Umhlaba wema ngxi kwiminyaka engama-50 eyadlulayo kwiveki yokugqibela ka-Okthobha, ukusukela kumzuzu apho kwava khona ukuba iSoviet Union yabeka imijukujelwa exhobe ngenyukliya eCuba de yaphela le ngxaki ngokusemthethweni - nangona ingaziwa eluntwini, ngokusemthethweni kuphela.
Umfanekiso wehlabathi umile ngulo ukujika kwebinzana kaSheldon Stern, owayesakuba ngumbhali-mbali kwiThala leeNcwadi likaMongameli likaJohn F. Kennedy, owapapasha uguqulelo olugunyazisiweyo lweekhasethi zeentlanganiso ze-ExComm apho uKennedy kunye nesangqa esisondeleyo sabacebisi baxoxa ngendlela yokusabela kule ngxaki. Ezo ntlanganiso zarekhodwa ngokufihlakeleyo ngumongameli, nto leyo enokuthi ingqinelane nesibakala sokuba ukuma kwakhe kuzo zonke iiseshoni ezirekhodiweyo kuthothisiwe xa kuthelekiswa nabanye abathathi-nxaxheba, ababengazi ukuba bathetha nembali.
Stern uye ku papashwa uphononongo olufikelelekayo noluchanekileyo lwale ngxelo ibaluleke kakhulu yamaxwebhu, ekugqibeleni yanqunyanyiswa ekupheleni koo-1990. Ndiza kubambelela kuloo nto apha. Uqukumbela ngelithi: โAkuzange kwenzeke ngaphambili okanye ukususela ngoko, ukuba ukusinda kwempucuko yabantu kube sengozini kwiiveki nje ezimbalwa zeengxoxo eziyingozi,โ eyafikelela incopho yayo โkwiveki elimi ngayo ihlabathi.โ
Kwakukho isizathu esibambekayo senkxalabo yehlabathi. Imfazwe yenyukliya yayisondele kakhulu, imfazwe eyayinokutshabalalisa uMntla weIkhweyitha, uMongameli uDwight Eisenhower walumkisa ngelo xesha. Umgwebo kaKennedy yayikukuba amathuba emfazwe ayephezulu njenge-50%. Uqikelelo lwaba phezulu njengoko ungquzulwano lwalufikelela incopho yalo kunye โnesicwangciso esifihlakeleyo somhla wentshabalalo sokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uphilaโ eWashington, njengoko kuchazwa yintatheli uMichael Dobbs kumthengisi wakhe ophandiweyo kakhulu kule ngxaki (nangona yena t ukuchaza ukuba kutheni kunokubakho inqaku elininzi ekwenzeni oko, xa kujongwa uhlobo olunokwenzeka lwemfazwe yenyukliya).
UDobbs ucaphula uDino Brugioni, "ilungu eliphambili leqela leCIA elibeke esweni ukwakhiwa kwemijukujelwa yaseSoviet," engazange abone ndlela yokuphuma ngaphandle "kwemfazwe kunye nentshabalalo epheleleyo" njengoko iwotshi isiya "umzuzu omnye ukuya ezinzulwini zobusuku,โ umxholo wencwadi yakhe. Isinxulumani esisondeleyo sikaKennedy, umbhali-mbali uArthur Schlesinger, wachaza ezi ziganeko โnjengelona xesha liyingozi kwimbali yoluntu.โ Unobhala wezoKhuselo uRobert McNamara wazibuza ekhwaza ukuba "angaphila ukuze abone obunye ubusuku bangoMgqibelo," kwaye kamva waqonda ukuba "siphumelele" - kancinci.
โElona xesha liyingoziโ
Ukujongisisa okwenzekayo kongeza intsingiselo embi kwezi zigwebo, kunye neenguqulelo kulo mzuzu.
Kukho abagqatswa abaliqela "kwelona xesha liyingozi." Ngomhla wama-27 ku-Okthobha, xa abatshabalalisi base-US benyanzelisa ukuvalelwa kwabantu bodwa eCuba babewisa iintlawulo ezinzulu kwiinqanawa ezintywilayo zaseSoviet. Ngokutsho kwengxelo yeSoviet, iNational Security Archive, abaphathi beenkwili โbabexhelekile kangangokuba bathetha ngokudubula ii<em>torpedoes zenyukliya, eziziqhushumbisi zazo eziziikhiloton ezili-15 eziphantse zibe yibhombu eyatshabalalisa iHiroshima ngoAgasti 1945.โ
Kwimeko enye, isigqibo esixeliweyo sokuhlanganisa i-torpedo yenyukliya yokulungela imfazwe yachithwa ngomzuzu wokugqibela nguCaptain Wesibini uVasili Arkhipov, onokuthi usindise ihlabathi kwintlekele yenyukliya. Akukho mathandabuzo amancinci ukuba i-US isabela njani ukuba i-torpedo yagxothwa, okanye indlela amaRashiya ayeya kusabela ngayo njengoko ilizwe labo lalinyuka linyuka.
UKennedy wayesele ebhengeze esona silumkiso siphezulu senyukliya kungekudala (DEFCON 2), egunyazise "inqwelomoya ye-NATO enabaqhubi beenqwelomoya baseTurkey ... [okanye abanye] ... ngoku ka Umhlalutyi weqhinga leYunivesithi yaseHarvard owazi kakuhle uGraham Allison, ebhala kwijenali yokusekwa Imicimbi yabangaphandle.
Omnye umviwa yi-26 ka-Okthobha. Olo suku lukhethwe "njengelona xesha liyingozi" ngumqhubi we-B-52 u-Major Don Clawson, owaqhuba enye yezo nqwelomoya ze-NATO kwaye enikezela ngenkcazo ephakamisa iinwele yeenkcukacha ze-Chrome Dome (CD) ngexesha lengxaki - " Ii-B-52s ezikwisilumkiso emoyeniโ ezinezixhobo zenyukliya โzikhwele kwaye zilungele ukusetyenziswa.โ
I-26 ka-Okthobha yayilusuku apho "isizwe sasisondele kakhulu kwimfazwe yenyukliya," ubhala "kwingxelo yakhe engafanelekanga yomqhubi we-Air Force," Ngaba yiloo nto eFuneka Uyazi Abasebenzi? Ngaloo mini, uClawson ngokwakhe wayekwimeko entle yokuqalisa intlekele enokwenzeka. Uqukumbela ngelithi, "Sinethamsanqa lokuba asizange siliqhumisele ihlabathi - kwaye akukho mbulelo kubunkokeli bezopolitiko okanye bomkhosi beli lizwe."
Iimpazamo, ukubhideka, iingozi ezikufutshane, kunye nokungaqondwa kobunkokeli ukuba ingxelo kaClawson iyothusa ngokwaneleyo, kodwa akukho nto ifana nemithetho yokusebenza kunye nokulawula - okanye ukungabikho kwayo. Njengoko uClawson ebalisa ngamava akhe ngexesha le-15 yeeyure ezingama-24 kwimishini ye-CD yeeyure ezingama-XNUMX awayibhabha, kangangoko kunokwenzeka, abalawuli abasemthethweni โbabengenawo amandla okuthintela iqela elikhohlakeleyo okanye iqela labasebenzi ukuba baxhobe kwaye bakhulule izixhobo zabo ze-thermonuclear,โ okanye nokuba. ekusasazeni uthumo ngewawukhuphe โwonke umkhosi weAirborne Alert ngaphandle kokuba ukhumbule.โ Ubhala athi, emva kokuba abasebenzi basemoyeni bephethe izixhobo ze-thermonuclear, โbekunokwenzeka ukuba baxhobe baze baziwise zonke kungekho galelo lingakumbi ukusuka emhlabeni. Kwakungekho inhibitor kuyo nayiphi na inkqubo. โ
Ngokumalunga nesinye kwisithathu samandla onke asemoyeni, ngokutsho kukaGeneral David Burchinal, umlawuli wezicwangciso kwi-Air Staff kwiKomkhulu le-Air Force. I-Strategic Air Command (SAC), ephetheyo ngokobugcisa, ibonakala inolawulo oluncinci. Kwaye ngokwengxelo kaClawson, uGunyaziwe weSizwe woLawulo lwagcinwa ebumnyameni yi-SAC, nto leyo ethetha ukuba i-ExComm โizigqiboโ ezicingisisa ngekamva lehlabathi zazi nangakumbi. Imbali yomlomo kaGeneral Burchinal ayikhulisi nwele, kwaye iveza nendelelo enkulu ngakumbi kumyalelo wabahlali. Ngokutsho kwakhe, ukubanjwa kweRashiya akuzange kube nokuthandabuza. Imisebenzi yeCD yayiyilelwe ukuba icace gca kubantu baseRussia ukuba babengenakukhuphisana kungquzulwano lwasemkhosini, kwaye babenokutshatyalaliswa ngokukhawuleza.
Ukusuka kwiirekhodi ze-ExComm, i-Stern iphetha ngokuthi, ngo-Okthobha wama-26, uMongameli uKennedy "wayexhomekeke kwisenzo somkhosi ukuphelisa imijukujelwa" eCuba, ukuba ilandelwe luhlaselo, ngokwezicwangciso zePentagon. Kwacaca ke ngoko ukuba isenzo sisenokuba sikhokelele kwimfazwe ebulalayo, isiphelo esaqiniswa zizityhilelo ezininzi zamva zokuba izixhobo zenyukliya ezinobuchule zazisetyenzisiwe kwaye imikhosi yaseRussia yayinkulu kakhulu kunengxelo yobukrelekrele base-US.
Njengoko iintlanganiso ze-ExComm zazisondela ekupheleni kwe-6 ntambama ngomhla we-26, kwafika ileta evela kwiNkulumbuso yaseSoviet uNikita Khrushchev, ithunyelwe ngokuthe ngqo kuMongameli uKennedy. โUmyalezo wakhe wawubonakala ucacile,โ uStern ubhala athi: โimijukujelwa yayiza kususwa ukuba i-US ithembise ukuba ayisayi kuyihlasela iCuba.โ
Ngosuku olulandelayo, ngentsimbi yeshumi kusasa, umongameli waphinda wavula iteyiphu eyimfihlo. Wafunda ngokuvakalayo ingxelo yenkonzo yocingo eyayisanda kunikezelwa kuye: "INkulumbuso uKhrushchev uxelele uMongameli uKennedy kumyalezo namhlanje uya kurhoxisa izixhobo ezihlaselayo eCuba ukuba iUnited States ihoxise iirokhethi zayo eTurkey" - imijukujelwa yeJupiter enezixhobo zenyukliya. Ngokukhawuleza ingxelo yaqinisekiswa.
Nangona ifunyenwe yikomiti njengebhawunti engalindelekanga evela kumbala oluhlaza, bekulindelwe: "Besiyazi ukuba oku kungaza iveki," uKennedy wabaxelela. Ukwala ukwamkeleka esidlangalaleni kwakuya kuba nzima, waqonda. Le yayiyimijukujelwa ephelelwe lixesha, esele imiselwe ukurhoxiswa, kungekudala iza kutshintshwa ziinqanawa ezintywilayo zePolaris eziyingozi kakhulu nezingenakonakaliswa. UKennedy waqonda ukuba uya kuba "ayinyamezeleki isikhundla ukuba oku kuba sisindululo [sikaKhrushchev],โ zombini ngenxa yokuba imijukujelwa yaseTurkey yayingenamsebenzi kwaye yayirhoxiswa nakanjani na, kwaye ngenxa yokuba โiyaโkuye nawuphi na umntu kwiZizwe eziManyeneyo okanye nayiphi na enye into. ngqiqweni ndoda, kuya kubonakala ngathi lurhwebo olunobulungisa kakhulu. "
Ukugcina Amandla ase-US engathintelwa
Abacwangcisi ke ngoko bajongene nengxaki enkulu. Babephethe izindululo ezibini ezahlukeneyo ukusuka eKhrushchev ukuphelisa isoyikiso semfazwe eyintlekele, kwaye nganye iya kubonakala kuye nawuphi na "umntu onengqondo" ukuba lurhwebo olunobulungisa. Indlela yokusabela?
Enye into ibinokuba kukuphefumla umoya wokuba impucuko ikwazi ukusinda nokuzamkela ngolangazelelo zombini ezo zithembiso; ukwazisa ukuba i-US iya kubambelela kumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kwaye isuse nasiphi na isoyikiso sokuhlasela iCuba; kunye nokuqhubela phambili ukurhoxiswa kwemijukujelwa ephelelwe lixesha eTurkey, iqhubeka njengoko bekucwangcisiwe ukuphucula isoyikiso senyukliya ngokuchasene neSoviet Union ukuya kweyona inkulu kakhulu - inxenye kuphela, ewe, yelizwe elijikeleze iRussia. Kodwa loo nto yayingenakucingwa.
Isizathu esisisiseko sokuba kutheni kungabikho ingcinga enjalo inokucingwa sichazwe nguMcebisi weSizwe kwezoKhuseleko uMcGeorge Bundy, owayesakuba ngumphathi weHarvard nowayedume ngokuba yeyona nkwenkwezi iqaqambileyo kwisibhakabhaka seCamelot. Ihlabathi, wagxininisa ukuba, kufuneka liqonde ukuba โ[t]isisongelo soxolo ngoku hayi eTurkey, ikhona Tyhubha,โ apho imijukujelwa ijongiswe e-US Umkhosi wemijukujelwa onamandla ngakumbi wase-US oqeqeshelwe utshaba lweSoviet olubuthathaka kwaye lusengozini kakhulu alunakuthathwa njengesoyikiso soxolo, kuba silungile, njengabantu abaninzi kwi-Western hemisphere. nangaphaya banokungqina - phakathi kwabanye abaninzi, amaxhoba imfazwe yobunqolobi eqhubekayo ukuba i-US yayilwa neCuba, okanye ezo zitshayelweyo "iphulo lentiyoโ kwilizwe lama-Arabhu elalimdida uEisenhower, nangona ingelilo iBhunga leSizwe lezoKhuseleko, elaliyichaza ngokucacileyo.
Ewe, imbono yokuba i-US kufuneka ithintelwe ngumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe yayihlekisa kakhulu ukuba ifanele ukuqwalaselwa. Njengoko ichazwe mva nje ngumhlalutyi ohlonitshwayo wenkululeko ekhohlo uMatthew Yglesias, โomnye wemisebenzi ephambili yolungelelwaniso lwamaziko ehlabathi kukukwenza kanye oko. esemthethweni ukusetyenziswa komkhosi womkhosi obulalayo ngamagunya asentshona โ- okuthetha ukuba i-US - ukuze "ibe yi-naรฏve emangalisayo," eneneni "bubudenge," ukucebisa ukuba kufuneka ithobele umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe okanye ezinye iimeko esizibeka kwabo bangenamandla. Le yayiyingcaciso enyanisekileyo neyamkelekileyo yentelekelelo esebenzayo, ethatyathwe lula yi-ExComm assemblage.
Kwincoko eyalandelayo, umongameli wagxininisa ukuba singaba โkwimeko embiโ ukuba sikhetha ukuqalisa uqhushululu lwamazwe ngamazwe ngokukhaba izindululo ezinokubonakala zisengqiqweni kwabo basindileyo (ukuba kukho nabani na okhathalayo). Esi sigqibo โsepragmatikiโ sasimalunga nokufikeleleka apho imilinganiselo yokuziphatha yayinokufikelela khona.
Kuphononongo lwamaxwebhu asanda kukhutshwa malunga nobugrogrisi bexesha likaKennedy, iYunivesithi yaseHarvard yaseLatin Americanist uJorge Domรญnguez uyabona, โKukanye kuphela kula maphepha amalunga newaka apho igosa lase-United States laphakamisa into efana nokungavumelani nokuchasa ubunqolobi obuxhaswa ngurhulumente waseUnited Statesโ: ilungu leBhunga leSizwe loKhuseleko lacebisa ukuba ugqogqo โolwenziwa ngamabona-ndenzile nolubulala abantu abamsulwa . . . kusenokuthetha ushicilelo olubi kumazwe athile anobuhlobo.โ
Izimo zengqondo ezifanayo zazikho kuzo zonke iingxoxo zangaphakathi ngexesha lobunzima bomjukujelwa, njengaxa uRobert Kennedy walumkisa ukuba uhlaselo olupheleleyo lwaseCuba โluya kubulala abantu abaninzi kakhulu, kwaye siza kuthatha ubushushu obuninzi kulo. โ Kwaye ziyoyisa ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, ngaphandle nje kokunqaba okunqabileyo, njengoko kubhalwe ngokulula.
Ngesibe โkwimeko embi kakhuluโ ukuba umhlaba ubusazi ngakumbi malunga nento eyayisenziwa yi-US ngelo xesha. Kutshanje kuye kwafunyaniswa ukuba, kwiinyanga ezintandathu ngaphambili, i-US yayithumele ngokufihlakeleyo imijukujelwa e-Okinawa ephantse yafana nezo zazithunyelwa ngamaRussia eCuba. Ngokuqinisekileyo ezi bezijoliswe e-China ngexesha loxinzelelo oluphezulu lwengingqi. Ukuza kuthi ga namhlanje, i-Okinawa isesona siseko somkhosi wase-US esihlaselayo ngenxa yenkcaso ekrakra yabemi bayo abathi, ngoku, bangaphantsi komdla. ukuthunyelwa yeenqwelo-moya ezisengozini ye-V-22 Osprey ukuya kwisiseko somkhosi sase-Futenma, esisembindini weziko ledolophu elinabantu abaninzi.
Ukungahloniphi Iimbono Zoluntu
Iingxoxo ezalandelayo ziyaveza, kodwa ndiza kuzibekela bucala apha. Baye bafikelela kwisigqibo. I-US yathembisa ukurhoxisa imijukujelwa ephelelwe lixesha eTurkey, kodwa ayizukukwenza oko esidlangalaleni okanye ibhale isithembiso esibhaliweyo: kwakubalulekile ukuba iKhrushchev ibonwe ukuba ibambe. Isizathu esinomdla sanikezelwa, kwaye samkelwa njengengqiqo yi-scholarship kunye namagqabantshintshi. Njengoko uDobbs ebeka, "Ukuba kubonakala ngathi i-United States yayidiliza iziseko ze-missile ngokuzimeleyo, phantsi koxinzelelo oluvela kwiSoviet Union, umanyano lwe-NATO lunokuqhekeka" - okanye ukuphinda kuhlaziywe ngokuchanekileyo ngakumbi, ukuba i-US ithathe indawo yemijukujelwa engenamsebenzi. ngesoyikiso esiyingozi ngakumbi, njengoko sele kucwangcisiwe, kurhwebo kunye neRussia ukuba nayiphi na "indoda enengqiqo" inokuthatha njengobulungisa kakhulu, ngoko ke umanyano lwe-NATO lunokuqhekeka.
Ngokuqinisekileyo, xa iRussia yarhoxa ekuphela kwendlela yokuthintela iCuba ngokuchasene nohlaselo oluqhubekayo lwase-US - ngesoyikiso esiqatha sokuqhubeka nokuhlasela okuthe ngqo emoyeni-kwaye bemka ngokuzola kuloo ndawo, abantu baseCuba babeza kucaphuka (njengoko, enyanisweni, bayaqondakala. babe). Kodwa olo luthelekiso olungafanelekanga ngenxa yezizathu eziqhelekileyo: singabantu ababalulekileyo, ngelixa bengabantu nje "abangabantu," ukulungelelanisa ibinzana eliluncedo likaGeorge Orwell.
U-Kennedy wenza isibhambathiso esingekho sikweni sokungayi kuhlasela iCuba, kodwa ngeemeko: kungekhona nje ukurhoxiswa kwemijukujelwa, kodwa kunye nokupheliswa, okanye ubuncinane "ukunciphisa okukhulu," nayiphi na imikhosi yaseRashiya. (Ngokungafaniyo neTurkey, kwimida yaseRashiya, apho akukho nto injalo inokucingwa.) Xa iCuba ingasekho โinkampu exhobileyo,โ ngoko โmhlawumbi asiyi kuhlasela,โ ngamazwi kamongameli. Wongeze ukuba, ukuba inethemba lokukhululeka kwisoyikiso sokuhlasela kwe-US, iCuba kufuneka iphelise โukubhukuqa kwezopolitikoโ (ibinzana likaStern) eLatin America. โUkubhukuqwa kwezopolitikoโ ibingumxholo othe gqolo kangangeminyaka, owacelwa umzekelo xa uEisenhower wabhukuqa urhulumente wepalamente waseGuatemala waza walifaka enzonzobileni elo lizwe lingekaphumi. Iimfazwe zobugrogrisi ezimanyumnyezi kuMbindi Merika ngeminyaka yoo-1980. โUbhukuqo lwezopolitikoโ lwaseCuba lwaluquka inkxaso yabo baxhathisayo kuhlaselo lokubulala lwase-US kunye nolawulo lwabathengi bayo, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha mhlawumbi โ ukoyikeka ngokoyikeka โ ukunika izixhobo kumaxhoba.
Ukusetyenziswa kusemgangathweni. Ngaloo ndlela, ngowe-1955, iJoint Chiefs of Staff yachaza โiindlela ezintathu ezisisiseko zogonyamelo.โ Olokuqala luhlaselo oluxhobileyo oluwela umda, oko kukuthi, ubundlongondlongo njengoko buchazwa kumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Okwesibini โyayiluhlaselo oluxhobileyo oluphuma ngaphakathi kwingingqi yelizwe ngalinye elizimeleyo,โ njengaxa imikhosi yabanqolobi ilwa norhulumente oxhaswa okanye onyanzeliswa yiWashington, nangona kunjalo xa โabalweli benkululekoโ bexhathisa utshaba olusemthethweni. Okwesithathu: โUgonyamelo ngaphandle kwezixhobo, oko kukuthi, imfazwe yezobupolitika, okanye ukubhukuqa. Owona mzekelo uphambili ngelo xesha wawuyiSouth Vietnam, apho iUnited States yayikhusela abantu abakhululekileyo โkuhlaselo lwangaphakathi,โ njengoko ummeli we-UN kaKennedy u-Adlai Stevenson wachaza - โkuhlaselo lwangaphakathiโ kumazwi kamongameli.
Nangona ezi ngcinga zimiliselwe nzulu kwimfundiso ekhoyo kangangokuba zide zingabonakali, ngamanye amaxesha zichazwa kwirekhodi yangaphakathi. Kwimeko yaseCuba, iBhunga loCwangciso loMgaqo-nkqubo weSebe lichaze ukuba โingozi ephambili esijongene nayo eCastroโฆ imele ukuchaswa okuyimpumelelo kwe-US, ukuchaswa komgaqo-nkqubo wethu we-hemispheric phantse inkulungwane enesiqingatha, "kuba i-Monroe Doctrine yabhengeza injongo yeWashington, eyayingenakufikeleleka, yokulawula i-Western hemisphere.
Ayingobantu baseRussia ngelo xesha, kodwa lilungelo lokulawula, umgaqo okhokelayo womgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle ofumaneka phantse kuyo yonke indawo, nangona ufihlwe ngokwendlela yokuzikhusela: ngexesha leminyaka yeMfazwe ebandayo, ngokwesiqhelo ngokubiza โisisongelo saseRussia,โ nokuba amaRussia. kwakungekho ndawo. Umzekelo wokungenisa elizweni okukhulu kweli xesha utyhilwe kwisifundiswa sase-Iran u-Ervand Abrahamian obalulekileyoincwadi ezayo yobhukuqo-mbuso lwase-US-UK olwabhukuqa ulawulo lwepalamente yase-Iran ngo-1953. Ngokuphononongwa ngokucokisekileyo kweerekhodi zangaphakathi, ubonisa ngokuqinisekileyo ukuba ii-akhawunti ezisemgangathweni azinakugcinwa. Ezona zizathu ziphambili yayingeyiyo inkxalabo yeMfazwe ebandayo, okanye ukungabi nangqiqo kwe-Iranian okujongela phantsi โiinjongo ezintleโ zikaWashington, okanye nokufikelela kwioyile okanye kwingeniso, kodwa yindlela i-US eyayifuna ngayo โulawulo lulonkeโ- kunye neziphumo zayo ezibanzi kulawulo lwehlabathi. isoyikiswa bubuzwe obuzimeleyo.
Yiloo nto esiyifumanisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ngokuphanda amatyala athile, kubandakanywa neCuba (akungothusiyo) nangona inzondelelo yempambano kuloo meko inokuthi ifanele ukuhlolwa. Umgaqo-nkqubo wase-US obhekiselele eCuba ugwetyelwe kabuhlungu kulo lonke elaseLatin America kwaye ngenene uninzi lwehlabathi, kodwa "intlonipho endilisekileyo ngezimvo zoluntu" iqondwa njengentetho engenantsingiselo eyenzelwe ngokungenangqondo ngoJulayi 4th. Ukusukela oko kusenziwa uvoto ngalo mba, uninzi lwabantu base-US baye bakwenza oko ulungelelwaniso oluqhelekileyo lobudlelwane kunye neCuba, kodwa nayo ayibalulekanga.
Ukugxothwa kwezimvo zoluntu ngokuqinisekileyo kuyinto eqhelekileyo. Eyona nto inomdla kule meko kukugxothwa kwamacandelo anamandla oqoqosho lwase-US, nawo athanda ukwenziwa kwesiqhelo, kwaye adla ngokuba nefuthe elikhulu ekumiseleni umgaqo-nkqubo: amandla, ishishini lezolimo, amayeza, kunye nabanye. Oko kubonisa ukuba, ukongeza kwizinto zenkcubeko ezivezwe kwi-hysteria yeengqondo zeCamelot, kukho umdla onamandla wombuso obandakanyekayo ekohlwayeni abantu baseCuba.
Ukusindisa iHlabathi kuMngcipheko wokuTshabalaliswa kweNyukliya
Ingxaki ye-missile yaphela ngokusemthethweni ngo-Oktobha 28. Isiphumo sasingacacanga. Ngobo busuku, kwijelo elikhethekileyo leendaba zeCBS, uCharles Collingwood wanikela ingxelo yokuba ihlabathi laliphumile โkwesona sisongelo sibi sembubhiso yenyukliya ukususela ngeMfazwe Yehlabathi IIโ โngoyiswa ngendlela ethobโ isidima kumgaqo weSoviet.โ UDobbs ugqabaza esithi amaRashiya azama ukwenza ngathi isiphumo โyayiluloyiso loloyiso lwenkqubo yaseMoscow yamazwe angaphandle ethanda uxolo nxamnye nama impiriyali athanda uxolo,โ kwanokuba โwayenobulumko obugqithiseleyo, ubunkokeli beSoviet obunengqiqo obusoloko bulisindisa ihlabathi kwisisongelo semfazwe. intshabalalo yenyukliya.โ
Ekhuphela izibakala ezisisiseko kugculelo olusefashonini, isivumelwano sikaKhrushchev sokuthobela uYehova ngokwenene โsalihlangula ihlabathi kwisisongelo sentshabalalo yenyukliya.โ
Noko ke, le ngxaki yayingekapheli. Ngomhla we-8 kaNovemba, iPentagon yabhengeza ukuba zonke iziseko ze-missile zaseSoviet ziye zachithwa. Kwangolo suku lunye, u-Stern unika ingxelo, "iqela lokutshabalalisa liye lahlasela umzi-mveliso waseCuba," nangona iphulo likaKennedy, i-Operation Mongoose, liye lancitshiswa ngokusemthethweni kwincopho yentlekele. Uhlaselo lwe-8 kaNovemba lunika inkxaso kwimbono kaBundy yokuba isoyikiso soxolo yayiyiCuba, hayi iTurkey, apho amaRussia ayengaqhubeki nohlaselo olubulalayo - nangona ngokuqinisekileyo yayingeyonto uBundy awayecinga ngayo okanye wayenokuyiqonda.
Iinkcukacha ezingakumbi zongezwa ngumphengululi ohlonelwa kakhulu uRaymond Garthoff, naye owayenamava atyebileyo kurhulumente, ngobulumko bakhe bowe-1987. kwingxelo yengxaki yemijukujelwa. Ngomhla wesi-8 kaNovemba, ubhala athi, "iqela laseCuba elifihlakeleyo lesenzo sokutshatyalaliswa kweqela elithunyelwe lisuka eUnited States laqhuma ngempumelelo indawo yoshishino yaseCuba," yabulala abasebenzi abangama-400 ngokweleta karhulumente waseCuba eya kuNobhala Jikelele we-UN.
UGarthoff ugqabaza athi: โIiSoviet Union yayinokubona kuphela [olu hlaselo] njengelinge lokuxhasa oko, kubo, owona mbuzo ubalulekileyo owawusele: Isiqinisekiso saseMerika sokuba angayihlaseli iCuba,โ ngokukodwa ukususela oko kwaqaliswa uhlaselo lwabanqolobi eUnited States. ezinye "izenzo zomntu wesithathu" zityhila kwakhona, uqukumbela ngelithi, "ubungozi kunye nobungozi kumacala omabini ngebebugqithise, kwaye intlekele ibingabandakanywa." UGarthoff uphinde waphonononga imisebenzi yokubulala neyonakalisayo yephulo lobunqolobi likaKennedy, esiya kuthi ngokuqinisekileyo siluthathe njengento engaphezulu kwezizathu zemfazwe, ukuba i-US okanye amahlakani ayo okanye abathengi bebengamaxhoba, ingengabo abenzi bobubi.
Kwakulo mthombo sifunda ngokubhekele phaya ukuba, ngoAgasti 23, 1962, umongameli wayekhuphe iMemorandam yeSizwe yoKhuseleko enguNo. , iinqwelo-moya, ukuhamba kwemikhosi nezixhoboโ ezazisaziwa ngokuqinisekileyo eCuba naseRashiya. Kwakhona ngo-Agasti, uhlaselo lwabanqolobi luye lwaqiniswa, kuquka ukuhlaselwa kwe-speedboat strafing kwihotele yaseCuba engaselwandle "apho amagcisa omkhosi waseSoviet ayesaziwa ngokuhlanganisana, ebulala amanqaku amaRashiya namaCuba"; ukuhlaselwa kweenqanawa zempahla zaseBritani naseCuba; ukungcoliswa kokuthunyelwa kweswekile; kunye nezinye izenzo zenkohlakalo kunye nokutshabalalisa, okwenziwa kakhulu yimibutho yaseCuba evunyelwe ukusebenza ngokukhululekileyo eFlorida. Kungekudala emva koko kwafika โelona xesha liyingozi kwimbali yoluntu,โ kungekhona nje ngokuphandle.
UKennedy wayihlaziya ngokusemthethweni imisebenzi yobunqolobi emva kokuba intlekele iphelile. Kwiintsuku ezilishumi ngaphambi kokubulawa kwakhe wavuma isicwangciso seCIA "sokutshatyalaliswa kwemisebenzi" yimikhosi ye-proxy yase-US "nxamnye nendawo enkulu yokuhluza i-oyile kunye neendawo zokugcina, iplanti enkulu yombane, iindawo zokucoca iswekile, iibhulorho zikaloliwe, izibonelelo zechweba, kunye nokudilizwa ngaphantsi kwamanzi iinqanawa kunye neenqanawa. .โ Iyelenqe lokubulala uCastro kuyabonakala ukuba laqalwa ngomhla wokubulawa kukaKennedy. Iphulo labanqolobi layekwa ngo-1965, kodwa uGarthoff unika ingxelo, โesinye sezenzo zokuqala zika-Nixon e-ofisini ngo-1969 yayikukuyalela iCIA ukuba iqinise amaphulo afihlakeleyo eCuba.โ
Siyakwazi, ekugqibeleni, ukuva amazwi amaxhoba kwimbali yaseKhanada uKeith Bolender's. Amazwi asuka kwelinye icala, Imbali yokuqala yomlomo yephulo lokugrogrisa - enye yeencwadi ezininzi ezingenakwenzeka ukuba zifumane ngaphezu kwesaziso esiqhelekileyo, ukuba oko, eNtshona ngenxa yokuba iziqulatho zityhila kakhulu.
Kushicilelo lwangoku lwe Inzululwazi yezoPolitiko ngekota, ijenali yobungcali yombutho wezazinzulu zezopolitiko zaseMelika, iMontague Kern uyabona ukuba ingxaki yemijukujelwa yaseCuba yenye โyeengxaki ezizeleyoโฆ apho utshaba olucingayo (iSoviet Union) lubonwa jikelele njengolukhe lwahlasela, nto leyo ekhokelele kwimpembelelo ye-rally-'yokujikeleza iflegi eyandisa kakhulu. inkxaso kumongameli, ekhulisa ukhetho lwakhe lomgaqo-nkqubo. "
UKern unyanisile ukuba "ibonwa jikelele" ngaloo ndlela, ngaphandle kwabo basinde ngokwaneleyo kumakhamandela eengcamango ukuze banikele ingqalelo kwizibakala. UKern, enyanisweni, ungomnye wabo. Omnye nguSheldon Stern, oyiqondayo into ekudala isaziwa ngabo batenxileyo. Njengoko ebhala, ngoku siyazi ukuba "inkcazo yokuqala kaKhrushchev yokuthumela imijukujelwa eCuba yayinyanisekile: inkokeli yaseSoviet yayingazange izimisele ukuba ezi zixhobo zibe sisongelo kukhuseleko lwase-United States, kodwa endaweni yoko ithathele ingqalelo ukuthunyelwa kwazo njengenyathelo lokuzikhusela. khusela amahlakani akhe aseCuba kuhlaselo lwaseMelika kwaye njengomzamo oqinisekileyo wokunika i-USSR imbonakalo yokulingana kwibhalansi yamandla enyukliya. " UDobbs, naye, uyaqonda ukuba โuCastro kunye nabaxhasi bakhe baseSoviet babenezizathu zokwenyani zokoyika iinzame zaseMelika zokutshintsha ulawulo, kubandakanywa, njengenyathelo lokugqibela, ukuhlasela kwe-US eCubaโฆ ukusuka kummelwane onamandla ukuya ngasentla.
โIzinto Ezinoyikeka Emhlabeniโ
Uhlaselo lwaseMelika luhlala lugxothwa kumagqabantshintshi ase-US njengee-pranks ezisileyo, ii-CIA shenanigans eziye zaphuma esandleni. Oko kukude nenyaniso. Abona bangcono nabaqaqambileyo basabele kukusilela kohlaselo lwe-Bay of Pigs kunye ne-hysteria ekufutshane, kubandakanya nomongameli, owazisa ilizwe esithi: "Abangakhathaliyo, abazinikeleyo, imibutho ethambileyo sele iza kutshayelwa. inkunkuma yembali. Kuphela abo banamandlaโฆ abanokusinda.โ Kwaye babenokusinda kuphela, ngokucacileyo wayekholelwa, ngoloyiko olukhulu-nangona eso songezo sasigcinwe siyimfihlo, kwaye asikaziwa kwabo bathembekileyo ababona ukuba utshaba lwenkolo โluye lwahlaselaโ (umbono okufutshane wendalo iphela, njengoko uKern ebona). Emva kokoyiswa kweBay of Pigs, umbhali-mbali uPiero Gleijeses ubhala, i-JFK yaqalisa i-embargo etyumzayo ukohlwaya amaCuba ngokoyisa uhlaselo lwase-US, kwaye "wacela umntakwabo, iGqwetha Jikelele uRobert Kennedy, ukuba akhokele iqela eliphakamileyo le-interagency elijongene ne-Operation Mongoose, inkqubo ye-paramilitary operations, imfazwe yezoqoqosho. , nolonakaliso awaluqalisayo ngasekupheleni kowe-1961 ukuze atyelele โizinto ezothusayo emhlabeniโ kuFidel Castro yaye, ngokunzulu ngakumbi, ukumwisa phantsi.โ
Ibinzana elithi "izothuso zomhlaba" lelika-Arthur Schlesinger, kwi-biography yakhe esemthethweni kaRobert Kennedy, owabelwa uxanduva lokuqhuba imfazwe yobunqolobi, kwaye wazisa iCIA ukuba ingxaki yaseCuba ithwele "[t] eyona nto iphambili kwi. Urhulumente wase-United States - yonke enye into yeyesibini - akukho xesha, akukho nzame, okanye amandla okusebenza kufuneka agcinwe โkumzamo wokubhukuqa ulawulo lukaCastro. Imisebenzi yeMongoose yayiqhutywa ngu-Edward Lansdale, owayenamava amaninzi "kwi-counterinsurgency" - igama eliqhelekileyo lobunqolobi esiqondisa ngalo. Wanikela ngethayimthebhile eyakhokelela โkwimvukelo evulekileyo nokubhukuqwa kolawulo lwamaKomanisiโ ngo-Oktobha 1962. โIngcaciso yokugqibelaโ yale nkqubo yaqonda ukuba โimpumelelo yokugqibela iya kufuna ukungenelela okuqinisekileyo komkhosi waseUnited States,โ emva kokuba abanqolobi nokubhukuqa sele kusisiseko. Intsingiselo yeyokuba ungenelelo lomkhosi wase-US luza kwenzeka ngo-Okthobha ka-1962 - xa kwaqhambuka ingxaki yomjukujelwa. Imisitho esandul' ukuphononongwa inceda ekuchazeni ukuba kutheni iCuba neRussia zinesizathu esivakalayo sokuthatha ezo zoyikiso nzulu.
Kwiminyaka kamva, uRobert McNamara waqaphela ukuba iCuba yayifanelekile ekoyikeni uhlaselo. โUkuba bendikwizihlangu zaseCuba okanye zaseSoviet, ngendicinge njalo, nam,โ watsho kwinkomfa enkulu malunga nengxaki yemijukujelwa kwisikhumbuzo seminyaka engama-40.
Ngokuphathelele "umzamo onzima waseRashiya wokunika i-USSR ukubonakala kokulingana," apho uStern ebhekisela kuyo, khumbula ukuba uloyiso oluncinci kakhulu lukaKennedy kunyulo lwe-1960 lwaluxhomekeke kakhulu "kwi-missile gap" eyenziwe ngenjongo yokoyika ilizwe kunye nokugxeka i-Eisenhower. ulawulo njengento ethambileyo kukhuseleko lwesizwe. Kwakukho "umsantsa wemijukujelwa," kodwa ngamandla e-US
Inkcazo yokuqala "yasesidlangalaleni, engaguqukiyo yolawulo" kwiinyani eziyinyani, ngokutsho komhlalutyi weqhinga uDesmond Ball kwisifundo sakhe esigunyazisiweyo senkqubo ye-missile yaseKennedy, yayingo-Okthobha 1961, xa uSekela Nobhala wezoKhuselo uRoswell Gilpatric wazisa iBhunga loShishino ukuba "i-US. izakuba nenkqubo enkulu yokuhanjiswa kwenyukliya eshiyekileyo emva kohlaselo ngequbuliso kunomkhosi wenyukliya owawunokusebenzisa iSoviet Union kugwayimbo lwayo lokuqala.โ Abantu baseRussia ngokuqinisekileyo babebazi kakuhle ubuthathaka babo kunye nokuba sesichengeni. Kwakhona babeyazi indlela uKennedy asabela ngayo xa uKhrushchev wanikezela ukunciphisa ngokubukhali amandla omkhosi okhubekisayo kwaye waqhubeka ekwenza oko ecaleni. Umongameli akazange aphendule, endaweni yoko wenza inkqubo enkulu yezixhobo.
Ukuba ngabanini behlabathi, ngoko nangoku
Eyona mibuzo mibini ibalulekileyo malunga nengxaki yemijukujelwa yile: Yaqala njani, kwaye yaphela njani? Kwaqala ngohlaselo lwabanqolobi lukaKennedy nxamnye neCuba, ngesoyikiso lokuhlasela ngo-Oktobha 1962. Yaphela ngokugatya kukamongameli unikezelo lwaseRashiya oluya kubonakala lufanelekile kumntu onengqiqo, kodwa lwalungenakucingelwa ngenxa yokuba lwaluya kujongela phantsi umgaqo osisiseko wokuba i-US. unelungelo elicalanye lokusasaza imijukujelwa yenyukliya naphi na, ejolise eTshayina okanye eRashiya okanye nakubani na, kwaye kanye kwimida yabo; kunye nomgaqo ohamba nawo wokuba iCuba ayinalungelo lokuba nemijukujelwa yokuzikhusela kwinto ebonakala ngathi luhlaselo lwase-US olusemnyango. Ukumisela le migaqo ngokuqinileyo kwakufanelekile ngokupheleleyo ukujongana nomngcipheko omkhulu wemfazwe yentshabalalo engenakucingelwa, kunye nokugatya iindlela ezilula nezivunyiweyo zokuphelisa isoyikiso.
UGarthoff uphawula ukuba โeUnited States, kwaphantse kwavunyelwa ukuba uMongameli Kennedy ayisingathe le ngxaki.โ UDobbs ubhala athi, โIlizwi elikhuthazayo elingayekiyo lasekwa ngumbhali-mbali wenkundla, uArthur M. Schlesinger, Omnci., owabhala ukuba uKennedy โwalimangalisa ihlabathiโ โngokudityaniswa kobulukhuni nokuzibamba, ukuthanda, imithambo-luvo nobulumko, ngoko. ilawulwa ngendlela ekrelekrele, ilungelelaniswe ngendlela engenakuthelekiswa nanto.'โ Kunoko, ngokuyinxenye, uStern uvumelana noko, ephawula ukuba uKennedy wayeligatya ngokuphindaphindiweyo icebiso lomkhosi labacebisi bakhe noogxa bakhe ababefuna umkhosi womkhosi ugxothwe nokuchithwa kokhetho loxolo. Iziganeko zika-Oktobha 1962 zidunyiswa ngokubanzi njengeyure egqwesileyo kaKennedy. UGraham Allison uzibandakanya nabanye abaninzi ekubaboniseni "njengesikhokelo sendlela yokuphelisa iingxabano, ukulawula ubudlelwane bamandla amakhulu, kunye nokwenza izigqibo ezifanelekileyo malunga nomgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle ngokubanzi."
Ngengqiqo emxinwa kakhulu, eso sigqibo sibonakala sisengqiqweni. Iikhasethi ze-ExComm zityhila ukuba umongameli wema ngaphandle kwabanye, ngamanye amaxesha phantse bonke abanye, ekwaleni ubundlobongela bangaphambi kwexesha. Kukho, nangona kunjalo, omnye umbuzo: Ingaba ukumodareyitha okunxulumene neJFK kulawulo lwengxaki kufuneka kuhlolwe njani ngokuchasene nemvelaphi yoqwalaselo olubanzi olusanda kuphononongwa? Kodwa loo mbuzo awuveli kwinkcubeko eqeqeshekileyo yengqondo kunye neyokuziphatha, eyamkela ngaphandle kombuzo umgaqo osisiseko wokuba i-US ilawula ihlabathi ngokufanelekileyo, kwaye ngenkcazo inamandla okwenza okulungileyo nangona kukho iimpazamo kunye nokungaqondi, enye apho. ngokucacileyo kufanelekile ukuba i-US isebenzise amandla amakhulu akhubekisayo kwihlabathi liphela ngelixa kungumsindo kwabanye (abalingane kunye nabaxumi bebodwa) ukwenza neyona ntshukumo incinci kwelo cala okanye bacinge ngokunqanda ukusetyenziswa kobundlobongela obusongelayo. i-benign global hegemon.
Loo mfundiso sesona sityholo sisemthethweni ngokuchasene ne-Iran namhlanje: inokuba sisithintelo kumkhosi wase-US kunye no-Israel. Yayiqwalaselwa ngexesha lobunzima bomjukujelwa ngokunjalo. Kwingxoxo yangaphakathi, abazalwana bakaKennedy bavakalise uloyiko lwabo lokuba imijukujelwa yaseCuba inokuthintela uhlaselo lwase-US eVenezuela, emva koko kuqwalaselwa. Ke "i-Bay of Pigs yayichanekile ngokwenene," u-JFK wagqiba.
Le migaqo isenegalelo kumngcipheko oqhubekayo wemfazwe yenyukliya. Akukho kunqongophala kweengozi ezinzulu ukusukela kwintlekele yemissile. Kwiminyaka elishumi kamva, ngexesha le-1973 yemfazwe yakwa-Israel-Arab, uMcebisi weSizwe wezoKhuseleko uHenry Kissinger wabiza isilumkiso esiphezulu senyukliya (DEFCON 3) ukulumkisa amaRashiya ukuba agcine izandla zawo ngelixa egunyazisa ngokufihlakeleyo uSirayeli ukuba aphule ukupheliswa komlilo. yi-US kunye neRashiya. Xa uReagan wangena e-ofisini kwiminyaka embalwa kamva, i-US yaqalisa imisebenzi yokuhlola ukhuseleko lwaseRashiya kunye nokulinganisa uhlaselo lomoya kunye nolwaselwandle, ngelixa ibeka imijukujelwa yasePershing eJamani ixesha lokubhabha lemizuzu emihlanu ukuya kwiithagethi zaseRussia, inika oko iCIA yayibiza ngokuba "yi-super-. amandla oqhankqalazo lokuqala ngequbuliso. Ngokwemvelo oku kubangele i-alamu enkulu eRashiya, engafani ne-US ihlaselwe ngokuphindaphindiweyo kwaye yatshatyalaliswa. Oko kwakhokelela kuloyiko olukhulu lwemfazwe ngowe-1983. Kubekho amakhulu eemeko xa ungenelelo loluntu lwarhoxisa uqhankqalazo lokuqala kwimizuzu ngaphambi kokuqalisa, emva kokuba iinkqubo ezizisebenzelayo zinike izilumkiso zobuxoki. Asinazo iirekhodi zaseRashiya, kodwa akukho mathandabuzo okuba iinkqubo zabo ziqheleke kakhulu kwiingozi.
Ngeli xesha, i-Indiya nePakistan ziye zasondela kwimfazwe yenyukliya izihlandlo ezininzi, kwaye imithombo yongquzulwano isekho. Bobabini banqabile ukusayina iSivumelwano sokuNganandeli, kunye no-Israyeli, kwaye bafumene inkxaso yase-US ekuphuhliseni iinkqubo zabo zezixhobo zenyukliya - kude kube namhlanje kwimeko yaseIndiya, ngoku i-US ally. Izisongelo zemfazwe kuMbindi Mpuma, ezinokuthi zibe yinyani kungekudala, ziphinde zandise iingozi.
Ngomnyaka we-1962, imfazwe yaphetshwa ngokuzimisela kukaKhrushchev ukwamkela iimfuno ze-hegemonic zikaKennedy. Kodwa asinakuze sithembele ngonaphakade ngolo hlobo. Kungummangaliso okufutshane ukuba imfazwe yenyukliya iye yaphetshwa ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Kukho isizathu esingakumbi kunangaphambili sokunikela ingqalelo kwisilumkiso sikaBertrand Russell noAlbert Einstein, phantse kwiminyaka engama-60 eyadlulayo, sokuba simele sijamelane nokhetho โolucacileyo noloyikekayo nolungenakuphepheka: Ngaba siya kuluphelisa uluntu; okanye uluntu luya kuyiyeka na imfazwe?
UNoam Chomsky liZiko leNjingalwazi Emeritus kwi-MIT yeSebe leeLinguistics kunye neFilosofi. A TomDispatch rhoqo, ungumbhali weencwadi ezininzi zezopolitiko ezithengiswa kakhulu, kutsha nje, Amathemba kunye neZibonelelo,Ukwenza Ikamva, yaye Ukuhlala.
Eli nqaku lavela kuqala kwi-TomDispatch.com, iblogi yeSizwe yeZiko, ebonelela ngokuhamba ngokuqhubekayo kweminye imithombo, iindaba, kunye noluvo oluvela kuTom Engelhardt, umhleli wexesha elide ekupapasheni, umseki weProjekthi yoBukhosi baseMelika, umbhali we Ukuphela kweNkcubeko yoloyiso, njengenoveli, Iintsuku zokuGqibela zokuPapasha. Incwadi yakhe yamva nje yiNdlela yaseMelika yeMfazwe: Indlela iimfazwe zikaBush eziye zaba zezika-Obama (Iincwadi zeHaymarket).
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa ngemali kuphela ngesisa sabafundi bayo.
Nikela