Kuyahlekisa ukubona ukuthi abezindaba balamukele ngokulangazela kangakanani iculo likaSteven Pinker lika-2011, Izingelosi Ezingcono Zemvelo Yethu: Kungani Ubudlova Behlile,[1] engachazi nje kuphela ukuthi โubudlova buye bancipha isikhathi eside,โ kodwa nokuthi โkungenzeka siphila enkathini enokuthula kunazo zonke ekuphileni kwezinhlobo zethu zezilwane.โ[2] Uprofesa eMnyangweni Wezengqondo eNyuvesi yase-Harvard kusukela ngo-2002 futhi owaphumelela izikhathi ezimbili zoMklomelo we-Pulitzer emkhakheni wezinganekwane ezivamile,[3] Itimu ethandekayo ka-Pinker iqondana nokuzimbandakanya kwamanje kwe-Nobel Peace Laureate ezimpini okungenani emazwenikazi amane ahlukene (e-Asia, e-Afrika, e-Europe, naseNingizimu Melika); Ukuhoxa kwakhe ingxenye edabukisayo e-Iraq eyayihlaselwe futhi edlalwe; ukuqeda kwakhe ngokunqoba impi ka-2011 eLibya; ukwakheka kwakhe nezinsongo zokuhileleka ezimpini ezinkulu nakakhulu ne-Syria ne-Iran, zombili eziqhubekayo nezijeziso ezinonya kanye nezenzo eziningi ezicashile;[4] ukusetshenziswa kwakhe okuyimfihlo nokwanda njalo kwezibhamu zasemoyeni ezilawulwa kude kanye namaqembu abulalayo emisebenzini yokubulala emhlabeni wonke;[5] nesimemezelo sakhe selungelo lokubulala noma imuphi umuntu noma yikuphi ngenxa yezizathu โzokuphepha kwezweโโngokwenza umhlaba wonke ube indawo ekhululekile yomlilo yase-US.[6] Umbuso ka-Barack Obama, nangaphambi kwawo umbuso kaBush-Cheney, nawo uye weseka futhi wavikela ukwanda kuka-Israyeli kokuhlanjululwa ngokobuhlanga kwabantu basePalestine, kanye nezenzo ezinonya zase-US nezinsongo ezibandakanya i-Iran neSyria ziqondana kakhulu nalezo zakwa-Israel.
Nakuba ngokubona kuka-Pinker kube โUkuthula Okudeโ kusukela ekupheleni kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili,[7] iemhlabeni wangempela kube nochungechunge lwezimpi zase-US ezinde nezicekela phansi: eKorea (1950-1953), Vietnam, Laos, naseCambodia (1954-1975), Iraq (1990-), Afghanistan (2001- noma, ngokungangabazeki. , 1979-), iDemocratic Republic of the Congo (1996-), ngokuzibandakanya okuqondile kwamaklayenti ase-US avela eRwanda (Paul Kagame) nase-Uganda (Yoweri Museveni) ekubulaweni kwabantu e-Congo okukhulu; kanye nokuqubuka kwe-Israel eLebanon (1982 kanye no-2006), ukubala okumbalwa. Kwakukhona futhi izimpi ezibulala kakhulu e-Iran, ezahlaselwa yi-Iraq kaSaddam Hussein (1980-1988), ngesikhuthazo nokusekelwa kwaseNtshonalanga. Futhi ngezaba zokuvuselela i-9/11, ukusungulwa kwezepolitiki kanye "nokuzivikela" kwe-US kwakwazi ukumemezela "Impi Yobuphekula," evulekile futhi esaqhubeka, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi "Ukuthula Okude" ngeke kuphazamiseke. ngokungqubuzana okuhlangabezane nezindinganiso ze-Pinkerian zempi yangempela.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo nesokuthi โUkuthula Okushaโ ka-Pinker, okusolwa ukuthi kwaqala ngokuhlakazwa kwe-Soviet bloc, i-Warsaw Pact, kanye ne-Soviet Union ngokwayo (1989-1991), siye sabona ukwanda okungapheli kwe-US. -iholwa yi-NATO bloc, impi yayo yama-1990s nokudilizwa kweYugoslavia,8] ukwamukela kwayo imisebenzi emisha โengaphandle kwendawoโ โyokuphepha,โ[9] ubulungu bayo obukhula kancane kancane busuka ezifundazweni eziyi-16 kuye kwezingu-28, okuhlanganisa ne-Baltic kanye namasathelayithi aseMpumalanga Yurophu yangaphambili yeSoviet Union, kanye nokuzungeza okukhulayo kwe-US ne-NATO kanye nezinsongo eChina naseRussia.[10] Futhi phakathi neminyaka eyishumi yokuqala yekhulu lama-21, i-United States yaqala obala ukusetshenziswa okuhlelekile kwe "imibuzo ethuthukisiwe" (okungukuthi, ukuhlukunyezwa) kanye nokuphendukela "ekuguquleleni okungajwayelekile" okuthumela izithunjwa kumakhasimende athambekele ekuhlushweni ngenxa yezinye ezingezona izingelosi ezisebenza ngaphezulu.[11]
Indinganiso kaPinker yokuphazanyiswa โkoKuthula Okudeโ kungaba impi phakathi โkwemibuso emikhulu,โ futhi kuyiqiniso ukuthi imibuso emikhulu ye-Axis ne-Allied eyalwa yodwa phakathi neMpi Yezwe II ayizange ilwe phakathi kwayo kusukela ngo-1945. Kodwa u-Pinker uqhubekisela phambili lo mcabango nakakhulu: Akaphikisi nje kuphela ukuthi "intando yeningi igwema izingxabano phakathi komunye nomunye," kodwa ukuthi "ivame ukuhlala ngaphandle kwezingxabano kulo lonke ibhodi," (283) umbono awubiza ngokuthi "Ukuthula Kwentando Yeningi."[12] (278-284) Lokhu kuzofika njengokumangala kuzisulu eziningi zokubulawa kwabantu base-US, unswinyo, ukuketula umbuso, ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu kanye nokuhlasela kusukela ngo-1945.13] Ku-Pinker, akukho ukuhlaselwa kwamandla amancane yintando yeningi eyodwa noma ngaphezulu kubalwa njengempi yangempela noma okuphazamisa "ukuthula kweDemocratic," kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bangaki abantu abafayo.
โPhakathi kwamazwe ahloniphekile,โ kubhala u-Pinker, โukunqoba akusaseyona inketho enengqondo. Isazi sezombangazwe embusweni wentando yeningi namuhla owasikisela ukunqoba elinye izwe ngeke ahlangatshezwe izingxabano kodwa ngokukhungatheka, ukuphoxeka, noma ukuhleka.โ (260) Lesi isisho esiwubulima ngokwedlulele. Kungenzeka ukuthi, ngenkathi uGeorge Bush noTony Blair bethumela amasosha ase-US kanye namaNgisi ukuthi ayohlasela i-Iraq ngo-2003, axosha uhulumeni wayo, esikhundleni sawo wafaka owodwa osebenza ngaphansi kwemithetho eyahlelwa yi-Coalition Provisional Authority, lokhu akuzange kubalwe โnjengokunqoba,โ njengalaba baholi. abakaze basho ukuthi baqala impi ukuze "banqobe" i-Iraq, kodwa kunalokho "ukuqeda izikhali e-Iraq, ukukhulula abantu bayo kanye nokuvikela umhlaba engozini enkulu.โ[14] Imuphi umnqobi owake wamemezela njengenjongo yakhe enye into ngaphandle kokuzivikela kanye nokuvikelwa kokuphila nesitho? Kusekelwe kumadivayisi afana nalawa lapho u-Pinker ethi โUkuthula Okude,โ โUkuthula Okusha,โ kanye โNeDemocratic Peaceโ ephumula khona. (Bheka โUkubhucunga Izinombolo,โ ngezansi.)
Futhi kungalolu hlobo lwesimo u-Pinker ephonsa endikimbeni yakhe โyokuhweba emneneโ ngokuthuthukisa umbono obizwa nge- โGolden Arches Peaceโโukuthi โawekho amazwe amabili aneMcDonaldโs ake alwa impi.โ Okuhlukile โokungaguqukiโ kuphela angakwazi ukukuqamba kwenzeka ngo-1999, โlapho i-NATO iqhumisa ibhomu iYugoslavia kafushane.โ (285) Emaphethelweni uveza ukuthi "okuhlukile kwangaphambilini kwaba ukuhlasela kwe-US ePanama ngo-1989," kodwa uyayichitha le mpi yase-US njengengabalulekile kakhulu ukwenza leli banga - "isibalo sokufa kwayo asifinyeleli ezingeni elincane elidingekayo empini ngokusho kombiko. incazelo ejwayelekile,โ[15] nakuba ngokoMqulu we-UN kanye nomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ovamile, kwakungekho lutho olusezingeni eliphansi mayelana nalolu dlame olungenambube lwase-US ngokumelene nezwe elizimele. Lapha njengakwezinye izindawo eziningi, u-Pinker ukhetha inani lokufa elilinganiselwe elinciphisa ukufa kwabantu e-US futhi livumelane ne-ajenda yakhe yezombusazwe.[16]
U-Pinker ubeka ngokudlula ukuthi ukuthula kwangemva kweMpi Yezwe II phakathi kweziqhwaga kungenzeka kwaba umphumela wezindleko ezinkulu zezimpi ezingase zihilele ukushintshaniswa kwezikhali zenuziโfuthi kwadlulela naseSoviet Union phakathi nokuphila kwayo kwangemva kweMpi Yezwe IIโkodwa. incazelo yakhe igxile kakhulu ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo kwamasiko kanye nokuzivumelanisa kwezinto eziphilayo ze-Civilized,[17] ngokungafani nethi Engaphucuzekile Yomhlaba Wesithathu. Kungani lokhu kuthula okusha kwe-Civilized kungavimbeli ukungenelela kwabo okunodlame phesheya uyehluleka ukuchaza. Ukukhishwa ngaphandle kwezimpi ezilwa naBangaphucukile encazelweni yakhe ethi โUkuthula Okudeโ kukhombisa ukuchema kwezepolitiki okukhulu.
U-Pinker ubeka umuzwa wodlame olwandisiwe โekukhohliseniโ okuningi, okunye akholelwa ukuthi kudalwe ukuthuthukiswa kwemithombo yezindaba nezinye izindlela zokuxhumana ezithuthukisiwe ezivumela ukuphuthuma endaweni yezehlakalo ezichitha igazi, nokuziqopha futhi kuzidlulisele umhlaba. Njengoba echazile esivakashi se-CBS TV's I-Early Show maphakathi no-December 2011: โAsikwazi nje kuphela ukuthumela indiza enophephela emhlane neqembu lamafilimu kunoma iyiphi indawo enezinkinga emhlabeni kodwa manje noma ubani onomakhalekhukhwini useyintatheli esheshayo. Bangasakaza izithombe ezinemibala yokuchitheka kwegazi noma kuphi lapho kwenzeka khona ngakho-ke sikuqaphela kakhulu.โ[18] Ngokusobala u-Pinker ukholelwa ukuthi abezindaba basakaza umhlaba ngokungabandlululi, bebika ngabalimi baseGuatemala ababulawa amasosha abo, izisulu zezempi yase-US e-Afghanistan, ababhikishi baseHonduran badutshulwa babulawa amasosha abo, futhi bafa futhi balimala amasosha ase-US njengoba ngobudlova njengoba bebika ngababhikishi abadutshulwa babulawa emigwaqweni yaseTehran, noma izisulu zikahulumeni waseSyria noma zikaMuammar Gaddafi ongasekho ngo-2011.19] I-naivetรฉ lapha iyamangaza.
"Ukuthula Okude" ka-Pinker kanye "Nokuthula Okusha" kanye nokuncipha kwabo kobudlova okusolwayo akuhlangani nje kuphela nokuhlasela okuningi nokuqhubekayo okwenziwa yiziqhwaga kuma-middgets, ukwanda okukhulu kwezikhali, kanye "nokuqhuma" okusha ukuhlukunyezwa,[20] kodwa ihambisana nokwanda kwesakhiwo udlame lwempi yezinga lomhlaba oluholele ekukhuleni kokungalingani ngaphakathi naphakathi kwamazwe, ukuphucwa kwenani elikhulu ngokuhlelekile, ukushaqwa kwezizwe ezivamile, ukufuduka okukhulu, ukukhula kwamadolobha emijondolo, ukungezwani kwezinhlanga kanye nokulwa nobuSulumane, okwenziwa ngamabomu. indawo enezinkinga, eyamukelayo, ukuboshwa kwenqwaba yabantu abambalwa, namandla aphikisayo amaningi aphikisayo kokubili lapha naphesheya.21] Lokhu akuhlanganisi โudlameโ ohlelweni lokubala lwe-Pinker.
I-Pinker's "Cold War"
Yize i-Pinker ihlanganisa umhlabathi omkhulu kusukela kubantu bakudala kuze kube manje, ngezibalo eziningi nezingcaphuno ezifundiwe, Izingelosi ezingcono kuwumsebenzi wemibono eyeqisayo, onokuchema okuziveza kuwo wonke amazingaโumthombo, ulimi, uhlaka, umongo womlando nezepolitiki, kanye nengqikithiโnakuzo zonke izihloko.
Cabanga ngalesi sibonelo:
Ungacabanga ukuthi ukunyamalala kosongo olukhulu emlandweni wesintu [okungukuthi, impi yenuzi ye-NATO-Warsaw Pact] bekungaletha ukuthula phakathi kwabahlaziyi bezindaba zomhlaba. Ngokuphambene nezibikezelo zochwepheshe, kwakungekho ukuhlasela kweNtshonalanga Yurophu ngamathangi aseSoviet, akukho ukukhuphuka kwenhlekelele eCuba noma eBerlin noma eMpumalanga Ephakathi kuya ekuqothulweni kwezikhali zenuzi. Amadolobha omhlaba awazange avuthwe; umkhathi awuzange ufakwe ubuthi ngenxa ye-radioactive fallout noma uminyaniswe imfucumfucu eyenza ilanga libe mnyama futhi lithumele Homo sapiens indlela yama-dinosaurs. Akugcinanga lapho, kodwa iJalimane ehlangene ayizange iphenduke umbuso wesine, intando yeningi ayizange ihambe ngendlela yobukhosi, futhi imibuso emikhulu nezizwe ezithuthukile azizange ziwele empini yezwe yesithathu kodwa kunalokho ukuthula okude, okuqhubeka isikhathi eside. . (295)
Lokhu kuyinkulumo-nkulumo, kepha kugcwele ukuchema kwezepolitiki, abantu abampofu, namaphutha angokoqobo: Usongo lwempi yenuzi alukashabalali, namadolobha amabili omhlaba. ngamashumi kwashabalala, kwabulawa izakhamuzi eziyikota yesigidi emivimbo emibili esheshayo, kodwa lokhu kwenziwa izwe lakubo kaPinker, njengoba nje impi yenuzi ihlezi โetafuleniโ futhi izikhali zenuzi ziyaqhubeka nokuba yingxenye ebalulekile izikhali zase-United States, NATO, Israel, kanye ne-India (eyokugcina evikeleke ngaphandle kweSivumelwano Sokungabhebhetheki Kwezikhali Zenuzi โngobambiswano olusha lwamasuโ phakathi kwe-United States ne-India kusukela ngoJulayi 2005[22])โfuthi konke naphezu kwesithembiso se-United States kanye nezinye ezine zoqobo zezikhali zenuzi ngo-1968 ukusebenzela ukuqeda izikhali zenuzi.[23]
U-Pinker ukwaziswa okungelona iqiniso ngokuthi โizibikezelo zochwephesheโ zaziwukuthi amathangi aseSoviet ayezothatha iYurophuโudida umbono wochwepheshe kanye nenkulumo-ze yeMpi Yomshoshaphansi. ISoviet Union yayicekelwe phansi phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, futhi yafuna ukubolekwa imali e-United States ezingxoxweni zangemva kwempi; kwakungumlingisi wamazwe ngamazwe oqaphile futhi oqaphile, futhi engenaso isikhali senuzi kwaze kwaba ngu-1949. U-John Foster Dulles ngokwakhe waphawula ukuthi โangazi noma yisiphi isikhulu esiphezulu esinomthwalo wemfanelo, amasosha noma umphakathiโฆokholelwa ukuthi iSoviet manje ihlela ukunqoba ngodlame lwezempi olusobalaโ (okungukuthi, โngokuhlasela kuka-Pinker eNtshonalanga Yurophu ngamathangi aseSovietโ). [24] Ebhala ngo-1946-1947, uNobhala Wezwe wase-United States uJames F. Byrnes ngokusobala wayengalindele noma yikuphi ukuhlasela kwamasosha aseSoviet eNtshonalanga Yurophu.25] Yena, uDulles, nezinye izikhulu babekhathazeke kakhulu ngethonya lezombangazwe laseSoviet phezu komphakathi waseNtshonalanga, abaholi bendawo, โnokungenwaโ kanye โnokuketula,โ ababhekana nakho ngemali, izikhali, izivumelwano nabaholi bendawo, kanye โnabangenisiโ babo kanye โukuguqulwa.โ Bambalwa uma bekhona ochwepheshe bangempela ababelindele umphumela weFederal Republic of Germany ukuba ube โuMbuso wesine,โ kodwa kungenzeka ukuthi abanye bamangala lapho i-United States. kanye neNtshonalanga Jalimane kwephulwe ekuqaleni isithembisos kuMikhail Gorbachev kanye noNgqongqoshe wakhe Wezangaphandle u-Eduard Shevardnadze ekuqaleni kuka-1990 hhayi ukunweba i-NATO ngokuqhubekayo kuya empumalanga, ukuze iMoscow ivume ukuhlanganisa iMpumalanga neNtshonalanga Jalimane kamuva ngo-1990.26] U-Pinker uyehluleka ukuxoxa ngale ntuthuko esongela ukuthula, noma ngisho nokuba khona kwe- ekuqaleni isithembiso eMoscow. Ngempela, uphawula ukuthi ukuhlangana kabusha kweJalimane nokwanda kwe-NATO โakuzange kube nomphumela obonakalayo ekuthuleni Okude phakathi kwamazwe athuthukile, futhi kwabikezela Ukuthula Okusha phakathi kwamazwe asathuthuka.โ (674)
Kokunye ukubonakaliswa okusobala kwemibono yeMpi Yomshoshaphansi, u-Pinker ubhala ukuthi โubukhomanisi obunothando, obunempi bugqugquzele izinhlelo zokunweba zeSoviet Union kanye neChina, ezazifuna ukusiza enqubweni yolimi lapho izisebenzi noma abalimi bezonqoba. onxiwankulu futhi bamise ubushiqela emazweni ngamazwe. IMpi Yomshoshaphansi yaba umphumela wokuzimisela kwe-United States ukuqukatha le nhlangano endaweni ethize eseduze nemingcele yayo ekupheleni kweMpi Yezwe II.โ (244-245) Ngakho-ke, njengoba nje engekho usopolitiki wase-US ongaphakamisa "ukunqoba" elinye izwe, umbuso wenqubomgomo yezangaphandle wase-US ubulokhu uvikela ngokuqinile, uqukethe isitha esandisa ukwanda.
Lokhu ukuguqulelwa kwe-Orwellian komlando wangempela, njengoba iSoviet Union noma iChina ayizange ibonise noma yiluphi โuhlelo lokunwebekaโ ngemva kweMpi Yezwe IIโiSoviet Union ayizange inwebe ngale kwemingcele yayo yangemva kwempi kanye nokuhlala e-Yalta. Banikeze ukusekelwa okunesizotha, ikakhulukazi kwamazwi kumabutho angakwesokunxele naphikisana ne-US kude, kodwa i-United States ayizange ihlele nje ukunwetshwa kombuso wangemva kwempi phakathi neMpi Yezwe II ngamasu ayo "Endawo Enkulu", [27] empeleni wenza yanda emhlabeni wonke, njengoba yayilwela ukuqukatha izinhlangano zomdabu zobuzwe, ukuzimela, kanye nentando yeningi yezenhlalo, isekela ukuvukela umbuso kanye nemibuso eminingi yamalungelo kanye neyobushiqela kuwo wonke amazwekazi.28] Kukhona imibhalo ebalulekile etholakala esidlangalaleni echaza izinhlelo nezinhlelo zase-US zokudicilela phansi, ukuketula nokufaka esikhundleni iSoviet Union,[29] kanye nokungenelela ukuze kubunjwe futhi kubunjwe kabusha Umhlaba Wesithathu ngendlela ngokuqinisekile u-Pinker azoyibiza ukuketula nokubhidliza intando yeningi uma kubangelwa amandla amakhomanisi.[30] Kodwa uPinker akakhulumi ngabo. Futhi ku-Pinker, i-United States ayizange ilandele i-ajenda "yothando" noma yokuzicabangela yona ngesikhathi "sokuthula Okude," futhi ayizange inikeze "isandla sosizo" kulabo, njengoMobutu eZaire, uFerdinand Marcos ePhilippines, eSuharto I-Indonesia, kanye no-Augusto Pinochet e-Chile, bazosekela โimakethe yamahhala [ngisho noma ikhohlakele]โ namalungelo abatshalizimali. I-United States yasabela kuphela ezinhlelweni nezinsongo zamakhomanisi.
Kodwa amaSoviet awazange athathe isinyathelo esikude esiqhathaniswa nokuketulwa kweMossadegh yase-US kanye nokufakwa kobushiqela be-Shah e-Iran ngo-1953,31] Izimpi zayo zaseKorea kanye nezase-Indochinese, ukwesekwa kwayo eduze nokuketulwa umbuso kwamasosha ase-Indonesia nokubulawa kwabantu ngo-1965-1966, ukweseka kwayo imibuso yobandlululo yaseNingizimu Afrika e-Angola, Namibia naseMozambique, kanye neNingizimu Afrika ngokwayo (khumbula indima ye-CIA ekuthumbeni. kanye nokubopha uNelson Mandela), kanye nokuzibandakanya kwakhe kanzima ekusungulweni kombuso wezempi kanye namaphekula eBrazil, eChile, nakuyo yonke iLatin America ngemuva kweMpi Yezwe II.32] Endabeni yendima ephakathi kwe-US ekuketulweni kombuso wentando yeningi waseGuatemala ngo-1954, kwaba nesimangalo esikhulu sesikhulu kanye nabezindaba sosongo lwaseSoviet lapho, kodwa lokhu kwakuyisembozo senkulumo-ze engamanga yesifiso sokulawula nokusungula inhlangano. iklayenti elithobeke ngokuphelele esikhundleni salelo elaphikisana nethonya elikhulu le-United Fruit Company phezu kwenqubomgomo.33] Kepha ekusungulweni kwemibono yase-US yeMpi Yomshoshaphansi, u-Pinker aye wayifaka ngaphakathi futhi wayiphinda kuyo yonke impilo yakhe Izingelosi ezingcono, i-United States yayimane ivikela i-Free World ngokumelene nokwanda kwamakhomanisi!
Ukunyamalala kwe-Imperialism, I-Military-Industrial Complex, kanye Nezimfuneko Zesikhungo
Ukuguqulwa okuphawulekayo kwe-Pinker kwe okungokoqobo ekuboniseni isikhathi sangemva kweMpi Yezwe II njenge โLong Pe
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa kuphela ngokuphana kwabafundi bayo.
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