The New York Times nkhani pa "mndandanda wakupha" wa Obama, kuwonetsa purezidenti akuyang'ana mndandanda wa mbiri yakale ndikusankha mayina a anthu oti aphedwe paziwopsezo za drone, zidadzetsa mkangano. Zomwe zili mkanganowo sizinali chifukwa cha vumbulutso lodabwitsali lokhudza kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu kwa Obama, koma chifukwa cha kutulutsa zinsinsi za boma, zomwe a Republican adamudzudzula kuti adachita kuti alimbikitse kampeni yake yosankhidwanso. Ena ofotokoza zaufulu (ku Salon, Nation etc.) anali oyenereradi kuchita mantha ndi kutsutsa zochita zoterozo. Koma ma Democrat - komanso ambiri mwaufulu - adakhala chete.
Pansi pa Times Nkhaniyi, vumbulutso lina lodabwitsa lomwe silinamvepo zambiri ngati "mndandanda wakupha" ndikuyesetsa kwa olamulira a Obama kuti athetse imfa za anthu osalakwa poika m'magulu "amuna onse azaka za usilikali omwe ali m'dera lomenyedwa ngati omenyera nkhondo." Izi zimawapatula pa chiwerengero cha anthu wamba omwe avulala, kulola olamulira kunena kuti anthu wamba omwe aphedwa ndi ochepa. Zomwe tikuwona pakugwira ntchito pano ndikuti amuna achisilamu "m'malo omenyera nkhondo" agwiritsidwa ntchito ngati olakwa, motero oyenera kuphedwa, chifukwa chokhala "zaka zankhondo."
Tinafika bwanji pamalo omwe amuna achisilamu osalakwa angaphedwe popanda chilango padziko lonse lapansi popanda kudandaula pang'ono? Yankho lalifupi ndiloti Asilamu akhala akuwopsezedwa kwambiri. Ndiko kuti, amuna achisilamu adamangidwa bwino ngati "zigawenga" zomwe ziwopsezo zolungama zimatha kugwetsedwa. Chithunzi cha mdani wachisilamu ku US sichiri chatsopano. Ngakhale kuti Hollywood ndi wailesi yakanema amachita mbali yaikulu mโkupereka chithunzicho kwa anthu, iwo sanachipange. Chiwopsezo cha "chigawenga cha Chisilamu" chikugwirizana kwambiri ndi mbiri yakale yaulamuliro waku US.
US ndi Middle East
Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse itatha, dziko la United States linayamba kulanda dziko la Middle East kuchokera ku France ndi Britain. Potero, mphamvu zonse zomwe zidayima panjira ya US hegemony zidaponyedwa ngati adani pogwiritsa ntchito chilankhulo cha Orientalism chopangidwa ku Europe. (Ndikukambirana izi mwatsatanetsatane m'buku langa, Islamophobia ndi Ndale za Ufumu.)
Kupyolera mu zaka zambiri za m'ma 1950 ndi 60s, okonda dziko lachiarabu ndi otsalira omwe sanagwirizane ndi ndondomekoyi ya US ankawoneka ngati zigawenga za USSR kapena "zigawenga." Chithunzi chomalizacho chinakula ndi kubadwa kwa Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) ndikugwiritsa ntchito nkhondo. PLO idalembedwa kuti "zigawenga" chifukwa cha ubale wapamtima pakati pa US ndi Israeli.
Kutsatira zomwe zidachitika mu 1972 Munich Olimpiki, pomwe gulu la anthu aku Palestine lidalanda othamanga aku Israeli ndikuwapha, olamulira a Nixon adayambitsa "Operation Boulder," kupatsa mabungwe azamalamulo kuti afufuze ma Arab (kuphatikiza nzika zaku US) kuti adziwe. ngati adachita nawo "zigawenga" zokhudzana ndi mkangano wa Aarabu ndi Israeli. Asilikali anzeru aku Israeli adathandizira kukonza ntchitoyi.[I] Chotero, mchitidwe wachiwawa wochitidwa ku Munich ndi Apalestina ochepa chabe unakhala maziko amene Aarabu onse anasankhidwa kukhala โokayikitsa; ntchito yofotokoza za mafuko inali itayamba mwamphamvu.
"Chigawenga cha Chiarabu" morphed kukhala "chigawenga chachisilamu" pambuyo pa kusintha kwa Iran mu 1979. Ogwira ntchito ku kazembe waku US atagwidwa ku Iran kwa masiku 444, vutoli lidatulutsa tsamba lakutsogolo latsiku ndi tsiku komanso nkhani zomwe zimagwirizanitsa Chisilamu ndi mantha. Ayatollah Khomeini adakhala umunthu wa zinthu zonse zoipa, ndi zinthu zonse Muslim. Ku Middle East kuyambira pano kudzawonekera kudzera mu lens la "Islam," kumanga molakwika kwa chipembedzo ndi anthu omwe amachitsatira.
Pansi pa Purezidenti Jimmy Carter aku Irani adayang'aniridwa, koma zinali za Reagan kuti apititse patsogolo izi ngakhale mfundo zake zolimbana ndi uchigawenga. Adapereka chinsinsi cha National Security Directive chopangidwa kuti apange gulu la mabungwe omwe angalepheretse "zigawenga" kulowa kapena kukhala ku US. Pulogalamu ina ya Komiti Yoyang'anira Malire a Alien idapempha kuti anthu ambiri ochokera ku Iran ndi mayiko achiarabu amangidwe. Panthawi ya nkhondo yoyamba ya Gulf, mu 1991, mkulu Bush adayambitsa ndondomeko yowunikira anthu a ku America Achiarabu, omwe Bill Clinton adzatengere pamlingo wina watsopano, ndi gawo la Anti-terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA), kalambulabwalo. ku PATRIOT Act, ndi zomwe, mwa zina, zidapangitsa kuti zikhale zovomerezeka kuthamangitsa anthu othawa kwawo kutengera umboni wachinsinsi.
Kufikira kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1990, kuchita ziwanda kwa Asilamu kudzera m'malamulo kunali kuyankha kwapakhomo ku zochitika zakunja. Mkati mwa mfundo zakunja zomwe zidakhazikitsidwa, panalibe mgwirizano kuti "chigawenga chachisilamu" chikhala mdani watsopano wa Nkhondo Yozizira padziko lonse lapansi.
Ndale za Pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yozizira
Zaka za m'ma 1990 zidawona mkangano pakati pa zomwe pulofesa ndi katswiri wa ku Middle East Fawaz Gerghes amatcha "otsutsana" ndi "accomodationists" pakukhazikitsa mfundo zakunja zaku America. Otsutsanawo adanena kuti Chisilamu chinali chatsopano - Nkhondo Yozizira "Zina" ndikuti US iyenera kukumana ndi kutsutsa mdani uyu "pamkangano wa zitukuko" zomwe zidzatsatidwe.
Munthu wamkulu wotsogolera nkhaniyi anali Bernard Lewis (wothandizana naye kwambiri wa neocons), yemwe analemba maganizo ake mu 1990 mu nkhani yodziwika tsopano mutu wakuti "Rots of Muslim Rage," m'menemo adalengeza za "kukangana kwa zitukuko." Samuel Huntington ndiye adakulitsa lingaliro ili m'nkhani yotchedwa "The Clash of Civilizations?" mu Zachilendo, kutsatiridwa ndi buku lamutu womwewo (kuchotsa chizindikiro cha funso). Huntington adapereka lingaliro lakuti mu nyengo yatsopano ya Nkhondo Yozizira, mikangano idzadziwika ndi kusiyana kwa chikhalidwe pakati pa zitukuko zosiyanasiyana. Iye adatchula za zitukuko zisanu ndi ziwiri kapena zisanu ndi zitatu zoterozo, akutsutsa kuti chitukuko cha Chisilamu chinali chimodzi mwa ziopsezo zoopsa kwambiri ku West.
Malingaliro awa adawonetsedwa m'nkhani zina zingapo. Mtolankhani Judith Miller anatsutsa mu a Zachilendo nkhani kuti opanga malamulo a US sayenera kuyesa kusiyanitsa pakati pa Asilamu "abwino" ndi "oyipa" chifukwa panali mgwirizano pakati pa Asilamu onse kuti agonjetse mayiko akumadzulo. Kukangana, mโmalo mosankhana kapena kukambirana, inali njira yokhayo yolepheretsera mdani watsopanoyu. Daniel Pipes, Martin Indyk (yemwe adatumikira pa National Security Council ya Bill Clinton); Jeane Kirkpatrick (wa Democrat yemwe nthawi ina adakhala wa Republican wa Cold Warrior), ndipo ena adawonjezera mawu awo pakwaya iyi. โKusemphana maganizoโ sikunali kugawanikana; omenyana ali m'zipani zonse za ndale. Kusiyana pakati pa accommodists ndi otsutsana sikunali pa cholinga cha US hegemony, zinali za njira ndi zolankhula. M'zaka za m'ma 1990, mzere wa malo ogona unkalamulira ku Washington. Maboma a Bush Sr. ndi Clinton adafuna kupambana maiko omwe ali ndi Asilamu ambiri pokopa zikhalidwe zapadziko lonse lapansi komanso, pansi pa Clinton, mfundo za neoliberal.
Komabe, m'nyumba, mkangano wotsutsana ndi Asilamu unakula panthawiyi. Mantha amene anachititsidwa ndi kuyesa kuphulitsa mabomba kwa World Trade Center mu 1993 anatsimikizira kuti mu 1995, pamene Mkristu wachigawenga wachizungu wa mapiko a kumanja Timothy McVeigh anaphulitsa nyumba ya boma mu Oklahoma City, kupha anthu 168, Aarabu ndi Asilamu anaimbidwa mlandu nthaลตi yomweyo. Congress kenako inadutsa AEDPA mu 1996. Mwachidule, ngakhale zisanachitike zochitika za 9 / 11, maziko anali atakhazikitsidwa pofuna kutsata malamulo a Asilamu ndi Aarabu.
Zaka khumi za "War on Terror".
Zomwe zidachitika pa 9/11 zidabweretsa zida zamalamulo kuti zigwirizane ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa mfundo zakunja. phulusa linali litakhazikika kuchokera ku Twin Towers pomwe mawu okweza kuti "zigawenga zachisilamu" zikuyimira ziwopsezo zomwe zikuchitika ku United States zidayamba kumveka pagulu. Kuyambira pamenepo, mfundo za US zidali zolimbikitsa "kuteteza Achimereka" kwa Asilamu "ochita zoipa". "Kukangana kwachitukuko" kunakhala maziko ankhondo ku Afghanistan ndi Iraq komanso kuukira kwawo kwa Asilamu ndi Aluya.
Nkhondo ya ku Iraq, komabe, sinayende momwe ma neocons amafunira. M'malo mopatsa moni asitikali aku US ngati omasula, anthu aku Iraq adakana ndikukana ulamuliro wa US. Pa nthawi yake yachiwiri, Bush adachoka ku mphamvu "zolimba" ndikupita ku kupambana "mitima ndi malingaliro." Koma pofika kumapeto kwa nthawi yake yachiwiri, kulephera kwa ntchito ku Afghanistan ndi Iraq-komanso mavuto azachuma omwe sanawonekere kuyambira Great Depression-zinatanthauza kuti inali nthawi yoti alonda asinthe. Obama adavoteledwa ndi osankhidwa omwe adanyansidwa ndi kunyada komanso kudzikuza kwa boma la Bush. Akuluakulu olamulirawo adamdalitsanso, akumayembekezera kuti akhazikitse nkhope yaubwenzi pa imperialism ya US. A Democrat anali okonzeka komanso okonzeka kutenga udindowu.
Mu Januwale 2007, gulu la utsogoleri pa ubale wa US-Muslim motsogozedwa ndi Madeleine Albright, Richard Armitage (omwe kale anali wachiwiri kwa mlembi wa boma pansi pa George W. Bush), ndi akatswiri angapo, adatulutsa mfundo chikalata mutu wakuti โChanging Course: A New Direction for US Relations with the Muslim World.โ Chikalatacho, chomwe chinayamikiridwa kwambiri, chinanena kuti kusakhulupirira dziko la United States mโmayiko ambiri achisilamu kudachitika chifukwa cha โndondomeko ndi zochita, osati kulimbana kwa zitukuko.โ Inanenanso kuti kuti tigonjetse "ochita zachiwawa," gulu lankhondo linali lofunikira koma silinali lokwanira, ndikuti United States idayenera kupanga "njira zandale, zandale, zachuma, ndi chikhalidwe." Lipotilo lidalimbikitsa utsogoleri wa US kuti apititse patsogolo "kulemekezana ndi kumvetsetsana pakati pa Achimereka ndi Asilamu," ndikulimbikitsa "ulamuliro wabwino ndikupititsa patsogolo kutenga nawo mbali kwa anthu," m'maiko ambiri achisilamu. Lipotilo likufuna kuti achitepo kanthu linanena kuti kuyenera kukhala kofunikira kuti Purezidenti wotsatira awonetse malingalirowa m'mawu ake otsegulira ndikutsimikiziranso chithunzi cha US ngati dziko lachilungamo komanso lademokalase.
Barack Obama adatsimikizira kuti ali ndi mphamvu pakuchita izi. M'modzi mwa ake zolankhula zoyamba, ku Cairo, Obama anakana mkangano wa "kukangana kwa zitukuko", akugogomezera mbiri yofanana yofanana ndi zofuna za Kummawa ndi Kumadzulo. Pomwe nkhani ya "kukangana" ikuwona Kumadzulo ndi dziko la Chisilamu kukhala logwirizana komanso ngati zotsutsana ndi polar, a Obama adatsindika "mfundo wamba." Iye analankhula za โngongole ya chitukuko kwa Chisilamu,โ imene โinatsegula [njira] kaamba ka Chiyambi cha Kubadwanso Kwatsopano ndi Chidziลตitso cha ku Ulaya,โ ndipo anayamikira zimene Asilamu anachita popititsa patsogolo sayansi, zamankhwala, kuyenda panyanja, kamangidwe kake, kalembedwe kake, ndi nyimbo. Mosakayikira uku kunali kuvomera kodabwitsa kwa purezidenti waku America, koma komwe Obama adawona kuti ndikofunikira kulimbikitsa chithunzi chomwe chidawonongeka kwambiri cha US mu "dziko lachisilamu". Zowonadi, mawu awa adawonetsa kusintha kwakukulu kolankhulirana kuchokera ku nthawi ya Bush; kusintha kwa chilankhulo cha liberal imperialism ndi liberal Islamophobia.
Makhalidwe ofunika kwambiri a ufulu wa Islamophobia ndi kukana chiphunzitso cha "kukangana kwa zitukuko", kuzindikira kuti pali "Asilamu abwino" omwe maubwenzi angapangidwe nawo, komanso kufunitsitsa kofanana kugwira ntchito ndi Asilamu odzichepetsa. Ufulu wa Islamophobia ukhoza kukhala wodekha koma uli ndi ufulu wa US kumenyana ndi "uchigawenga wa Chisilamu" padziko lonse lapansi, popanda kulemekeza ufulu wodzilamulira wa anthu m'mayiko omwe akuwafuna. Ndilo โkatundu wa azunguโ mโzovala zankhosa.
โChowonadi nโchakuti mfundo zanga za maiko akunja kwenikweni zikubwerera ku mfundo zowona za makolo a George Bush, a John F. Kennedy, ndiponso mโnjira zina za Ronald Reagan,โ anatero Obama nthaลตi ina..[Ii] Kuyambira pomwe adatenga udindowu, adalandira ndikukulitsa mfundo za nthawi yachiwiri ya Bush. Watumiza asitikali ena a 30,000 ku Afghanistan, adakulitsa nkhondo ku Pakistan, adayesa kuvutitsa Iraq kuti awonjezere ntchito yaku US (yomwe idalephera), kuwonjezereka kwa drone ndi "black ops" ku Yemen ndi Somalia, ndikuchita nawo NATO. - adatsogolera nkhondo ku Libya.
Pakhomopo, a Obama adapitilizabe mfundo za Bush zozunza, kumasulira modabwitsa, komanso kuimbidwa mlandu koyambirira. Asilamu aku America akupitilizabe kuzunzidwa komanso kuzunzidwa ndi boma. Obama adapitilirapo kuposa Bush m'njira zingapo osati pongopeza mphamvu zopha nzika zaku US zomwe zikuganiziridwa kuti zimagwirizana ndi uchigawenga popanda mlandu, komanso kusaina National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), yomwe, mwa zina. , imalola asilikali kuti amange โanthu oganiziridwa kuti ndi achigawengaโ omwe ndi nzika za ku United States kosatha popanda kuwaimba mlandu. 2011 yake "counter-radicalization" chikalata cha njira amapeza thandizo la aphunzitsi achisilamu aku America, makochi, ndi anthu ammudzi, omwe akuyenera kusinthidwa kukhala njira yodziwitsa anthu za mtundu wa McCarthy.
Liberal Islamophobia salimbana ndi Asilamu onse. Imavomereza kuti pali โAsilamu abwinoโ. Lipotilo likuyamika Asilamu aku America omwe agwirizana ndi boma ponena kuti "tiyenera kutsutsa zokopa za al-Qaida kuti United States mwanjira ina yake ili pankhondo ndi Chisilamuโ ndipo m'malo mwake titsimikizire kuti "Chisilamu ndi gawo la America, dziko lomwe limakonda kutengapo gawo mwachangu kwa nzika zake zonse, mosasamala kanthu za komwe amachokera komanso chikhulupiriro. Tikukhala ndi moyo umene al-Qaida amakana mwachiwawaโufulu wachipembedzo ndi kugaลตira anthu ambiri.โ Obama anawonjezera kuti โKusiyana kwathu kosiyana kochokera ndi zikhulupiriro kumatipatsa mphamvu.โ Izi ndi modus operandi of liberal Islamophobia: kukana kunyoza Chisilamu-ndi kupitiriza kukhazikitsa malingaliro omwe amalimbana ndi Asilamu.
Pamene woimira Peter King adachita zokambirana za McCarthy mu March 2011 kuti adziwe kukula kwa "Muslim radicalization" ku United States, adatsutsidwa moyenerera ndi omasuka. Komabe, mu Ogasiti uja, pomwe a Obama adakhazikitsa njira iyi kudzera munjira yake ya "anti-radicalization", panali malingaliro angapo.
Kumapeto kwa tsiku, mantha a "uchigawenga wa Chisilamu" amapangidwa kuti azipaka mawilo a ufumu. Statistics zimasonyeza kuti anthu a ku America ali ndi mwayi wofa chifukwa cha mphezi ndi kulumidwa ndi agalu kusiyana ndi uchigawenga. Mโzaka khumi kuchokera pa 9/11, a kuphunzira mokwanira zikuwonetsa kuti mwa kupha 150,000 ku US, Asilamu 11 aku America, omwe adasankhidwa kukhala "zigawenga," ndi omwe adapha anthu ena 33. Komabe, izi sizinalepheretse King kuyambanso kumvanso za "kusinthika" kwa Asilamu aku America mu June, 2012.
Kudandaula kuti ntchito yake yoyambirira "idanyozedwa ndi zofalitsa zolondola pazandale, okonda ndale ndi magulu ankhanza" iye squawked kuti zoyesayesa zake zinali "kuteteza America ku zigawenga." Ngakhale kuti tsankho lake lodana ndi Asilamu silingagwirizane, iye sali wolakwa pamene iye limati kuti iyi ndi nkhani "yopanda tsankho" komanso "yodetsa nkhawa kwambiri akuluakulu a chitetezo cha dziko ndi zigawenga m'boma la Obama." Poyeneradi. King akungopitiriza zomwe ndi ndondomeko ya bipartisan ndi mbiri yakale. Kulakwitsa komwe kumapanga ndikungoyang'ana kwambiri ma Islamophobes owopsa kwambiri, pomwe akupatsa ufulu wa Islamophobia. Mulimonse momwe ungakhalire, tsankho liyenera kutchulidwa kuti ndi chiyani.
Deepa Kumar ndi pulofesa wothandizira wa Media Studies ndi Middle East Studies ku yunivesite ya Rutgers. Iye ndi mlembi wa Islamophobia ndi Ndale za Ufumu ndi Kunja kwa Bokosi: Corporate Media, Globalization ndi UPS Strike. Nkhaniyi idawonekera koyamba pa Nation.
[I] Elaine Hagopian, "Minority Rights in a Nation-State: The Nixon Administration's Campaign Against Arab Americans," Journal of Palestine Studies,vol. 5, ayi. 1 / 2, Autumn 1975, 97โ114, mawu pa tsamba 100-101.
[Ii] Ryan Lizza, "The Consequentialist," New Yorker, May 2, 2011.
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