Hakuna vanhuwo zvavo vasina mhosva. Ihurumende yavo uye uri kurwisa vanhu, hausisiri kuedza kurwisa mauto. Saka hazvindinetse kuti ndiri kuuraya vanozviti vamire vasina mhosva.
- Gen. Curtis E. LeMay [1]
Musi waAugust 6 na9, 1945, hurumende yeUnited States yakakanda mabhomba eatomu pamaguta maviri eJapan ane vanhu vakawanda, achiuraya vanhuwo zvavo vari pakati pe200,000 300,000 ne1920 1930. Kurangarira kubhomba kweatomu kunowanzonangidzira kudikanwa kwokuparadza zvombo zvenyukireya. Asi mhemberero yegore rino inomutsa imwe nyaya isinganyanyi kukosha, nekuti mabhomba aya akananga vanhuwo zvavo vekuJapan. Nzira yehondo yokunangidzira vanhuwo zvavo munguva dzehondo yakanga isiri chinhu chitsva, ine mavambo akadzika enhau anodzokera shure kunguva dzeBhaibheri apo mauto aizokomba maguta ose. Nguva pfupi yadarika, zvinyorwa zvemauto eUS zvemakore ekuma2 nema3 akange asimudzira maitiro akadaro kwete nekuda kwekuparadza kungangoitika chete asiwo nezvemhedzisiro yepfungwa pavanhuwo zvavo. Dzidziso yeAir Corps, semuenzaniso, yakarumbidza kupambwa kwemhepo se "nzira yekumanikidza kuda nekutyisidzira vanhu vese," uye Hondo Yenyika II isati yasvika yakakurudzira "kurwisa kutyisidzira vanhu" [XNUMX]. Munyori weHondo Henry Stimson akazotaura pfungwa yakafanana, achizvikudza kuti "bhomba reatomu raipfuura chombo chekuparadza kwakaipisisa; chaive chombo chepfungwa" [XNUMX].
Zvisinei, pakatanga Hondo Yenyika II, mazano akadaro aiwanzoshorwa munyika dzakawanda. Kunyange zvazvo ruzivo rwemauto rwakanga rwakura nokukurumidza mumakumi emakore achangopfuura, zana remakore rakapfuura rakanga raonawo zvibvumirano zvinocherechedzwa zvenyika nepasi pose zvakagadzirirwa kuderedza utsinye hwehondo. Kuvaka pamusoro pemusiyano wetsika nemutemo wemazana emakore pakati pemasoja nevanhuwo zvavo, 1899 uye 1907 Hague Kokorodzano yakanga yarambidza "kubhomba, chero nzira" yenzvimbo dzekugara dzemaguta [4]. Iyo 1925 Geneva Protocol yakanga yawedzera kurambidza munguva yehondo, ichishora kushandiswa kwezvombo zvemakemikari uye zvipenyu. Muna 1939, zvino, kugamuchirwa kwakapararira kwekunangwa kwevagari vemo sezvakaitika pa Hiroshima uye Nagasaki makore matanhatu gare gare yakanga isiri mhedziso yakafanotaurwa. Zvakadaro zviito izvi zvakawana rutsigiro rwakakura, uye kwete chete mukati mematunhu epamusoro ehurumende: 85 muzana US veruzhinji vakabvumidzwa ne Hiroshima bhomba muna Nyamavhuvhu 8, 1945, poll [5].
Mafungiro aitsigira kutariswa kwevanhuwo zvavo akakunda sei pamusoro petsika dzetsika dzakanyorwa mumutemo wenyika mumakumi emakore apfuura? Sezvakataurwa nevanyori vezvakaitika kare, kugadzirwa kwechiuto che "nzvimbo yekubhomba" pakutanga kwehondo yaive danho rakakosha kuenda. Hiroshima uye Nagasaki. Kubhomba kwenzvimbo kunoreva kushandiswa kwemuchadenga kweanoputika uye/kana mabhomba anopisa akatarisana nenzvimbo dzese dzenzvimbo, kazhinji maguta, kwete kupokana nemauto akajairwa. Pfungwa yekubhomba kwenzvimbo inowedzera tsananguro ye "mauto" kusanganisa maindasitiri, nzvimbo dzekugara, uye kunyangwe huwandu hwevashandi vanobatanidzwa mukugadzira hupfumi. Sekukura kwedzidziso uye kwetsika, saka, kubhomba kwenzvimbo kwaive kwakasarudzika pakuti zvaireva kusazeza kuuraya vasiri varwi, uye kazhinji vaitsvaga kuzviita [6]. Kuongororwa kwenzira iyo kubhomba kwakawana kugamuchirwa kunoshanda sehurongwa hwemauto mukati meHondo Yenyika II kunogona kubatsira kujekesa nyaya dzakati wandei: nzira idzo vatungamiriri veAllied vakaruramisa kubhomba kwemaguta; zvikonzero nei ruzhinji rweUS rwaiwanzogamuchira zvikonzero izvi; nzira idzo kubhomba kwenzvimbo dzinobetsera dzakagadzira nzira yokushandisa mabhomba eatomu muna August 1945; uye pakupedzisira, nhaka yenguva refu yekutanga kurwiswa kwemhepo kurwisa vanhuwo zvavo mumakore 1940-45.
Kufambira mberi Kwemazano Echiuto
Kubhomba kwenharaunda kwemaguta mukati meHondo Yenyika II chaizvoizvo kwakatevera chiverengero chakati chezvakaitika kare. Vatungamiriri vemauto eRoma, semuenzaniso, vaive vatevera mufungo wakafanana mukuparadzwa kwe muCarthage muna 146 BC Kunyange zvazvo vaiurayiwa kubva pasi vasati vatanga kugadzirwa ndege, kurwiswa kwakazara pamaguta ose kwaiitika kare. Kubva kutanga kwema1900 masimba eEurope akange apindawo mukubhomba nemaune kwemaguta. Germany, France, neGreat Britain dzaive nemaguta ese akabhombwa muHondo Yenyika I, uye France neBritain vaive vashandisa ndege muma1920s nema1930 kuranga "madzinza asingachinji" munzvimbo dzakakomberedzwa muAfrica, India, uye Middle East (the US zvakare yakaita saizvozvo muNicaragua panguva imwe chete) [7].
Kubhomba kwenharaunda kwakanga kwakasiyana, zvisinei, mukuti kwaida kutsakatiswa kusingasaruri kwenzvimbo yose. Kurwisa kwemhepo kwaHitler muna 1940 paCoventry, England, kwakaparadza zvivakwa zveguta uye yaive imwe yezviitiko zvekutanga "kubhomba zvisina tsarukano" munguva yehondo [8]. Kurwiswa kweNazi London, Moscow, uye nyika dzakasiyana dzeEurope muhondo yese zvakare dzinowira pasi peboka rekubhomba kwenzvimbo. Asi kunyangwe zvakadaro, kubhomba kwenzvimbo kwainyanya muitiro weAllied, kunyanya kubva muna 1942 zvichienda mberi. Kunyange zvazvo kurwiswa kwemhepo kweGermany neJapan kwaisanganisira "tactical," "strategic," uye / kana "terror-bhomba" (iyo yainyatsouraya vanhu vakawanda dzimwe nguva), British uye US bhomba remuchadenga raiwanzotarisana nekuparadza nzvimbo dzose dzemaguta. . Pakazopera Hondo Yenyika II maAllies akanga aita mabasa akawanda ekubhomba munzvimbo kupfuura Axis [9].
Kunyangwe vakuru veUS vaive varonga bhomba Japani kusvika muna 1940, US kuita zvechiuto pakutanga kwehondo, kunze kwezvimwe, zvaisawanzobatanidza kubhomba kwenzvimbo dzemaguta. Panzvimbo pezvo, mazano echiuto akapfuura nekuwedzera kunoverengeka munhanho yavo yehutsinye. The Doolittle raid on Japani muna Kubvumbi 1942 ndiyo yaive yekutanga kushandiswa kukuru kwemabhomba anopisa kurwisa vanhuwo zvavo. Pakati pa1943 nekutanga 1945 nhamba yeAllied incendiary raids yakawedzera zvishoma nezvishoma, yakagadziriswa nepakati-1943 US-British kurwisa Hamburg, Germany, uye Kurume 1945 bhomba reTokyo. Mushure meUS Army's Chemical Warfare Service yakabudirira kugadzira napalm muna 1943, kushandiswa kweAllied kwevanopisa kwakawedzera [10]. Munguva yehondo vanhu vangangoita 593,000 vakafira mukuputika kwebhomba mumaguta eGerman, uye vangangoita 780,000 vagari vemuJapan vakafa nekuda kwekurwiswa kwega [11]. Nhamba yekupedzisira haisanganisi kufa kwevanhu kubva mukuputika uye kurwiswa kweatomu Hiroshima uye Nagasaki iyo yakatevera mwedzi mitatu mushure menguva Tokyo raid.
Kune vazhinji US vakuru vakuru, kupisa uye kubhomba kwemaguta kwakanga kusiri โzvakaipaโ chete; kwakakosha zvakaenzana "kwaive kukanganisa kwepfungwa kwerufu nekuparadzwa" [12]. Chinangwa chekutyisidzira vanhuwo zvavo chaiwanzobuda mudzidziso dzepamutemo uye muhurukuro dzepachivande, kunyange hazvo zvisingawanzo mukutaura kunoitirwa veruzhinji. Asi kune vamwe vanogadzira mitemo, tsika yekubhomba kwenzvimbo zvishoma nezvishoma yakazogamuchirwa uye yakatenderwa kwenhambo yemakore anoverengeka. Kuchinja kubva ku "chaiyo" kuenda kuzere-chikero bhomba munzvimbo kazhinji chaisanganisira hapana sarudzo yakajeka. Kubhomba kwenzvimbo kwakatanga apo nzira dzechinyakare dzekubhomba dzichienderera mberi (uye nepo vamwe vakuru vakuru vakaramba vachiramba nemaune nezvekushandiswa kwebhomba renzvimbo) [13]. Uye hapana hukama hwakananga pakati pekutanga kwekubhomba kwenzvimbo muna 1940 uye kushandiswa kwemabhomba eatomu makore mashanu gare gare. Kushaikwa kwesarudzo dzakasimba dzinoratidza "kuchinja" kwega kwega hazvireve kuti vanhu vaive vasina simba rekukanganisa mafambiro ezviitiko, kana kuti shanduko yega yega yaive isingadzivisike yakapihwa yakatangira. Asi kufambira mberi zvishoma nezvishoma kubva ku "chaizvo" kuenda kunzvimbo yekubhomba, uye kubva munzvimbo kuenda kune bhomba reatomu, zvinoreva kuti vezvematongerwo enyika veUS, varume vemauto, uye vagari vangangowanikwa. Hiroshima uye Nagasaki zviri nyore kururamisa pane zvavangadai vasina kudaro. Iyo schematic pazasi inoratidza kufambira mberi uye nguva yeAllied aerial mauto ehondo panguva yehondo [14].
"Precision" kubhomba kwezvinangwa zvemauto mumaguta kana pedyo
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Nzvimbo yekubhomba kwemaguta vachishandisa zvinoputika (Zvita 1940)
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Nzvimbo yekubhomba kwemaguta vachishandisa zvinoputika uye zvinopisa (Kubvumbi 1942)
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Nzvimbo yekubhomba kwemaguta munzvimbo dzakaderera uchishandisa napalm nezvimwe zvinopisa (Kurume 1945)
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Atomic mabhomba e Hiroshima uye Nagasaki (Nyamavhuvhu 1945)
Rhetoric Yepamutemo uye Zvikonzero Zvemvumo Yeruzhinji
Vatsigiri venzvimbo uye bhomba rinopisa vakashandisa kutaura kwavo maererano nezvinodiwa zvechiuto. Vakataura kuti mauto eGermany neJapan akanga aitawo mabhomba munzvimbo dzevanhu. Uyezve, Allied "chaiyo" bhomba yaigara ichitadza kukuvadza zvakanyanya pamasimba anopikisa [15]. Vatungamiri vezvematongerwo enyika, varume vemauto, uye vesainzi vaigara vachiratidzira hunyanzvi hwemauto sehondo yemuchadenga nenapalm nenzira yakanaka, semidziyo yaizochengetedza pane kuparadza hupenyu. Nekugona nzira dzechisimba chakanyanyisa, ivo vaiti, the US vaigona kuita kuti hondo dziite pfupi, dzive nechisarudzo, uye dzive dzine unhu. Mumaoko akarurama mhirizhonga yakadai inogona kuva simba rerunyararo nekufambira mberi kwevanhu. Chokwadi, hurumende dzose dzaibatanidzwa dzakapa zvikonzero zvakafanana; Hitler, somuenzaniso, akanga ataura kuti kubhomba kweGermany kwe Holland yaizoโponesa upenyuโ nokufamba kwenguva. Rhetoric yeAllies neAxis yaive izere neMachiavellian zvikonzero zvebhomba sezvinodiwa kuponesa hupenyu nekuunza rugare [16].
Mukuwedzera, zvinhu zvinokosha zvaifanira kuramba zvakavanzwa. The US veruzhinji nevekunze vanocherekedza havana kukwanisa kuziva kuti vanhuwo zvavo vainangwa nekurwiswa neAllied. Hurumende dzeRoosevelt neChurchill saka dzakatsvaga "kutyisidzira" vanhuwo zvavo asi "pasina kuratidzika sekushandisa nzira dzehugandanga" [17]. Roosevelt nevapangamazano vake vainyanya kusimbisa misiyano isina kujeka, pane inokahadzika pakati pekunangana ne "hupfumi" maringe ne "huwandu" [18]. Vatungamiriri vezvematongerwo enyika nevemauto vakaramba vachisimbirira kuti kurwiswa kweAllied kwakanangana chete ne "maindasitiri ehondo" uye "Mabhesi emauto" (mune kashoma vainyanya kutaura, sezviri mumashoko kubva. LeMay chinotanga chinyorwa ichi) [19]. Kutaura ikoko kwakashandiswa pakubhomba kwakawanda munguva yose yehondo, kubva pakatanga kuputika mabhomba muna 1940-41 kusvika pakushandiswa kwemabhomba eatomu muna Nyamavhuvhu 1945. US vezvenhau vaienderana nemaune, vachiratidzira zvirevo zvehurumende nezve kuvhiya chaiko kwe "chaiyo bhomba" kupambwa uye kururamisa kupambwa uku sekudiwa kwechiuto. Vatapi venhau vazhinji nemapepanhau vakafuratira mhedzisiro yepfungwa iyo vagadziri vemitemo veUS vaitarisira kuti kubhomba kwakadai kwaizove kune vanhuwo zvavo. Munyori wenhau dzakaitika Michael S. Sherry akacherechedza kuti kare muna 1940 "mutauro webhomba wakakwana wakapa figleaf yekurwisa maguta eNazi uye tsika" [20]. Hunyengeri hwakadaro hwaidiwa nezvikonzero zviviri: padanho repasirese, nekuti hondo yepfungwa yakanangana nevanhuwo zvavo yakanga yarambwa pasi rose nenguva yeWWII, uye mukati menyika nekuti. US tsika dzechivanhu hadzina kutendera nekuziva kuti padanho rehutsinye.
Zvizhinji zve US ruzhinji rwakanga rusingazivi nezvehuwandu hwevanhu vakafa muAllied kurwiswa kwemaguta eGermany neJapan, uye vagari vemo vazhinji vaisaziva kuti mazhinji ekurwisa uku kwakanangana nevagari vemo. Panyaya ye Hiroshima uye Nagasaki, zvakanyanya US vagari vaitsigira kushandiswa kwemabhomba eatomu vaive neruzivo rushoma kana kusaziva nezvemamiriro enhaurirano dzekukanda mapfumo pasi, vakaudzwa kuti mari inodhura. US kupinda munyika ye Japani zvimwe zvingave zvakafanira, uye vasingazivi kuti mabhomba akanga akananga zvakare kunzvimbo dzevanhu.
Asi kunze kwehunyengeri hwehurumende, pane zvimwe zvikonzero nei vazhinji muUS-kusanganisira vatungamiriri vezvematongerwo enyika, masoja, uye veruzhinji-vakagamuchira izvo zvaiwanzoita kubhomba kwakananga kwevanhu muEurope neJapan. Zvirokwazvo vanhu vazhinji vakangobvuma kubhomba kwemuchadenga vachifunga kuti zvaive zvakafanira zvehondo kukunda huipi hukuru. Asi sezvo nyika dzakabatana vari muhondo yekurwisa fascism, pakabudawo pfungwa yakapararira yekusakanganiswa kwetsika. Sezvo WWII Air Force bombardier Howard Zinn akanyora,
Zvinoita sekuti kana kutonga kwekutanga kwaitwa kuti hondo yakarurama, pane katsika kekurega kufunga, kufunga ipapo kuti chinhu chose chakaitwa pachinzvimbo chekukunda chinogamuchirwa mutsika. Ndakaita kuti ini ndipindewo mukubhomba kwemaguta, ndisingambofungi kana paine hukama pakati pezvandaiita uye kubviswa kwefascism munyika. [21]
Vakadzika-pasi US kusarurama, kwakasimbiswa nekutenda kwakapararira kuti chikonzero cheAllied chaive chakarurama, chakapofumadza vazhinji. US vagari vemo kuti vaenderere mberi mibvunzo yetsika kana yepamutemo. Izvo zvakanzi nenyanzvi dzepfungwa "kushanduka kwetsika" zvinowanzoitika US vagari vemo kuti vagadzirise hunhu hunowedzera hutsinye muzita rekukunda zvakaipa [22]. Munyaya yehondo yePacific, mafungiro eUS kune maJapan akange akaumbwawo nekunyepa kwerusaruraganda US vezvenhau uye nevezvematongerwo enyika vakaita saTruman avo vakaratidza vanhu vekuJapan se "vanhu vane utsinye, vasina tsitsi, vasina tsitsi, uye vanonyanyisa" [23]. Mauto akabatana aiwanzonangana nenharaunda dzevashandi, zvakare, izvo zvakaita kuti tarisiro yekufa kwevanhu veruzhinji igamuchirwe nevazhinji vakadzidza vekuMadokero. Pamwe chete zvese izvi zvinhu zvakabatsira kudzivirira kufa kwevanhu uye zvimwe "zvisingatarisirwi zvehunhu" (nemashoko emumwe munyori wenhoroondo wemauto asina tsitsi) kubva pakupesvedzera kuumbwa kwemitemo kana US mhinduro yeruzhinji kune zviito zvehurumende yavo [24].
Kungofanana nekupisa nzvimbo yekubhomba kwemaguta senge Tokyo yakabudisa "dutu remoto" risingadzoreki rakapararira nokukurumidza richiputira nharaunda nemaguta ose, kufunga kwetsika dzevatungamiriri vezvematongerwo enyika nevanhuwo zvavo vari munyika dzeAllied kunganzi kwakaitikawo saizvozvo. Mufananidzo wedutu remoto unoburitsa huviri hunotyisa hwakakonzerwa nekuputika kwebhomba munzvimbo uye maitiro ayo mibvunzo yetsika yairamba ichirambwa panguva yehondo, kana kuti inopinzwa pasi pekutenda kuti fascism inofanira kukundwa nechero muripo. Chivimbo ichocho chakabvumira vatungamiriri vezvematongerwe enyika vakawanda veAllied, varume vemauto, uye varwi, uye vanhuwo zvavo kuti vakunde kusagadzikana kupi nokupi pamusoro porufu rwaigona kuitika kuvanhu. Pakasvika Nyamavhuvhu 1945 kururamiswa kwetsika kwehutsinye kwakanga kwawedzera kusingadzoreki, zvichiita kuti mamiriro ekunze agamuchirwe zvikuru nerufu rweโmuvengiโ kupfuura rwakanga ruripo makore mashanu apfuura.
Zvakadaro kusiyana nemadutu emoto akakurumidza kuparadza nzvimbo dzemumaguta mukati Jerimani uye Japani, kukura kwenzvimbo nokubhomba kunopisaโuye kuderera kwetsika kwaienderana nekukura ikokoโkwaiva muitiro wapashoma napashoma. Sezvambotaurwa, maitiro aya akabuda uye akawana pamutemo chete kwenhambo yemakore akati wandei, uyezve aive neakafanotangira ekare ekare zviuru zvemakore. Munguva yehondo pachayo kuchinja kubva ku "chaizvo" kuenda kune zvinangwa zvenharaunda dzimwe nguva kwaifamba zvishoma nezvishoma (uye zvisingabvumirwi) zvokuti "kunyange airmen vaisaziva nguva dzose kuti vaiyambuka chikumbaridzo" [25]. Nzira dzekubhomba dzakashanduka kubva 1940 kusvika 1945 nemaitiro e "piecemeal evolution" inoratidzwa nesarudzo shoma dzemaune padivi pevagadziri vemitemo nevatungamiriri vemauto [26]. Kufamba zvishoma nezvishoma kwemaitiro uye kusavapo kwesarudzo dzakajeka-dzakajeka dzevatungamiriri vega pasina mubvunzo zvakabatsira kuita kuti bhomba renzvimbo riwedzere kunakidza nemakore akazotevera ehondo.
Aftermath
Kushandiswa kwemabhomba eatomu pa Hiroshima uye Nagasaki muna Nyamavhuvhu 1945 mune imwe pfungwa mhedziso ine musoro uye yetsika yeAllied nzvimbo uye nzira dzekubhomba dzinopisa dzakagadzirwa mukati meHondo Yenyika II. Ruzhinji rwevagari vemo rwakanga rwagara rwuri chinangwa chekubhomba kwemuchadenga, chokwadi chakaita kuti kushandiswa kwemabhomba eatomu munzvimbo dzemaguta kuite kunge kushoma. Mukuwedzera kune mapofu etsika izvo zvakanyanya US vacherechedzi vakaiswa pakupinda muHondo Yenyika II, hunyengeri hwepamutemo, US urudzi, uye rusaruraganda rwakakomba pasina panikiro zvakaparira kubvumwa kwevoruzhinji kwokubhomba reatomu.
Asi kunangwa kwevagari muHondo Yenyika II kwakasiya nhaka inosvika kure Hiroshima uye Nagasaki. Muhafu yezana ramakore zvichitevera kupera kwehondo, United States nevanodyidzana nayo (uye vazhinji vevasiri mubatanidzwa) vakabhomba nemaune vanhu muVietnam, Cambodia, Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq, Afghanistan, nedzimwe nyika dzakawanda. . Mune zvimwe zviitiko zvakawanda vanhuwo zvavo vanga vari zvinangwa zvehondo dzisiri dzemuchadenga, pamwe zvakanyanya mu Central America muma1980 [27]. Mauto echiuto aigara achitaura zvinangwa zve "pfungwa" kumashure kwekuita kwakadaro, nenzira imwechete iyo vamwe. US vakuru vakuru vakaita muHondo Yenyika II.
Sekupokana kwakaita nyanzvi Kenneth Hewitt, chero kufunga nezvekubhomba kwenzvimbo kana kweHiroshima neNagasaki kunofanira kusava nechokwadi kuti "pfungwa nemamiriro ekunze akatungamira kune Allied nzvimbo yekubhomba zvichiri kutikomba" [28]. Pakati pezvidzidzo zvatingatora kubva mukushandiswa kwenzvimbo uye mabhomba eatomu kune vanhuwo zvavo ruzivo rwekuti vatungamiri vezvematongerwo enyika vanoshandisa sei kutaura kunonyengera kuvhara hutsinye hwezviito zvehondo; kuti vatungamiriri ivavo vanokwezva sei kusarudzika kwenyika uye "kuvaka ruvengo rwevanhu" kuti vagamuchire hutsinye hunowedzera munguva dzehondo, kunyanya kana pfungwa dzakaita serusununguko uye democracy zvichinzi zvinotungamira zviito zvevatungamiriri [29]; uye kuti ziviso dzakakwirira dzokururama dzinogona sei kugomadza kutonga kwetsika kunyange kwavanhu vane vavariro dzakanaka vane mipimo yaisazobvumira chisimba noutsinye.
Kusvika kumwero unoshamisa, zvinhu zvemumba zvemhirizhonga yakakura zvinoramba zviripo munyika iyo makumi matanhatu emakore apfuura inoti yakarwa "Hondo Yakanaka" kuitira kuponesa vanhu kubva kune dzimwe tsika dzine ngozi. Sezvineiwo, kunyanguvezvo, masimba anorwisana ave achikura kwenguva refu mukurwisana nemiitiro iyi; kubva pakati pemakore ekuma1960 tsika dzetsika dzeruzhinji rweUS dzakave-pasinei nekudzika uye kuyerera-kwakawedzera budiriro, zvirinani mupfungwa yekuti ruzhinji rwevanhu haruna kushivirira hutsinye hwehurumende yeUS mhiri kwemakungwa sezvazvaive muna 1945 [ 30].
Rimwe zuva risiri munguva pfupi iri kutevera, munyika ine hutongi hwejekerere, mutemo wepasi rose uchashanda sechisungo chinoshanda pazviito zvevezvematongerwo enyika vane simba munyika dzakaita se nyika dzakabatana. Parizvino, zvisinei, vatungamiriri vezvematongerwo enyika vane mukana usingaenzaniswi kune zvitsigiro zvesimba remauto vanozozvibata zvine hungwaru kana vamanikidzwa kuita kudaro nekutyisidzirwa kwekupokana nevazhinji, kubva kumatunhu avo kana kubva kuruzhinji rwakakanganiswa nezviito zvavo. zvehasha. Sekutanga, manzwi ehondo anofanirwa kuenda zvakanyanya kupfuura kutsoropodza kwemufungo mumwe chete Iraki basa, vachiomerera pakuremekedzwa kwakasimba kwemitemo yepasirese nezvibvumirano mukubata kwese mhiri kwemakungwa. KuUS kuzvipira uku kunosanganisira, pakati pezvimwe zvinhu: kutevedzera kurambidzwa kwenyika nepasirese pahondo dzine utsinye, kurwadziswa, uye hugandanga (zvinotsanangurwa sekutyisidzira uye/kana kushandiswa kwechisimba kune vagari vemo); kutevedzera zvisungo zvakasainwa kuti titange kubvisa matura edu enyukireya neavo vatinodyidzana navo; kubviswa kwerubatsiro kuhurumende dzinotyora mitemo yepasi rose kana kodzero dzevanhu; kucherechedzwa kusingaverengeki kwezvose World Court uye UN General Assembly mitongo; uye kudzoreredza zvinhu kune vakabatwa nekutyorwa kwedu kwakawanda muzvikamu izvi. Kubva ipapo mazano, mazano, uye nzvimbo dzezvematongerwo enyika zvinogona kukakavara, asi izvi zvinonyanya kukosha hazvifanirwe kupokana.
Notes:
[1] Yakatorwa muMichael S. Sherry, Kusimuka kweAmerican Air Power: Kusikwa kweAmagedhoni (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 287.
[2] Yakatorwa muIbid., 57.
[3] Henry L. Stimson, "Sarudzo Yekushandisa Atomic Bomb," Harper's Magazine 194, no. 1161 (1947), 105.
[4] Sherry, The Rise of the American Air Power, 5. Nokuda kwechidimbu chemitemo yenyika uye yenyika yehondo 1939 isati yasvika, ona Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials (New York: Knopf, 1992), 5-20. . Mizhinji yemitemo iyi yaive isina kurongeka uye pakanga paine nzira shoma dzekuteedzera dzakavapo WWII isati yasvika, asi zvakadaro inomiririra kufambira mberi kwehunhu nemutemo.
[5] Ona sarudzo dzakataurwa muLawrence S. Wittner, Rebels Against War: The American Peace Movement, 1941-1960 (New York: Columbia UP, 1969), 128-29.
[6] Kenneth Hewitt, "Nzvimbo Inoparadza: Nharaunda yeBombing uye Fate yeNzvimbo dzeMadhorobha," Annals yeSangano reAmerican Geographers 73, nhamba. 2 (June 1983), 261, 271. Chengetedzo inokosha iri madikanwa, kunyange zvazvo isiri iyo pfungwa yeichi chinyorwa: Rufu โrusingarwiโ handirwo bedzi runofanira kuchema, zvikurukuru muzviitiko apo mupari wemhosva akaita hondo ine utsinye yokupinda nechisimba. . Semuenzaniso, muzviitiko zvakaita seVietnam neIraq, United States uye vanobatana vanofanirwa kutongerwa vanhu vese vakafa, kwete kungouraya vanhu, sezvo imwe neimwe yehondo idzi yaisanganisira kupindira kusingabvumirwe uye kusiri pamutemo kweWestern, "mhosva yepamusoro yenyika" sekureva kweNuremberg. Principles; nekutarisa kufa kwevanhu handisi kureva kuregerera kuurayiwa kweavo vese vanotora zvombo, kazhinji zviri pamutemo. Ndinotenda David Brichoux nekundiyeuchidza nezvechinhu ichi.
[7] Ibid., 259-60, 261 ("intransigent tribesmen," yakataurwa), 259.
[8] Ibid., 272. Hewitt anocherechedza kuti kuputika kwebhomba kwakanga kusiri kusarura zvachose pakuti kwakanga kwangoitika zvachose, asi kwaingova "kusarura" mukati menzvimbo yakatarwa. Ndiko kuti, mushure mekutsanangura nzvimbo yekubhomba, mauto aizotsvaga kudzima nzvimbo iyo zvachose sezvinobvira pasina hanya nezvinangwa chaizvo mukati menzvimbo.
[9] Ibid., 260-63. The nyika dzakabatana kushandiswa kwebhomba renzvimbo kwakaitika kunyanya mukati Japani and in Europe mukuvamba kwa1945. Gore ra1945 risati rasvika Britain ndiye aive akonzeresa kuwanda kwekubhomba munzvimbo dzeEuropean theatre. Sezvineiwo, nzvimbo yekubhomba pachayo pachayo yakanga isingashande muzvinangwa zvayo zvairehwa; Sezvakataurwa naHewitt, kukanganisa kudiki kwekubhomba kwenzvimbo pa "hupfumi hwemaindasitiri nekuita hondo kunosiyana zvakanyanya nemhedzisiro yaro pahupenyu hwevanhu, zvivakwa, uye tsika dzemudhorobha" - kunyangwe izvi zvekupedzisira zvainangwa, sevakuru vechokwadi dzimwe nguva. akabvuma (Ibid., 272).
[10] Sherry, Kukwira kweAmerican Air Power, 122-23, 152-56, 226-27, 272-75.
[11] Nhamba dzakataurwa muHewitt, "Nzvimbo Inoparadza," 267.
[12] Gordon Daniels, "Mukuru Tokyo Air Raid, 9-10 Kurume 1945," muMazuvano Japani: Zvikamu zveNhoroondo, Mabhuku, uye Sosaiti, ed. WG Beasley (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1975), 118.
[13] Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power, 7, 94-95, 230. Mutauro wakawanda waishandiswa kurondedzera bhomba renzvimbo wakanga usina kujeka kubva pakutanga, uye waitaura zvisina kujeka pamusoro pokubvisa โkuda kwemuvengi kurambaโ (yakataurwa muIbid. , 54) pasina kutsanangura kana izvo zvaireva, semuenzaniso, kubhomba kukuvadza zvinangwa zveindasitiri kana kubhomba kwevashandi vemuindasitiri ivo pachavo. Onawo Hewitt, "Nzvimbo Inoparadza," 261-63.
[14] Chokwadi, imwe nzira haina kumira kushandiswa pakatangwa mutsivi wayo; mabhomba anoputika akashandiswa munguva yose yehondo. Uye iyi dhizaini iri nyore hairevi kureva kuti imwe budiriro yakatungamira kune inotevera, kana kuti aya ndiwo chete akakosha "nhanho" mukuita.
[15] Pamusoro pekuvandudzwa kwenzvimbo yebhomba mukupindura kukundikana kwemaitiro apfuura: Hewitt, "Place Annihilation," 261, 271; Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power, 24. Pamusoro pekuti "vazviita pakutanga" nharo inoreva Jerimani uye Japani: Ibid., 59-60, 76-79, 91-92, 122.
[16] Robert Jay Lifton naGreg Mitchell, Hiroshima in America: Makore makumi mashanu ekuramba (New York: Grosset / Putnam, 1995), 37, 81 (Hitler quote), 310-12 (preserver / destroyer inversion); Sherry, Kusimuka kweAmerican Air Power, 2-7. Onawo mutsauko wakaitwa pakati pechombo nechombo muna Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 174-176.
[17] Yakatorwa muSherry, Kusimuka kweAmerican Air Power, 156.
[18] Ibid., 57.
[19] Ona Truman yaNyamavhuvhu 6, 1945, kutaura uye zvakataurwa naGen. Lesley Groves, akatorwa muLifton naMitchell, Hiroshima muAmerica, 4-6; Stimson, "Sarudzo Yekushandisa Bhomba reatomu," 105; Sherry, Kukwira kweAmerican Air Power, 15, 109, 123.
[20] Sherry, Kukwira kweAmerican Air Power, 94 (quote), 95, 258-59, 288-92.
[21] Howard Zinn, "Hondo Yakarurama Uye Isina Kurongeka," muZinn Reader: Zvinyorwa pamusoro peKusateerera uye Democracy (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997), 259.
[22] Lifton naMitchell, Hiroshima in America, 37, 81, 307-313.
[23] Yakatorwa muBarton J. Bernstein, "Truman uye A-Bhomba: Kutarisa Vasiri varwi, Kushandisa Bhomba, uye Kudzivirira Kwake 'Sarudzo,'" The Journal of Military History 62, no. 3 (1998), 558.
[24] Quote kubva kuna Daniels, "The Great Tokyo Air Raid," 130; nharo dzangu. Onawo Sherry, Kusimuka kweAmerican Air Power, 114-117, 285; naHewitt, "Place Annihilation," 271, anocherekedza kusawirirana kukuru kweveruzhinji kwakatevera kubhomba kwaHitler kwenzvimbo dzepamusoro-soro.
[25] Yakatorwa muSherry, Kusimuka kweAmerican Air Power, 288-89.
[26] Ibid., 96, 230.
[27] Hewitt, "Place Annihilation," 281. Kunyange zvazvo Hewitt asingazvitauri, Nikaraguwa muenzaniso chaiwo. Hondo yeContra War inotsigirwa neUS yakanangana nemaune vagari vemuNicaragua uye zvivakwa zvine tarisiro yekukanganisa nyika uye kutambudza vagari vekumaruwa zvekuti vanhu vaizopidigura hurumende yeSandinista kuti vangopedza kurwiswa nemauto. Zano iri rakashanda, munguva pfupi, maSandinista achirasikirwa nesarudzo dzemutungamiri wenyika dza1990.
[28] Hewitt, "Nzvimbo Kuparadza," 262.
[29] Mark Selden, "Sumo: United States, Japani, uye Bhomba reAtomu," muThe Atomic Bomb: Manzwi anobva Hiroshima uye Nagasaki, Kyoko naMark Selden, ed. (Armonk, New York: ME Sharpe, 1989), xxvi.
[30] Noam Chomsky, kune imwe, akaita nharo iyi muhurukuro dzakawanda uye zvinyorwa.
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