NOTES
1. The number of 703 U.S. military bases located in other people’s countries is from the Office of the Deputy Undersecretary of Defense (Installations and Environment), Base Structure Report (A Summary of DoD’s Real Property Inventory) (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 2003), www.defenselink.mil/news/Jun2003/basestructure2003.pdf. The figure for 2001 was 725. For details and analysis of these reports, see Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004), pp. 151-60. The figure 703 seriously underestimates the actual number since it omits secret intelligence bases, those disguised by national identities (e.g., Royal Air Force bases in Britain), those omitted in order to avoid embarrassment to foreign governments, and most of the bases in the Balkans, Persian Gulf, and Central Asia acquired in recent American wars.
2. Rachel Cornwell and Andrew Wells, “Deploying Insecurity,” Peace Review 11:3 (1999), p. 410.
3. William Arkin, “U.S. Air Bases Forge Double-Edged Sword,” Los Angeles Times, January 6, 2002.
4. Robert Burns, Associated Press, “Rumsfeld Holds Range of Talks in Tokyo,” November 16, 2003.
5. Global Security Organization, “U.S. Forces, Japan,” www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/dod/usfj.htm; Thom Shanker, “Okinawans Ask Rumsfeld to Thin Out Troops,” New York Times, November 17, 2003.
6. For details on the omoiyari yosan, see Glenn D. Hook, Julie Gilson, Christopher W. Hughes, and Hugo Dobson, Japan’s International Relations (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 134.
7. David Allen, “Ten-year Makeover Is Under Way at Okinawa’s Camp Foster,” Stars and Stripes, January 2, 2002.
8. A text of the SOFA can be found on the web site of Okinawa-related materials maintained by Dr. John Purves, http://www.niraikanai.wwma.net/pages/archive/sofa.html.
9. Keiichi Inamine, “The Anger of Okinawa Residents Is Magma Ready to Explode,” Ronza, October 2003 (in Japanese).
10. On these issues, see Shigemitsu Dandô, Japanese Criminal Procedure, B. J. George, Jr., trans. (South Hackensack, NJ: Fred B. Rothman & Co., 1965); Chalmers Johnson, Conspiracy at Matsukawa (Berkeley; University of California Press, 1972); and David T. Johnson, The Japanese Way of Justice: Prosecuting Crime in Japan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
11. Thom Shanker, “U.S. and Japan Discuss Transfer of American Rape Suspect,” New York Times, July 6, 2001.
12. David Allen and Chiyomi Sumida, “General Gets Earful from Okinawa Governor,” Stars and Stripes, August 13, 2003.
13. “Inamine Meets Rumsfeld: Perception Gap Not Closed Despite Direct Appeal on Base Issues,” Asahi Shimbun, November 17, 2003, p. 2.
14. “Okinawa Governor Urges Rumsfeld to Reduce U.S. Bases,” Japan Today, November 20, 2003.
15. Thom Shanker, “Okinawans Ask Rumsfeld to Thin Out Troops, New York Times, November 17, 2003.
16. See Chalmers Johnson, Blowback (New York: Metropolitan, 2000), pp. 41-42; and Tomoko Daiji, “Close-up Column: Crimes Committed by U.S. Troops and Information Disclosure,” Mainichi Shimbun, January 22, 2003, p. 3.
17. David Allen, “Friend of Accused Testifies in Rape Trial on Okinawa, Stars and Stripes, November 10, 2001.
18. “U.S. Serviceman Turnover: SOFA Revision Not Touched Again,” Asahi Shimbun, June 19, 2003, p. 35.
19. “Japanese Parliament Panel Seeks Review of U.S. Forces Pact,” Agence France Presse, July 10, 2001.
20. Thom Shanker, “U.S. and Japan Discuss Transfer of American Rape Suspect,” New York Times, July 6, 2001.
21. Sheila K. Johnson, “Another Okinawa Outrage,” Los Angeles Times, July 8, 2001; and Johnson, “Blame Misplaced in Okinawa Rape Case,” Japan Times, August 2, 2001.
22. “Airman Gets 32 Months for Rape in Okinawa,” Japan Times, March 29, 2002; Howard W. French, “Airman’s Rape Conviction Fans Okinawa’s Ire Over U.S. Bases,” New York Times, March 29, 2002; and Komako Akai, “Woodland Convicted of Rape, Sentenced to 32 Months in Japanese Prison,” Stars and Stripes, March 28, 2002.
23. “Attempted Rape Incident in Okinawa: U.S. Military Suspect’s Statement: ‘I Was Seduced,’” Tokyo Shimbun, December 9, 2002, p. 8. Also see “Case History” and “The Incident” on the Free Major Brown web site; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Statement by Minister for Foreign Affairs Yoriko Kawaguchi Concerning Charges Against a U.S. Marine Major of Attempted Rape,” December 3, 2002, http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2002/1203.html; “U.S. Officer Named in Rape Bid on Filipina in Japan,” Agence France Presse, December 5, 2002; “U.S. Suspect in Rape Case ‘Intoxicated,’” Kyodo, December 8, 2002; and “Criminal Case Involves Officer,” Okinawa Times Weekly, December 7, 2002.
24. “USMC Major Charged with Attempted Rape in Okinawa,” Asahi Shimbun, December 4, 2002, p. 39; and Elaine Lies, “Japan Calls for Crackdown on U.S. Military Crime,” Reuters, December 4, 2002.
25. Teruaki Ueno, “U.S. Refuses to hand Over Marine in Japan Rape Case,” Reuters, December 5, 2002; and “Attempted Rape in Okinawa: U.S. Refuses to Turn Over Suspected U.S. Serviceman,” Asahi Shimbun, December 6, 2002, p. 39.
26 “Police Raid Home of Accused Marine,” Associated Press, December 7, 2002.
27. “MOFA Expresses Regret to U.S. Envoy,” Asahi Shimbun, December 4, 2002, p. 39; “Foreign Minister Kawaguchi to Ask for Improvement in SOFA Operation to Allow Handing over of U.S. Military Personnel even in ‘Attempted’ [Rape] Incidents,” Mainichi Shimbun, December 6, 2002, p. 1; “Attempted Rape in Okinawa: Prime Minister Says Pre-indictment Turnover of Suspect Unnecessary,” Yomiuri Shimbun, December 7, 2002, p. 4; “Japan Won’t Press for Marine Rape Suspect,” Japan Times, December 7, 2002; and “U.S. Rejection of the Handover of U.S. Marine Major Exposes U.S. Upper hand Regarding SOFA; Japan Must Conduct National Debate by Taking Okinawa’s Voice to Heart,” Yomiuri Shimbun, December 17, 2002, p. 13.
28. “Japanese Court Seeks Arrest of U. S. Marine,” Associated Press, December 3, 2002; “Japan Protests Over Alleged Rape Attempt,” Agence France Presse, December 3, 2002; “Okinawa Prefectural Assembly Adopts Resolution Protesting U.S. Refusal to Hand Over Marine Corps Major,” Asahi Shimbun, December 11, 2002, p. 38; and “Governors Call for Revision to SOFA,” Japan Times, February 13, 2003.
29. “Japan Prosecutors Indict U.S. Marine on Rape Attempt,” Reuters, December 19, 2002; and “Marine Handed Over to Local Authorities over Attempted Rape,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, December 20, 2002, p. 43.
30. The text of the petition is available on the “Free major Brown” web site. The petition was filed in Washington, DC, on the logic that George W. Bush is the petitioner’s commander-in-chief and he resides in Washington.
31. “Free Major Brown” web site, s.v. “Previous Updates.”
32. “U.S. Serviceman’s Attempted Rape Case in Okinawa: Victim Testifies in Court, ‘I Wanted to Withdraw My Complaint,’” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, May 14, 2003, p. 35.
33. “U.S. Marine Accused of Attempted Rape Is Granted Bail,” Kyodo, May 17, 2003; Hiroshi Matsubara, “Detention Process Questioned,” Japan Times, September 21, 2001.
34. David Allen, “Japanese Court Dismisses Motion to Disqualify Panel in Brown Case,” Stars and Stripes, October 23, 2003; and Allen, “Japan’s High Court Rejects Brown Appeal,” Stars and Stripes, November 16, 2003.
35. “Judicial Friction Seen over SOFA: USMC Major Consistently Asserts Innocence in Attempted Rape,” Asahi Shimbun, July 16, 2003.
36. “Free Major Brown” web site, “update” of June 16, 2003.
37. “Endless Crimes Involving U.S. Servicemen Fuel Fear in Okinawa,” Asahi Shimbun, June 17, 2003, p. 39.
38. “U.S. Marine Held in New Okinawa Rape Case,” CNN, June 12, 2003; “Okinawa Prefectural Police Questioning U.S. Marine on Voluntary Basis on Charges of Assaulting 19-year-old Woman,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, June 12, 2003, p. 17; “U.S. Serviceman Questioned in Okinawa on Charge of Rape Amid Loud Calls for ‘Review of SOFA,’” Tokyo Shimbun, June 13, 2003, p. 27; “U.S. Envoy Expresses Regret,” Asahi Shimbun, June 13, 2003, p. 39; Mark Oliva, “Okinawa Police Continue to Investigate Marine,” Stars and Stripes, June 15, 2003; Saikazu Nakamura, “Sexual Assault Incident in Okinawa: Arrest Warrant for U.S. Serviceman Issued,” Mainichi Shimbun, June 16, 2003, eve. ed., p. 8; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Statement by Minister for Foreign Affairs Yoriko Kawaguchi Concerning Alleged Rape Resulting in Injury Committed by a U.S. Marine Lance Corporal,” June 16, 2003, http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2003/6/0616.html; “Government Asks U.S. at Joint Committee to Turn Over U.S. Marine Rape Suspect to Japan Before Indictment,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, June 17, 2003, p. 39; “U.S. Marine Rape Incident: Chief Cabinet Secretary Asks U.S. Ambassador to Turn the Suspect Over to Japanese Side,” Asahi Shimbun, June 18, 2003, p. 4; and “Marine Sentenced to Jail for Rape,” Reuters, September 14, 2003.
39. See, e.g., Martin Sieff, “Bush Pushes Global Force Reform,” United Press International, November 25, 2003.
40. “Drunk U.S. Base Worker Kills Man in Okinawa Car Crash,” Mainichi Daily News, March 17, 2003; David Allen and Chiyomi Sumida, “Two Americans in Custody After Incidents on Okinawa,” Stars and Stripes, May 7, 2003; and “Five U.S. Marines Arrested over Series of Incidents in Okinawa,” Tokyo Shimbun, June 1, 2003, p. 27. Also see Okinawa-shi Heiwa Bunka Shinkô-ka, ed., Koza: hito, machi, koto (Koza: People, Town, Events) (Okinawa-shi: Okinawa-shi Yakusho, 1997).
41. See Shintaro Ishihara, The Japan that Can Say NO (New York: Simon & Schuser, 1991).
42. “Governor Inamine’s Nationwide Pilgrimage to Form Alliance to Force Central Government to Move on Revision of the Japan-U.S. Status of Forces Agreement,” Asahi Shimbun, June 14, 2003, p. 33; and “Inamine Asks Ishihara for Cooperation on Sofa Revision,” Tokyo Shimbun, June 14, 2003, p. 3.
43. “SOFA: U.S. Hints at Refusing Suspect Turnover,” Asahi Shimbun, July 3, 2003, p. 1.
44. “Judicial Friction Seen over SOFA: USMC Major Consistently Asserts Innocence in Attempted Rape,” Asahi Shimbun, July 16, 2003.
45. “Talks on SOFA Legal Procedures,” Sankei Shimbun, July 4, 2003, p. 5; and Yoichi Toyota, “SOFA Talks: Japan, U.S. Confront over Official Presence at Police Questioning of U.S. Military Suspects,” Tokyo Shimbun, July 12, 2003, p. 2.
46. “Editorial: SOFA Revision Needed After All,” Asahi Shimbun, June 20, 2003, p. 2; “SOFA Talks to Focus on Interpreter, Lawyer; U.S. Stresses Human Rights in New Rules,” Asahi Shimbun, June 20, 2003, p.3; “Japan, U.S. Meet over GI Justice,” Christian Science Monitor, June 30, 2003; David Allen and Chiyomi Sumida, “Japanese Leaders Want Comfier SOFA,” Stars and Stripes, July 21, 2003; Hiroyuki Sato, “SOFA Talks: Japan-U.S. Views Remain at Odds,” Asahi Shimbun, July 26, 2003, pp. 3, 4; “SOFA: Government to Allow U.S. Officials to be Present During Questioning of U.S. Suspects by Japanese Police,” Sankei Shimbun, July 30, 2003, p. 2; Taro Kono (LDP member of the House of Representatives), “If the U.S. Is Asking More of Japan, Will the U.S. Tread More Lightly in Turn?” Christian Science Monitor, August 1, 2003; “U.S., Japan Disagree on Justice for Troops,” Reuters, August 1, 2003; and “Inability to Reach Agreement on SOFA Assurances Will Affect the Japan-U.S. Alliance,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, August 3, 2003, p. 2.
47. “Thoughts on USFJ—Changing Alliance,” Mainichi Shimbun, July 29, 2003, p. 3; and “SOFA Talks: Japan Compromises, U.S. Remains Tough,” Mainichi Shimbun, August 3, 2003, p. 3.
48. Robert Burns, Associated Press, “Rumsfeld Holds Range of Talks in Tokyo,” November 16, 2003.
49. Bryan Bender and Shane Green, “U.S. Signals Rethink on Bases Overseas,” Sydney Morning Herald, November 27, 2003 (reprinted from The Boston Globe); and “U.S. Force Realignment: Okinawa’s Burden Alleviation Expected to Be Small,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, November 27, 2003, p. 2.
This appeared originally as JPRI Working Paper 97. Chalmers Johnson, the author of Blowback. The Costs and Consequences of American Empire, is the president of the Japan Policy Research Institute and can be reached at [email protected]. JPRI publications are available at http://www.jpri.org/
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