholinga chenicheni cholankhulira za malamulo apadziko lonse chinali, kwa Acheson, 'ku
sungani malo athu ndi chikhalidwe chochokera ku mfundo zamakhalidwe abwino
zimene zakhudza ziphunzitso zalamuloโโโpamene kuli koyenera.
waukulu
luso la zaka za Reagan-Clinton ndikuti kunyoza malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi
maudindo akhala otseguka kotheratu, ngakhale kutamandidwa kwambiri ku West monga
"The new internationalism" yomwe imalengeza nyengo yatsopano yodabwitsa, yapadera mwa anthu
mbiri. Mosakayikira, zochitikazo zimawonedwa mosiyana kwambiri
zigawo zachikhalidwe za mayiko owunikiridwa; ndipo, pazifukwa zosiyanasiyana,
zili zodetsa nkhawa ngakhale kwa akatswiri ena openda mfundo za hawkish.
Mapeto a
Cold War idapangitsa kuti zitheke kupitilira kukayikira kwa Achesonian. Kukonda dziko
dongosolo silifunika, ngakhale kunyozedwa, monga maiko aunikiridwa amachita monga iwo
chonde popanda kukhudzidwa ndi zoletsa kapena malingaliro adziko lapansi. Kasamalidwe ka ziphunzitso
zokwanira "kuyika maudindo athu ndi chikhalidwe chochokera ku makhalidwe abwino kwambiri
mfundo," monga zomwe zachitika posachedwa zikuwonetsa momveka bwino. "Zatsopano koma
kulungamitsidwa kwa malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi" (Mark Weller) atha kupangidwa pa
chifuniro ndi amphamvu, kutumikira zofuna zawo zapadera: "zaumunthu
kulowererapo" ndi bomba ku Kosovo, koma palibe kuchotsedwa kwakupha kwakukulu
zida zoyenera kuyeretsa fuko ndi ziwopsezo za boma mkati mwa NATO, kungotchula chabe
fanizo lochititsa chidwi kwambiri. Ndi "malingaliro osakondedwa omwe ali chete komanso osasangalatsa
zowona zidasungidwa mdima" mwanjira yomwe Orwell adafotokoza m'mawu ake (okhala chete)
Zowona pamagulu aulere, zonse ziyenera kuchitika bwino. Mulimonse
zimachitika ndi "chizindikiro mu ubale wapadziko lonse" monga "kuunika
limati,โ motsogozedwa ndi โDziko Latsopano lolingaliridwa kuthetsa nkhanza,โ
amapitiriza kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zankhondo kumene โamakhulupirira kuti nโkolungamaโโkapena monga
ena amawona, kupanga "malamulo a masewera" omwe amawavomereza "ufulu
kulowererapo ndi mphamvu kukakamiza zomwe zimawoneka ngati zolungama," nthawi zonse
"ovekedwa ndi chilungamo cha chikhalidwe," "monga mu nthawi ya atsamunda."
Kuchokera ku
Kawonedwe ka owunikiridwa, kusiyana kwa kutanthauzira kumawonetsa
kugawanika kwakuthwa kumene kumalekanitsa "dziko lachibadwa" lawo ndi la mmbuyo
anthu omwe alibe "malingaliro aku Western a kulolerana" ndipo sanagonjebe
"mphamvu yaumunthu yochitira zoipa," kudabwitsa ndi kukhumudwitsa
dziko lotukuka.
M'nkhaniyi,
n'zosadabwitsa kuti "malamulo apadziko lonse masiku ano ndi ochepa kwambiri
zimawonedwa m'dziko lathu kuposa nthawi iliyonse" kuyambira kukhazikitsidwa kwa America
Society of International Law mu 1908. Kapena kuti mkonzi wa otsogolera
Professional Journal of International Law ayenera kuchenjeza za "zowopsa
kukulitsa" kuchotsedwa kwa Washington pakuchita mgwirizano.
Chopambana
maganizo okhudza mabungwe a dongosolo la dziko anasonyezedwa m'njira ina
pamene Yugoslavia adatsutsa mayiko a NATO ku Khoti Lapadziko Lonse,
kudandaula ku Msonkhano wa Genocide. Khotilo linanena kuti linalibe
ulamuliro, pomwe akunena kuti "Maphwando onse ayenera kuchita mogwirizana ndi
udindo wawo pansi pa Charter ya United Nations," yomwe imaletsa momveka bwino
kuphulitsa mabomba - "chilankhulidwe chobisika chonena kuti kuphulika kwa bomba kunali kufalikira padziko lonse lapansi
lamulo," ndi New York Times lipoti. Chochititsa chidwi kwambiri chinali
kuperekedwa kwa boma la U.S., lomwe lidapereka mtsutso wopanda pake,
kuvomerezedwa ndi Khothi, kuti zochita zake sizinagwere pansi pa ulamuliro wa Khoti.
A US adavomerezadi Msonkhano Wachigawenga, pambuyo pochedwa kwambiri,
koma ndi kusungitsa kuti "chilolezo chenicheni cha United States ndi
chofunika" ngati milandu ikutsutsidwa; ndipo United States ikukana
perekani "chilolezo chapadera" chomwe kusungitsako kukunena. Khoti limalamula
amafuna kuti mbali zonse zigwirizane ndi ulamuliro wake, Counse John Crook anakumbutsa
Khothi, ndi kuvomereza kwa U.S. Pamgwirizanowu kunakhazikitsidwa ndi zake
kusagwira ntchito ku United States.
Ikhoza kuwonjezeredwa
kuti kusungitsako kumakhala kofala. U.S. imavomereza zovomerezeka zochepa
za ufulu wachibadwidwe ndi zina zokhudzana nazo, ndipo zochepa izi zimayendetsedwa ndi
kusungitsa malo komwe kumapangitsa kuti (moyenera) asagwiritsidwe ntchito ku United States.
Mafotokozedwe
zoperekedwa kukana maudindo mayiko ndi chidwi, ndipo zingakhale
pamasamba oyamba, komanso otchuka m'maphunziro asukulu ndi kuyunivesite, ngati
kukhulupirika ndi zotsatira za anthu zinkaonedwa ngati zofunika kwambiri.
Wapamwamba kwambiri
akuluakulu anena momveka bwino kuti malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi mabungwe akhala
zosafunika chifukwa satsatiranso malamulo a Washington, monga momwe adachitira
zaka zoyambirira za pambuyo pa nkhondo, pamene mphamvu ya U.S. inali yaikulu. Pamene Bwalo la Dziko Lapansi
anali kuganizira zomwe pambuyo pake adazitsutsa kuti Washington "kugwiritsa ntchito molakwika
"Kulimbana ndi Nicaragua, Mlembi wa boma George Shultz - wolemekezeka ngati mtsogoleri
A Clean of the Reagan administration-ananyoza omwe amalimbikitsa "utopian,
njira zamalamulo monga mkhalapakati wakunja, United Nations, ndi World
Khothi, ndikunyalanyaza mphamvu ya equation." Clear and
molunjika, ndipo osati choyambirira. Mlangizi wa Zamalamulo ku Dipatimenti Yaboma Abraham
Sofaer adalongosola kuti mamembala a UN sangathenso "kuwerengedwa kuti agawane
maganizo athu," ndipo "ambiri nthawi zambiri amatsutsa United States pa zofunika
mafunso apadziko lonse," kotero tiyenera "kusungira tokha mphamvu
dziwani" momwe tidzachitire ndi zomwe zimagwera "m'kati mwake
m'dziko la United States, monga momwe United States idakhazikitsira
States" -pankhaniyi, Washington "kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu mosaloledwa" motsutsa
Nicaragua.
Ndizo zonse kwambiri
bwino kuyankhula momveka bwino za "zowonjezera koma zomveka bwino za
malamulo apadziko lonse" omwe amapanga ufulu wa "kuthandiza anthu," kapena
kuti zigwirizane ndi mayiko aunikiridwa ufulu wogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zankhondo kumene iwo ali
khulupirirani kuti nzolungama. Koma ziyenera kukumbukiridwa kuti, pafupifupi
ngozi, maiko omwe ali odziyenereza ngati aunikiridwa amakhala amenewo
omwe angathe kuchita momwe angafunire. Ndipo kuti mu dziko lenileni, pali njira ziwiri:
(1) Mtundu wina wa dongosolo ladziko lapansi, mwina UN Charter, the
Khoti Lachilungamo Ladziko Lonse, ndi mabungwe ena omwe alipo, kapena mwina
chinthu chabwino ngati chingapangidwe ndikuvomerezedwa mokulira; (2) Amphamvu amachita
momwe angafunire, kuyembekezera kulandira ulemu womwe ndi woyenera
mphamvu.
Kudalirika
Zokambirana zitha kusankha kuganizira zamayiko ena, mwina mutu woyenera
masemina omaliza maphunziro a filosofi. Koma pakadali pano, ndizosankha
(1) ndi (2) zimene zimazindikiritsa dziko lenileni limene zosankha zimene zimakhudza anthu
zinthu ziyenera kuchitidwa.
Chowonadi chakuti
zisankho zogwirira ntchito zimachepetsedwa mpaka (1) ndi (2) zidadziwika zaka 50 zapitazo ndi Dziko
Khoti: "Khoti limangoona kuti ufulu wolowererapo ndi wovomerezeka
kuwonetseredwa kwa ndondomeko ya mphamvu, monga momwe, m'mbuyomu, idayambitsa ambiri
nkhanza zazikulu komanso zomwe sizingachitike, kaya ndi zolakwika zapadziko lonse lapansi
bungwe, pezani malo pamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansiโฆ; kuchokera ku chikhalidwe cha zinthu,
[Kuloลตererapo] kukanangoperekedwa ku mayiko amphamvu kwambiri, ndipo kungakhale kosavuta
zimabweretsa kupotoza kayendetsedwe ka chilungamo komweko."
Munthu akhoza kutengera
kaimidwe ka "kusazindikira mwadala" ndikunyalanyaza "mwambo ndi machitidwe," kapena
kuwachotsa pazifukwa zopanda pake ("kusintha kumene," "Cold War," ndi
zifukwa zina zodziwika). Kapena tikhoza kutenga mwambo, machitidwe, ndi chiphunzitso chomveka
mozama, pamodzi ndi mbiri yeniyeni ya "kuthandiza anthu,"
kuchoka ku miyambo yolemekezeka koma osachepera kutsegula mwayi wopeza
kumvetsetsa kwina kwa zomwe zikuchitika padziko lapansi.
Zikuchita kuti izo
kusiya funso lenileni la zomwe zimayenera kuchitidwa ku Kosovo? Icho chimachoka
sanayankhidwe. Yankho silingangotengedwa kuchokera ku mfundo zosamveka,
komabe zochepa kuchokera ku ziyembekezo zachipembedzo, koma zimafuna kusamalitsa zochitikazo
za dziko lenileni.
Zomveka
chiweruzo, ndikuganiza, ndikuti US idasankha njira yoti-monga
zoyembekezeredwaโzidzakulitsa nkhanza ndi chiwawa; izo zikukhudzanso wina
kuwombera motsutsa ulamuliro wa dongosolo la mayiko, lomwe limapereka ofooka osachepera
chitetezo chochepa kumayiko olanda; zomwe zimasokoneza demokalase
zochitika ku Yugoslavia, mwinanso Macedonia; ndipo izo zikubwerera mmbuyo
ziyembekezo za kuchotsa zida ndi kulamulira kwina kwa zida zanyukiliya ndi zina
zida zowononga anthu ambiri, ndithudi zikhoza kusiya ena "osasankha" koma
"kupeza zida zowononga kwambiri" podziteteza. Mwa zitatu zomveka
zotheka, idasankha (I) "kuchita kuti achulukitse tsoka," kukana
njira zina: (II) "musachite kanthu," (III) "yesani kuchepetsa
tsoka." Kodi kusankha (III) kunali kotheka? Munthu sangadziwe, koma alipo
zizindikiro kuti zingakhale.
Kwa Kosovo, imodzi
zowona zomveka kuyambira pachiyambi zinali kuti "bomba lililonse lomwe limagwa
Serbia ndi kuphana kulikonse ku Kosovo kukuwonetsa kuti sizingachitike
zotheka kuti Aserbia ndi Alubaniya azikhala moyandikana
mtendere" (Financial Times, March 27) Zotulukapo zina zanthaลตi yaitali
sizosangalatsa kuziganizira. Zabwino kwambiri, bungwe la NATO lake
kukhazikitsidwa kwalamulo kumasiya "zovuta zazikulu" kukhala
anayankhidwa, mwachangu kwambiri omwe ali "zotsatira" za bomba, monga
anavomereza.
Mkhalidwe
mkangano ndi wakuti tinayenera kuchita chinachake: sitikanangokhala ngati
nkhanza zinapitirira. Panalibe njira ina yopitira kukakamiza, Tony
Blair adalengeza, mitu yambiri ikugwedezeka mogwirizana: "osachita kalikonse
kukanakhala kuvomereza nkhanza za Milosevic." Ngati njira (III)
("kuchepetsa tsoka") sikuphatikizidwa, monga momwe timaganizira mozama, ndipo ife tiri
kungotsala ndi (I) ("kukulitsa tsoka") kapena (II) ("musachite kanthu"),
ndiye tiyenera kusankha (ine). Kuti mkangano ukhoza kunenedwa ndi ulemu kwa
kusimidwa kwa ochirikiza kuphulitsa mabomba. Tiyerekeze kuti mukuwona umbanda
m'misewu, ndikumverera kuti simungathe kuyimirira mwakachetechete, kotero mutenge
kumenya mfuti ndikupha aliyense amene akukhudzidwa: zigawenga, ozunzidwa, oimirira. Ndife
kumvetsetsa kuti ndiko kuyankha kwanzeru komanso kwamakhalidwe, molingana ndi
Mfundo ya Blair?
Chisankho chimodzi,
kupezeka nthawi zonse, ndiko kutsatira mfundo ya Hippocratic: "Choyamba, musachite ayi
zoipa." Ngati simungaganize njira iliyonse yotsatirira ku mfundo yoyambira imeneyo, ndiye
osachita kanthu; kuteroko nโkwabwino kuposa kuvulazaโzotsatira zake
kuzindikiridwa pasadakhale kukhala "oneneratu" pankhani ya Kosovo, a
ulosi unakwaniritsidwa mokwanira. Nthawi zina zikhoza kukhala zoona kuti kufufuza
njira zamtendere zatha, ndikuti palibe "njira ina" yochitira
palibe kapena kuvulaza kwambiri. Ngati ndi choncho, aliyense amene amadzinenera kuti ndi a
Wothandizira wamakhalidwe adzatsatira mfundo ya Hippocratic. Palibe cholimbikitsa
zikhoza kuchitika, komabe, ziyenera kuwonetsedwa. Pankhani ya Kosovo, diplomatic
Zosankha zidawoneka ngati zotseguka, ndipo zitha kukhala zogwira mtima komanso momwe zikubwera
kuvomerezedwa, mochedwa kwambiri.
Ufulu wa
"Kuthandizira anthu" nthawi zambiri kumakhala kolimbikitsidwa
zaka zikubwera-mwina ndi kulungamitsidwa, mwina ayi-tsopano kuti dongosolo la
kuletsa kwagwa (kulola ufulu wochulukirapo) ndi zifukwa za Cold War
ataya mphamvu zawo (zofuna zatsopano). Munthawi yotero, zitha kukhala
koyenera kulabadira malingaliro a othirira ndemanga olemekezedwa kwambiriโayi
kuyiwala Khoti Lapadziko Lonse, lomwe linagamula pa nkhani ya kulowererapo ndi
"thandizo lothandizira anthu" mu chisankho chokanidwa ndi United States, ake
zofunikira sizinafotokozedwe.
Mu maphunziro
machitidwe a mayiko ndi malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi zingakhale zovuta
pezani mawu olemekezeka kuposa Hedley Bull kapena Louis Henkin. Bull anachenjeza 15
zaka zapitazo kuti "Magawo apadera kapena magulu a mayiko omwe adadzipanga okha
monga oweruza ovomerezeka a dziko lonse labwino, mosasamala malingaliro
ena, ali pachiwopsezo ku dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi, motero kuti agwire bwino ntchito
kuchitapo kanthu m'munda uno." Henkin, m'ntchito yokhazikika pa dongosolo ladziko, akulemba kuti
"Zikamizo zomwe zikuchotsa kuletsa kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu ndi zomvetsa chisoni, ndipo
mikangano yololeza kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu muzochitika zimenezo ndi
osakopa komanso owopsaโฆ Ngakhale 'kuthandiza anthu' kungathenso
zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati nthawi kapena chifukwa chochitira chipongwe. Kuphwanya anthu
maufulu alidi ochuluka, ndipo ngati kunali kololedwa kuwathetsa
kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu kunja, sipakanakhala lamulo loletsa kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu
pafupifupi dziko lililonse lotsutsana ndi lina lililonse. Ufulu waumunthu, ndikukhulupirira, uyenera kutero
kutsimikiziridwa, ndi kusalungama kwina kuthetsedwa, mwa njira zina, mwamtendere, osati mwa
kutsegula chitseko chaukali ndi kuwononga patsogolo wamkulu mu
malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi, kuletsa nkhondo ndi kuletsa mphamvu."
Izi ndi
zowonetsera zomwe siziyenera kunyalanyazidwa mopepuka. Mfundo zodziwika za
malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi, zofunikira zamapangano, zisankho zapadziko lonse lapansi
Khoti, zomwe zimaganiziridwa ndi othirira ndemanga olemekezekaโzimenezi sizitero
amangopereka mfundo kapena njira zothetsera mavuto enaake. Aliyense
ziyenera kuganiziridwa pazabwino zake. Kwa iwo amene satsatira miyezo ya
Saddam Hussein, pali umboni wochuluka woti mukumane nawo pochita izi
kuwopseza kapena kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu.
Mwina
zolemetsa zimatha kukwaniritsidwa, koma izi ziyenera kuwonetsedwa, osati kungolengeza. The
Zotsatira zake ziyenera kuyesedwa mosamala, makamaka zomwe timaganiza
"zoneneratu." Zifukwa za zochitazo ziyenera kuyesedwanso
zifukwa zomveka, ndi chidwi ndi mbiri yakale ndi zolemba zolemba,
osati kungotengera atsogoleri athu komanso "mfundo ndi zikhalidwe"
onenedwa kwa iwo ndi osilira.
Z
Zachotsedwa
kuchokera ku Chomsky's The New Military Humanism (Common Courage, 1999)