"Amasosha e-tin kanye noNixon bayeza,
Ekugcineni sisodwa.
Kuleli hlobo, ngizwa isigubhu
Abane bashonile e-O-hi-o. . .”
—“Ohio,” Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (1970)
UMongameli uRichard Nixon uziqhenye ngokunemba kokubikezela kwakhe kwezepolitiki. Ubengakaze ahlakaniphe kakhulu kunasemazwini awasho eminyakeni engamashumi amahlanu edlule kule nyanga kunobhala wakhe, ngaphambi nje kokuba ethule inkulumo eWhite House eyamemezela ukuhlasela kwamasosha aseMelika eCambodia. “Kungenzeka,” kusho uNixon, “ukuthi amakhampasi azoqhuma ngempela ngemva kwale nkulumo.”
Baqhuma phezulu, njengoba ukwanda kuka-Nixon obekungalindelekile kwempi ebivele ingakathandwa eVietnam kwabangela uchungechunge lwezehlakalo olwaphetha ngesiteleka sabafundi esikhulu kunazo zonke emlandweni wase-US.
NgoMeyi 1970, abantu abasha abalinganiselwa ezigidini ezine bajoyina imibhikisho eyavala amakilasi emakolishi angamakhulu ayisikhombisa, amanyuvesi kanye nezikole zamabanga aphezulu ezweni lonke. Inqwaba yaphoqeleka ukuthi ihlale ivaliwe kuze kuphele isemester yasentwasahlobo.
Phakathi nalesi siphithiphithi esingakaze sibonwe, kwaboshwa abafundi ababalelwa ezinkulungwaneni ezimbili. Ngemva kokuba izakhiwo ezingamashumi amathathu ezisetshenziswa i-Reserve Officers 'Training Corps (ROTC) ziqhunyiswe ngamabhomu noma zashiswa, onogada Besizwe ababehlome bexhobe bajutshwa emakhempasini angamashumi amabili nanye ezifundazweni eziyishumi nesithupha.
Ngo-May 4, eNyuvesi yase-Kent State e-Ohio, amalungu onogada asanda kuphuma emaphoyiseni adubula abulala abafundi abane kwalimala abayisishiyagalolunye. Ezinsukwini eziyishumi kamuva, Amaphoyisa Esifundazwe saseMississippi avulela ngenhlamvu egunjini labesifazane eJackson State University, kwashona abanye abafundi ababili.
Impi ebizayo yaseMelika eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia ekugcineni yafika ekhaya inomthelela omangalisayo, yadala lokho Ikhomishana KaMongameli Yakamuva Yezinxushunxushu Ehlelwe nguNixon (owaziwa ngokuthi Ikhomishini yeScranton) yakubiza ngokuthi “inhlekelele engenakuqhathaniswa” kwezemfundo ephakeme.
Isiteleka kuwo wonke amakhempasi siveze amandla okusebenza ngokubambisana. Izalwe ngemuva kokuvalwa kwezikole, kube nokuqhuma kwemisebenzi ngamakhulu ezinkulungwane zabafundi abebengahlanganyeli emisebenzini yokulwa nempi, okwadala ukuzamazama okukhulu kwezombusazwe ezweni lonke, okuhlanganisa nokusiza ukunqanda ukungenelela kwamasosha eSoutheast Asia.
Njengoba uNeil Sheehan ephawula Amanga Aqhakazile, umlando wakhe owazuza umklomelo ngeMpi YaseVietnam, “umlilo omkhulu wokubhikisha” owathungelwa “ukuhlasela” kukaNixon eCambodia wawumkhulu kangangokuthi i-White House “yayingenayo enye indlela ngaphandle kokusheshisa ukuhoxa” kwamasosha ase-US esifundeni. Ngeshwa, isivinini sokumiswa kokuxoshwa kweMelika kwaqhubeka eminye iminyaka emihlanu, phakathi nokuchitheka kwegazi okwengeziwe phakathi kwabantu baseVietnam (ababulawa abantu abangaba yizigidi ezi-3 kanye nokufa kwezempi).
Indlela Yokubhikisha
Amanye ama-radicals ekhampasi aqala ukuphikisa inqubomgomo yase-US e-Vietnam ngesikhathi sokuqala sika-Nixon owandulelayo, u-Lyndon B. Johnson. UJohnson wakhankasa ngo-1964 "njengekhandidethi lokuthula" emjahweni wobumongameli ephikisana noSenator Barry Goldwater, iRiphabhulikhi ephiko kwesokudla. Kodwa eminyakeni emibili eyalandela, uMongameli Johnson waqala umkhankaso omkhulu wezempi ukuze avimbele umbimbi wakhe, iRiphabhulikhi yaseVietnam, ukuthi ingaketulwa engxenyeni eseningizimu yezwe ngenxa yokuvukela umbuso owawuholwa ngamakhomanisi.
Ukugxekwa kukaJohnson kuthole izinkulumo zakho zokuqala nezinesizotha kakhulu kokuthi “ukufundisa” - izimpikiswano zasekhampasi kanye nezifundo mayelana neVietnam. Kodwa izinkulumo eziningi ngokushesha zaphendukela esenzweni. Kwahlelwa amakhulu futhi ekugcineni izinkulungwane zemibhikisho yendawo - ngokumelene nokubuthwa kwezempi kanye nokuqeqeshwa kwezikhulu zesikhungo, ucwaningo lwenyuvesi oluxhaswe yi-Pentagon, kanye nabavakashi abavakashela izinkampani ezivela kubakhi bezikhali njengeDow Chemical Company.
Ukuhlasela kwamavukelambuso ngoFebhuwari 1968 kanye nokwanda kwezisulu zaseMelika (ezagcina sezifinyelele izinkulungwane ezingamashumi ayisithupha) kwaqeda noma yiliphi ithemba uJohnson ayenalo lokunqoba empini. Ngisho nangemva kokuba umongameli enqabile ukungenela ukhetho kabusha, ababhikishi abamelene nempi basalokhu behla eWashington, DC, ngamanani andayo. Ngo-1967, abantu abayizinkulungwane ezingamashumi amahlanu bamasha ePentagon. Eminyakeni emibili kamuva, izinkulungwane ezingamakhulu amathathu zahlangana zibhikisha eduze ne-White House.
U-Nixon ungene esikhundleni sikaJohnson ngoJanuwari ka-1969, ngemuva kokuba u-Hubert Humphrey, iphini likamongameli kaJohnson kanye nomsekeli othembekile wempi, ehlulwe emjahweni wezinsuku ezintathu. U-Nixon wathi "unohlelo oluyimfihlo" lokuletha ukuthula eVietnam futhi ahoxise amasosha ayizinkulungwane ezingamakhulu amahlanu ase-US asatshalaliswe lapho.
Lapho selwembuliwe, icebo likaNixon laphenduka “iVietnamization” - edlulisela umthwalo wokulwa emabuthweni athembeke kuhulumeni osekelwa yi-US eSaigon, ngenkathi eqhuba ukuqhuma kwamabhomu okuhlosiwe kulo lonke elaseVietnam, Laos, naseCambodia. Ngo-April 30, 1970, i-United States yayithumela amasosha angaphansi eCambodia.
Abafundi basezikhungweni ezizimele ezihlotshaniswa nesiyaluyalu sokulwa nempi babephakathi kwabokuqala ukusabela. Iziteleka zombhikisho zimenyezelwe ngokushesha e-Columbia, e-Princeton, eBrandeis, nase-Yale, lapho abafundi abaningi base bevele bevotele ukuduba ikilasi besekela i-Black Panther Party, eyayiqulwa icala eNew Haven.
Khonamanjalo, isiphithiphithi sangoLwesihlanu ebusuku ngaphandle kwezindawo zokucima ukoma zabafundi edolobheni laseKent, e-Ohio, silandelwe ukushiswa kwebhilidi laseKent State ROTC ngempelasonto. Umbusi wase-Ohio uJames Rhodes uyalele inkulungwane yamasosha Onogada Bakazwelonke ukuthi athathe isikhungo futhi avimbele imibuthano yanoma yiluphi uhlobo.
Onogada bafike behlome ngamabhomu, amabhomu esisi esikhalisa unyembezi, izibhamu, namaM1, isibhamu samasosha esinohla olude nesivinini esikhulu. Lijaha isixuku sabafundi esinonya kodwa esingahlomile esikoleni ngoMeyi 4, ibutho elilodwa lamasosha angempelasonto livele lahamba ngamasondo ladubula, kwashona abafundi abane.
Ukuletha Ikhaya Lempi
Njengoba izazi-mlando uNancy Zaroulis noGerald Sullivan bachaza isigameko ngo Ubani Owakhulumela Phakade?:
Kwaba umzuzu lapho isizwe sasigqugquzelwe ukuba sisebenzise izikhali zempi entsheni yaso, umzuzwana lapho lonke udlame, inzondo, kanye nokungqubuzana okuzalanayo kweshumi leminyaka edlule kwacindezelwa kwaba yimizuzwana engu-13 lapho onogada Besizwe ababenovalo, bekhathele beyizimbangi, bebamba iqhaza. mhlawumbe ngenxa yokwethuka noma ukukhungatheka nje, wayesephendukele abaklolodayo futhi waziphindiselela.
Ngemuva kwalokhu kuqubuka, izikhulu Zonogada zahlela ukufihla obala Ukubulawa kwabantu e-Kent State: Ukubulala Kwahamba Kanjani Engajeziswa, yintatheli engumseshi u-IF Stone. Ngisho ne-FBI kamuva yathola ukuthi ukudubula kwabantu abaningi “bekungenasidingo.”
Ukushona kukaJeffrey Miller, u-Allison Krause, uSandy Scheuer, noBill Schroeder kube nomthelela onamandla kumakhulu ezinkulungwane zabafundi eSifundazweni Sase-Kent nangale kwayo. Ngalesi sikhathi, abalimala zempi babengebona abahlanganyeli abavela emiphakathini empofu e-United States noma abalimi baseVietnam - bonke ababefa ngamanani amakhulu kakhulu iminyaka. Futhi kwakungebona abantu base-Afrika baseMelika, njengababhikishi abathathu babafundi abadutshulwa babulawa eNyuvesi Yesifunda YaseNingizimu Carolina eminyakeni emibili ngaphambili, noma ababili ababulawa ngamasosha ombuso e-Jackson State University kamuva ngalowo Meyi.
Abafundi endaweni yokubulawa kwabantu e-Kent State babehola kakhulu abamhlophe nabaphakathi, behlehliswa. Abanye babekuphikisa ngamandla ukuba khona konogada, kodwa abaningi babemane bebukele, belenga otshanini phakathi kwamakilasi. Okukodwa okuhlosiwe kwakuyi-cadet ye-ROTC eyayisanda kushiya isigaba sesayensi yezempi ngaphambi kokuthola inhlamvu ngemuva. Omunye umfundi, owasinda, ukhubazekile impilo yakhe yonke. (Ukuze uthole imininingwane yomuntu wokuqala, bheka I-Kent State: Ukufa Nokuphikiswa Eminyakeni Yamashumi Ayisithupha Emide nguThomas M. Grace, isazi sezomlando naye owalimala ngalolo suku.)
Ezithombeni zamaphephandaba kanye nokusakazwa kwe-TV, abasindile be-Kent State ababemangele babebukeka njengabafundi basekolishi yonke indawo. Njengoba omunye umhleli wesiteleka e-Middlebury College e-Vermont ekhumbula, lezo zithombe “zakha umuzwa wokuba sengozini kanye nenkinga abantu abaningi ababengakaze babe nayo ngaphambili.”
Izingcingo eziwumphumela zokuvalwa kwekhampasi zavela macala onke. Abafundi baseMIT balandelele ukuthi yiziphi izikole ebezisitelekile zeNational Strike Information Center esebenza eBrandeis eduzane. Ngokushesha lolu hlu lwaba amafidi ayishumi ubude. Naphezu kokuhlotshaniswa kwayo kokuqala nombhikisho wamasosha, iziteleka eziningi bezinokuthula futhi zisemthethweni. Yayihlanganisa imihlangano yabafundi ethatha amavoti eziteleka, bese kuqhubeka imihlangano emikhulu, izinkulumo nezinkulumo, imilindelo nezinkonzo zesikhumbuzo, kanye “nokudlwengula” okungapheli okuphathelene nezombusazwe kanye nempi.
Ukunqoba Okukhulu
Lesi siteleka sihlanganise ndawonye inqwaba yabafundi abasafunda ngaphansi kweziqu, amalungu obuhlakani, nabaphathi - naphezu kokungavumelani kwabo kwangaphambilini mayelana nomsebenzi wokubhikisha emakhempasini. Omongameli bamakolishi nabenyuvesi abangamashumi amathathu nane bathumele incwadi evulelekile ku-Nixon becela ukuba iphele ngokushesha impi. Lesi siteleka siphinde sahlanganisa abafundi abavela emakolishi azimele nawakahulumeni kanye nezikole zamabanga aphezulu zikahulumeni emiphakathini yabasebenzi. NgoMeyi 8, ePhiladelphia, abafundi abavela ezizindeni nasezindaweni ezihlukene bamasha besuka ezindaweni ezinhlanu ezahlukene baya e-Independence Hall, lapho isixuku sezinkulungwane eziyikhulu sasihlangene ngaphandle. Inani lababekhona esikoleni samabanga aphezulu ngalolo suku lehla lafika kumaphesenti ayi-10, ngokusho kwe-Philadelphia Inquirer.
Uprofesa waseHamilton College uMaurice Isserman, umbhali we IMelika Yahlukana: Impi Yombango Yawo-1960, ikholelwa ukuthi kwakungabafundi abalinganiselayo, labo “ababemelene nempi kodwa abacishwa inkulumo yakamuva yama-60s New Left” “abavela njengamandla ahamba phambili” ngemva kokuqubuka kodlame. Ngempela, abaqashiwe abaningi abasha baye bagxila ekukhuthazeni ukulwa nempi, ukufaka izicelo, kanye nomkhankaso wokhetho esikhundleni sokuqhubeka nokuthatha isinyathelo esiqondile.
Nokho iKhomishana yakwaScranton ibheke ukwenza ipolitiki yemfundo ephakeme njengokunqoba kwabafundi abanohlonze. Ngokombiko wayo wakamuva, “abafundi abazange bateleke emanyuvesi abo; baphumelele ukwenza amanyuvesi abo ateleke ngokuphambene nenqubomgomo kazwelonke.” Ukuvimbela lokho ukuthi kungenzeki futhi nokwenza impilo yasekolishi ibuyele kwesejwayelekile, okhomishana bavumile ukuthi "ayikho into ebaluleke ukwedlula ukuphela kwempi."
Engxoxweni yaseBoston Globe yokugubha iminyaka engamashumi amathathu kwalokhu kuqubuka, u-Isserman waphikisa ngokuthi “kwakuwumphumela wezimo eziyingqayizivele, ngokungamangalisi, owabangela intukuthelo yesizukulwane sabafundi kakade esesijwayele ukubhikisha nokubhikisha. Mancane amathuba okuthi siphinde siwubone umnyakazo ofana nalona.”
Lokho bekuyiqiniso impela eminyakeni embalwa eyalandela, njengoba iMpi YaseVietnam yaphela kwathi uNixon, ngemuva kokuwina ukukhethwa kabusha, wakha itulo lokumbeka icala, ehlazweni lomphakathi, kanye nokwesula ngenkani ngo-1974 ngenxa yehlazo le-Watergate.
Nokho kule minyaka engamashumi amabili edlule, abafundi basekolishi nabasesikoleni esiphakeme baphinde baphuma, ezweni lonke, ngendlela ebonakalayo nedidiyelwe kakhulu. NgoMashi 2003, baphuma ezikoleni ezingama-350 bebhikishela ukuhlasela kwe-US e-Iraq. Eminyakeni eyishumi nanhlanu kamuva, cishe abafundi abayizigidi ezingu-1 ezikoleni ezingu-3,000 baphuma bayojoyina umlindelo wemizuzu eyishumi nesikhombisa owawuhlelelwe ukuphendula ngokudubula kwabantu abaningi eParkland High School eFlorida. Futhi ngoSepthemba odlule nje, amakhulu ezinkulungwane zabafundi ashiye isikole ukuze ajoyine amarali namamashi ahlelwe njengengxenye ye-Global Climate Strike.
Amanyuvesi nezikole zamabanga aphezulu manje abhekene nokuvalwa kwamakhampasi azo, noma kuwuhlobo oluhluke kakhulu. Kepha lapho lezi zikhungo zivuleka, izimo zizodinga isethi entsha yezidingo zezepolitiki. Ukubuyela entandweni evamile ungabi muhle ngokwanele. Lapho isikole sibuyela esimisweni, umlando wesiteleka esenzeka ngemva kokuba ithunzi lokufa liwele emakhempasini eminyakeni engamashumi amahlanu edlule, ngenxa kaRichard Nixon, ungase ubaluleke kakhulu “kunqubomgomo kazwelonke” eyinselele ngaphansi kukaDonald Trump onobuthi ngokufanayo.
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Nikela