ʻO kēia ka mea i hoʻonui ʻia o kahi ʻatikala i kau ʻia e Nā kulekeleʻokoʻa i ka manaʻo ma ka lāʻo Dekemaba 29, 2010
I kēia mahina o Kepakemapa i hala, ua hoʻohewa ʻia ke Kakauolelo o ka Mokuʻāina ʻo ʻAmelika ʻo Clinton ke kapakai a ʻO Mexico i kēia lā i "Kolombia i iwakālua mau makahiki i hala" a ke kāhea nei i nā hoʻoikaika kiʻekiʻe e hakakā i ke kālepa lāʻau lapaʻau Mekiko. ʻO ka hapa nui o kēlā mau ʻōlelo hoʻohewa i nīnau inā he kūpono ka hoʻohālikelike a i ʻole he ʻōlelo hōʻino pono ʻole i kahi hoa pili pili US, ke aupuni Mekiko o Felipe Calderón. Akā ʻo ka hapa nui o nā ʻōlelo a Clinton ʻo kāna hoʻomaikaʻi hoihoi ʻana iā Plan Colombia-ʻo ka pūʻulu kōkua pūʻali koa nui i hoʻomaka ʻia e kāna kāne ma 1999-a me kāna. koi i ka pono "e noʻonoʻo i nā mea like" no nā wahi ʻē aʻe, ʻo Mexico, Central America, a me ka Caribbean [1].
ʻO ka manaʻo e hoʻohālike ʻia ʻo Plan Colombia ma nā wahi āpau he mea weliweli ia i ka poʻe i kamaʻāina i ka moʻolelo pono kanaka o Kolombia, ʻo ia ka mea ʻino loa ma Latin America no nā makahiki he iwakālua i hala. Ua kapa kaulana ʻo Ché Guevara no "ʻelua, ʻekolu, nui nā Vietnams" i mea e hoʻokahuli ai i ka imperialism kapitalista i ke ao ʻekolu. ʻO ke kāhea ʻana o Clinton no ka hoʻopili hou ʻana i ka hoʻohālike Kolombia ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe kekahi mau ala ʻaʻole wiwo ʻole, no ka mea, ke kāhea nei ʻo ia i kahi ʻano hoʻololi honua-ʻoiai he ʻano ʻano like ʻole. Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, ʻike ʻia kēlā ʻōlelo kuhikuhi i ka wā i hoʻokumu ʻia i loko o ka pōʻaiapili ākea o nā kulekele US hou e pili ana iā Latin America.
ʻO ka Model Kolombia: No wai i "hana"?
I kāna lā 8 Kepakemapath wahi a Hillary Clinton kekahi ua'ōleloʻia "he mau pilikia a aia nā hewa" me Plan Colombia, "akā ua hana." E like me kekahi kulekele, pono e nīnau pehea, a no wai, "hana" ia? A inā ʻo ke kumu hoʻohālike Kolombia—e pili ana i ke kulekele ʻAmelika e pili ana iā Kolombia i nā makahiki he nui i hala aku nei—e hōʻike ana i ka ʻike o ka hoʻokele Obama no ke koena o ʻAmelika Latin, he mea nui ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i nā mea nui a me nā hopena o ke kumu hoʻohālike no ka loiloi ʻana i nā kūlana ākea ākea.
Ua hoʻomaka ʻia ʻo Plan Colombia ma lalo o Bill Clinton ma 1999, lawe ʻia ma ke ʻano he papahana anti-narcotics. Mai ia manawa, ʻo ka ʻōlelo kumu mua i ʻōlelo ʻia no ka ʻoi aku o $ 5 biliona i ka pūʻali koa US a me ke kōkua mākaʻi iā Colombia ʻo ia ke "kaua i nā lāʻau lapaʻau." ʻO ka pilikia mua me kēia hōʻoia ʻana, ʻaʻohe kumu e manaʻoʻiʻo ai ua hoʻoikaika ʻia ka papahana e ka manaʻo maoli no ke olakino lehulehu ma ka ʻaoʻao o ka poʻe hana kulekele US. ʻOi aku ka nui o nā mea hoʻoweliweli i ke olakino lehulehu akā e hoʻopuka i kahi hopohopo liʻiliʻi. ʻO ka maʻi maʻi, ka momona, ka maʻi puʻuwai, ka maʻi diabetes, a me nā maʻi ʻē aʻe e pepehi i ka poʻe i kēlā me kēia makahiki ma mua o ka cocaine a me ka heroine, a ua ʻike maikaʻi ʻia e pili ana i ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka paka, ka hana ʻana i nā meaʻai ʻoihana, ka pollution hui, a me ka paipai ʻana o ke aupuni US i nā mea he nui. keia mau hana ma o ke kokua ana, na kuikahi kalepa o na aina e, a me na rula lax. paka ʻOi aku ka pepehi kanaka ma mua o ka lāʻau lapaʻau, ka waiʻona, nā ulia kaʻa, nā pepehi kanaka, a me nā pepehi kanaka i hui pū ʻia. He mea hou like na ka nupepa lapaau ʻO ka Lancet Ua ʻike ʻo ia i ka hoʻopōʻino ʻana o ka waiʻona i nā kānaka ʻoi aku ka nui ma mua o ka crack a me ka heroin [2]. Ma kēia kākau ʻana, ʻaʻole i hoʻomaka ke aupuni US i kahi kaua huhū ma luna o ka paka a i ʻole ke kaua ma luna o ka waiʻona, piha me nā ʻōlelo paʻahao kauoha no nā mea hana, mea hoʻohana, a me nā mea hoʻolaha.
ʻO ka pilikia ʻelua me ka hōʻoia ʻana o ka "War on Drugs" ʻo ia ma mua o hoʻokahi ʻumi makahiki o Plan Colombia i liʻiliʻi i ka hopena o nā narcotics kahe i ka US. I ka makahiki 2007, ʻo Héctor Mondragón ka mea hoʻokele waiwai Colombian kaulana ʻo "[n] i loaʻa i ka poʻe kālepa lāʻau i ka mana nui ma Kolombia" [3]. Ua loli ka hana coca Kolombia—no ka laʻana, piʻi aʻe 27 pakeneka i ka makahiki 2007 a ke emi nei e 18 pakeneka i ka makahiki e hiki mai ana. ʻOiai ʻo ka hāʻule nui ʻana o ka hoʻolaha ʻana o Colombian, akā naʻe, ma ka pae ʻāina ua loli iki ka liʻiliʻi, ma ka hapa no ka mea ua hui like nā manawa o ka emi ʻana o ka hana ʻana o Kolombia me ka piʻi ʻana ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe a ʻo ia hoʻi, e hōʻike ana i kahi "balloon maʻalahi. hopena." ʻO ka mea i hala aku nei, ua neʻe ka nui o nā mea hana a me nā mea kālepa mai Kolombia i Peru, a ma kahi liʻiliʻi Bolivia, hoʻonui i ka hana coca ma ia mau ʻāina. ʻOiai, ʻo Kolombia ka mea hana cocaine poʻokela o ka honua [4]. ʻO ka Pelekikena Kolombia kahiko ʻo César Gaviria, ka mea nāna i alakaʻi i ka Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy, hōʻuluʻuluʻia i ka makahiki 2009 o ke komisina hoike ma ka ʻōlelo ʻana "e noʻonoʻo ʻoe i ke kaua ma luna o nā lāʻau lapaʻau ʻaʻole i hoʻokō ʻia nā pahuhopu… Aia mākou i kēia lā ma mua o ka pahuhopu o ka hoʻopau ʻana i nā lāʻau lapaʻau" [5]. Pili nā hopena like no Mekiko, i ka makahiki 1990 i hoʻololi iā Florida a me ka Caribbean ma ke ʻano he kikowaena lawe narcotics mua ma muli o nā hoʻolaha anti-drug ma kahi ʻē. Ma ke ʻano he loiloi Laura Carlsen kaulana i kēia manawa, mai ka wā i hoʻomaka ai ke aupuni Mekiko i kahi papahana anti-drug i kākoʻo ʻia e ʻAmelika, $1.4-billion i ka makahiki 2008, “Ua pahū ka hana ʻino pili i ka lāʻau…me kahi kokoke i 30,000 make mai ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ke kaua lāʻau lapaʻau i ka hopena o 2006. ua piʻi aʻe ka pūʻali koa i ʻeono manawa ma [2009], a i nā mahina i hala iho nei [o ka waena waena o 2010] ua pana a pepehi nā pūʻali koa i kekahi mau makaʻāinana "[6].
ʻO ke kolu o ka hōʻike ʻana he "kaua ma luna o nā lāʻau lapaʻau" i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e pili ana i ka pili ʻana o ka mokuʻāina ʻo Kolombia i ka poʻe a me nā hana a Plan Colombia i ʻōlelo ai e hoʻokūkū ʻia, ʻo ia ka US Drug Enforcement Administration. ike ma mua o ka hoʻomaka ʻana o Plan Colombia [7]. Ua pili pono ʻo ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa i kēia pilina, no ka laʻana ma o nā papahana "hoʻomohala ʻokoʻa" a USAID i loko o ka ʻaila pāma Aferika a me nā huahana mahiʻai kuʻuna ʻole. ʻO Senatoa Kolombia Gustavo Petro memo "Ke hakakā nei ʻo Plan Colombia i nā lāʻau lapaʻau i ka manawa like e hāʻawi kālā ai e kākoʻo i ka pāma, i hoʻohana ʻia e nā mafias paramilitary e hoʻomaʻemaʻe kālā," no laila, ʻo ka US ke "subsidizing drug traffickers" [8]. Ke hoʻomau nei ka poʻe paramilitaries ʻākau i kahi pili pili, inā ʻaʻole ʻae ʻia, ka pilina hana me ka pūʻali koa Colombian, nona nā luna i kōkua iā lākou. aihue ʻumi kaukani ʻeka ʻāina mai nā kaiāulu kuaʻāina a me nā mea liʻiliʻi i nā makahiki i hala. Hōʻike nā hōʻike e pili ana ka pilina like ma waena o nā luna a me nā haku lāʻau lapaʻau Peru a Mekiko, ʻoiai ʻo nā kikoʻī no nā mea hope he ʻano haʻahaʻa loa [9].
ʻO kēia mau ʻoiaʻiʻo e pili ana i ka Plan Colombia-type anti-drug programs—ʻo ko lākou maikaʻi ʻole mai ka nānā ʻana i ke olakino lehulehu, ka hōʻino nui o nā pono kanaka a lākou e lawe mai ai, a me kā lākou palaho kumu—ua hoʻomaopopo maikaʻi ʻia e ka poʻe loea no nā makahiki he nui, a ua maʻalahi nā hopena lōʻihi. ma mua o ka hoʻomaka ʻana o Plan Colombia. Ua pololei ka ʻōlelo a Ex-Peresidena Gaviria e pili ana i nā hopena o Plan Colombia, koe wale nō ka "hopena i manaʻo ʻia" ʻaʻole ia he hoʻopau lāʻau; ua wānana maikaʻi nā poʻe loea kūʻokoʻa i ka "hana ʻole" o ka papahana mamua i kona hoʻokō ʻana, e ʻōlelo ana i ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana ma ke kahua o ka hana ʻana he ala kūpono ʻole ia o ka hakakā ʻana i nā kahe a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā lāʻau lapaʻau e hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā papahana lapaʻau a me ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka hoʻokele waiwai. ʻO ka "War on Drugs" ʻAmelika kūloko, ka mea e pili ana i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻia ʻana ma luna o ka hapalua miliona mau kānaka i kēlā me kēia makahiki no nā hewa pili i ka lāʻau lapaʻau, ʻo ia hoʻi kahi ala kūpono ʻole (a me ka hoʻohaumia ʻole a me ka hoʻokamani) e hōʻemi i ka hoʻohana lāʻau [10]. ʻO ka ʻokoʻa nui a lōʻihi hoʻi ma waena o ka ʻike a me nā kulekele o ka poʻe loea e hāpai koke i nā nīnau e pili ana i nā kumu maoli o ke "kaua" a me ka hoʻokūkū pū ʻana, i ʻōlelo ʻia ma lalo nei.
Pela i ka mea i Ua hoʻokō ʻia ka Plan Colombia? ʻOiai ka emi ʻana o ka nui o ka hana ʻino a me ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ka palekana no nā kamaʻāina o ke kūlanakauhale waena, ua lilo ʻo Kolombia mai 1999 i mea kaulana loa ma mua o ka hoʻopaʻi ʻia ʻana, ka neʻe ʻana i loko a me ka ʻaihue ʻāina, a me nā pilina pili ma waena o ka make paramilitary ʻākau. nā pūʻali koa a me ke aupuni ʻēheu ʻākau o ka ʻāina. ʻO ka hapa nui o ka hana hoʻomāinoino e pili ana i nā limahana a me ka poʻe ʻilihune, ʻoi aku ka poʻe e hoʻoweliweli i nā kuleana o nā konohiki a me nā poʻe ʻoihana. Mai ka makahiki 2005, 45 poe mahiai ua pepehi ʻia lākou no ka mea ua ʻimi lākou e kiʻi hou i ka ʻāina i ʻaihue ʻia [11]. I ka makahiki 2009, ua kokoke ʻo Colombia ʻO ka hapalua o na pepehi kanaka a pau o ka poe uniona kalepa ma ka honua nei, a ua loihi loa ʻike ʻo ia ka ʻāina pōʻino loa o ka honua no ka poʻe hana hana; keia au hoʻomau mau ma lalo o ka pelekikena hou, ʻo Juan Manuel Santos [12]. Hōʻike pinepine ʻia nā hōʻike hou o ka uhaki pono kanaka a me nā pili kālai'āina i nā paramilitaries; i ka hopena o 2009, a lua kupapau ʻoi aku ma mua o 2,000 mau kupapaʻu i ʻike ʻia ma kahi kokoke i Bogotá. ʻOiai ua hana nā pūʻali koa guerilla hema ma Kolombia i nā hewa nui o ke kanaka, ʻo ka hapa nui o nā hana hoʻomāinoino i pili i ke aupuni a me nā paramilitaries ʻākau, e hauʻoli ana i ka lewa o ka "hoʻopaʻi ʻole i hoʻopaʻa ʻia" e like me ka lā Malaki 2010 UN pono kanaka. hoike [13].
ʻO ka piʻi ʻana o Kolombia i ke kūlana o ka ʻāina ʻino loa i nā kuleana kanaka i hui pū me ka piʻi ʻana o ke kōkua pūʻali koa US i ka ʻāina. Mai ka makahiki 1990 ua loaʻa ʻo Kolombia i nā kōkua koa a me nā mākaʻi ʻAmelika ma mua o nā ʻāina ʻē aʻe o ka hemisphere. ʻO Plan Colombia ke kuleana no ka hapa nui o kēia kōkua, ʻoi aku ma mua o $ 5 biliona mai ka makahiki 1999. ʻO ka pilina ma waena o ke kōkua US a me ka moʻolelo pono kanaka koʻikoʻi o Kolombia ʻaʻole ia he coincidence. ʻO Ianuali 2010 hoike i paʻi ʻia e ka Center for Global Development ua ʻike ʻo "ka hui pū ʻana ma waena o ka pūʻali koa a me nā pūʻali koa ʻole ... ʻo ia hoʻi, ʻo ke kōkua ʻana o nā ʻāina ʻē e hiki ai i nā hui ʻae ʻole ke hoʻomau i ka hana ʻino politika a hoʻohaʻahaʻa i nā ʻoihana demokala, e like me ke komo ʻana i ke koho balota." Eia kekahi, ua ʻike nā mea kākau i "kahi hiʻohiʻona ʻokoʻa, asymmetric: i ka piʻi ʻana o ke kōkua pūʻali koa US, hoʻouka ʻia e nā paramilitaries, ka poʻe i ʻike ʻia e hana pū me ka pūʻali koa, e hoʻonui hou i nā kaona me nā kahua [Kolombia pūʻali koa]" [14]. ʻO kekahi mea hou like, e ka Fellowship of Reconciliation and US Office on Colombia, ua nānā i ka hanana o ka hoʻopaʻi ʻia ʻana e nā pūʻali koa Colombian i loaʻa i ke kōkua US i nā makahiki ʻeiwa i hala, ua ʻike ʻo "nā wahi i loaʻa ai i nā pūʻali koa Kolombia ka piʻi nui loa o ke kōkua US i hōʻike i ka piʻi ʻana o ka hoʻokolokolo. pepehi kanaka ma ka ‘awelika. As Paola Reyes hoike, "ʻO nā hoʻokō extrajudicial i loiloi ʻia e ka hōʻike FOR/USOC ka hapa nui o nā hihia i pepehi ʻia e nā pūʻali koa i nā kānaka kīwila i mea e hoʻonui ai i ka helu kino o nā guerrillas a lākou i manaʻo ai i pepehi i ka hana" [15]. Ke hōʻoia nei kēia mau haʻawina hou loa i ka pilina lōʻihi ma waena o ke kōkua pūʻali koa US a me ka uhai ʻana i nā pono kanaka, kahi ʻano i ʻike nui ʻia ma nā ʻāina e like me Kolombia akā e hoʻonui ana ma ka honua holoʻokoʻa [16]. (Inā pili ke kānāwai US, ua pāpā ka Arms Export Control Act o 1976 i ka hāʻawi ʻana i ke kōkua koa i kekahi aupuni i hewa i ka hoʻomau ʻana i nā pono kīwila.)
ʻO ka poʻe kālai'āina o Wakinekona i nā manawa a pau manao ʻO nā pūʻali make Colombian a me ko lākou pili ʻana i nā helu aupuni, akā ʻaʻole i hoʻohaʻahaʻa kēlā ʻike i ko lākou hoihoi no ke kōkua pūʻali koa US iā Colombia [17]. I ka wā o kāna huakaʻi peresidena, ua haʻi aku ʻo Obama i kekahi mau ʻōlelo hoʻohewa haʻahaʻa no ke kūlana o nā pono kanaka ma Kolombia, akā ua hoʻohui ʻo ia i kahi kuʻikahi ikaika me Kolombia i kāna mau makahiki ʻelua ma ke keʻena. Ua komo kēia kuʻikahi i kahi kuʻikahi 2009, inā lanakila ia i kēia manawa nā pilikia pili kānāwai i loko o Kolombia, e hāʻawi ʻo ʻAmelika i ke komo ʻana i ʻehiku mau kahua kaua ma ka ʻāina. Ua manaʻo ʻia ka ʻaelike "e hoʻolilo ʻo Kolombia i wahi kikowaena no nā hana Pentagon" e like me "nā luna koa koa Colombian a me nā luna kīwila i kamaʻāina i nā kūkākūkā," ka Associated Press hoike i ka manawa [18].ʻO ka mea maolikikokikona ʻO ka ʻaelike e hoʻohiki i ka hui pū ʻana o US-Colombia "e hoʻoponopono i nā hoʻoweliweli maʻamau i ka maluhia, kūpaʻa, kūʻokoʻa, a me ke aupuni democracy," ʻōlelo i ʻike ʻole ʻia a me ka iwi iwi no ka poʻe i kamaʻāina i ka mōʻaukala o ka kulekele US ma ka ʻāina [19].
I loko o Kolombia ponoʻī, ʻo ka poʻe lanakila nui ka ʻāpana o nā narcotraffickers, nā luna aupuni, nā paramilitaries ʻēheu ʻākau, nā konohiki, a me nā elite ʻoihana. ʻAʻole maikaʻi loa ka hapa nui o nā Kolombia, akā naʻe. Wahi a nā helu UN, "ʻo Kolombia kekahi o 3 mau ʻāina ʻAmelika Latin kahi i piʻi ai ka like ʻole o ka hoʻokele waiwai ma waena o 2002 a me 2008" (ʻo Guatemala a me Dominican Republic nā mea ʻē aʻe). Ua hoʻonui ʻia ka hoʻopukapuka kālā o nā ʻāina ʻē i nā makahiki i hala iho nei, e hāʻawi ana i ka ulu waiwai nui, akā ua loli iki ka ʻilihune (43 pakeneka) a me ka ʻilihune loa (23 pakeneka). Ma ka ʻāina, 0.4 pakeneka o ka poʻe nona ka ʻāina e paʻa i ka 61 pakeneka o ka ʻāina [20]. Ma kahi ʻāpana kahi i kūʻē ai nā neʻe kaiāulu ikaika a me nā aupuni hema hema i ka mana kuʻuna o ke aupuni US a me nā hui multinational, e noho mau ana ʻo Kolombia i ke kākoʻo koʻikoʻi o ka US-style "free trade," a i ʻole neoliberalism, i hōʻike ʻia e ka privatization o nā lawelawe. ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana i nā mākeke, a me kahi kulekele aupuni e hui pū ana me ka poʻe kapitalista e kāohi i nā kuleana o nā limahana, nā mahiʻai, nā mea liʻiliʻi, a me ke kaiapuni. ʻO ka World Bank a me ka International Finance Corporation i hala iho nei mahalo Ke hele nei ʻo Kolombia i ka mālama ʻana i kahi "ʻoihana aloha ʻoihana," e koho ana iā ia, me Mexico a me Peru, ʻo ia nā ʻāina ʻekolu o ʻAmelika Latin e pili ana i ka "Maʻalahi o ka hana ʻoihana" [21]. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ʻo kēia mau ʻāina hoʻokahi ʻekolu mau hoa pili nui loa o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa ma ia wahi.
"Envious Have-Nots" a me ka Logic of US Policy
Mai ka makahiki 1990, a mai ka makahiki 2000 i hoʻomaka ʻia ai ʻo Plan Colombia, ua lilo ʻo Kolombia i pōhaku kiʻekiʻe o ka mana US ma Latin America. I ka emi ʻana o ka mana o US ma ka ʻāina, ua lilo ʻo Kolombia i mea koʻikoʻi ma ke ʻano he hōʻike no ke kulekele US. ʻO nā kumu kumu ʻekolu o ia kulekele ʻo ia ka neoliberalism waiwai, kahi aupuni aloha US, a me ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka militarization. Inā he pōʻino maikaʻi ʻole mai ke ʻano o ke olakino lehulehu, nā pono kanaka, a me ka maikaʻi o ka hoʻokele waiwai, hoʻokō kēia mau mea i nā ʻano pahuhopu like ʻole. ʻO ka makemake o US no kahi neoliberalism militarized - ke kumu hoʻohālike a ke aupuni Obama e ʻimi nei e hana hou i Mexico a me ʻAmelika ʻAmelika - ʻoiaʻiʻo e hoʻolohe i kahi loiloi kūpono.
Inā ʻo ka "kaua i nā lāʻau lapaʻau" ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka wehewehe ʻana no ka militarization US o ʻAmelika ʻAmelika, a ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka hoʻopiʻi ʻana, he aha nā hopena ʻē aʻe e lawelawe ai ka militarization mai ka manaʻo o nā hui hoihoi US? Ma ke ʻano he wahi komo i ka pane ʻana i kēia nīnau, ʻaʻole hiki ke kānalua ʻia ua ʻimi lōʻihi ʻo ʻAmelika e "[m] hoʻomau i ka United States ma ke ʻano he mana nui o ka pūʻali koa haole ma Latin America," e like me ka pepa alakaʻi 1962 State Department. 22]. ʻO ka mālama ʻana i ka noho aliʻi kaua ma ʻAmelika ʻAmelika he pahuhopu koʻikoʻi ʻo ʻAmelika no kahi kokoke i hoʻokahi haneli, a mai ka Kaua Honua II. ʻO ka hōʻoia ʻana o ka lehulehu no ka militarization i ka wā o ke Kaua Cold ʻo ia ka mea i ʻōlelo ʻia e hoʻoweliweli ʻia o Soviet "komo" o Latin America [23]. Akā ma kahi pilikino, ʻaʻole i lawe maoli ka poʻe hoʻopukapuka politika i kēlā hoʻoweliweli. I ka makahiki 1958, ua ʻike ʻia kahi National Intelligence Estimate e ʻaʻole hiki i nā ʻāpana Komunist ʻAmelika Latin, a ʻo nā ʻelele Soviet wale nō, "ʻaʻole e hele mai e hoʻomalu i kekahi aupuni" ma ia wahi. Eia naʻe, ua hoʻokūpaʻa nā luna o US i ka pono o ka militarization, ʻaʻole e pale aku i ka Soviet Union akā ma ka inoa o ka "palekana kūloko." Aia nā ʻenemi i loko o ʻAmelika Latina ponoʻī, ʻaʻole i loko o ka Soviet bloc, a ʻo ka pōʻino nui loa ʻo ia ʻo Latin American nationalism, ʻaʻole Soviet-style Communism. ʻO ka 1959 Cuban Revolution, kahi i pāʻani ai nā Communists Soviet-allied i kahi hapa liʻiliʻi wale nō, i hōʻike i kēia ʻoiaʻiʻo. Ua ʻike ʻia nā papahana "palekana kūloko" i kākoʻo ʻia e ʻAmelika e pili ana i ka pūʻali koa nui a me nā kōkua mākaʻi ma nā ʻāina āpau e hoʻomaka ana me Eisenhower a me ka wikiwiki ma lalo o Kennedy [24].
E kūʻē i kēia mau papahana i mea e pale aku ai? Hāʻawi nā leka ʻo Declassified State Department i nā pane maopopo. No ka lawe ʻana i hoʻokahi laʻana, hopohopo nā luna i ka 1952 Bolivian Revolution "hiki ke hoʻomaka i kahi hopena kaulahao ma Latin America" inā ʻaʻole e hoʻokele i kahi ala "kūpono". Ma hope mai, ma hope o ka Cuban Revolution i ka makahiki 1959, ua ʻike nā mea hoʻolālā o ʻAmelika me ka hopohopo ʻo ka "ʻilihune a nele o ka ʻāina, i hoʻoulu ʻia e ka hoʻohālike o ka hoʻololi Cuban, ke koi nei lākou i nā manawa kūpono no ka noho ʻana." ʻO ke kipi kūleʻa i Cuba ua hōʻoiaʻiʻo i ka poʻe e nānā ana "e hiki i nā mokuʻāina ʻAmelika ʻAmelika ke lilo i mau haku no ko lākou hopena ponoʻī" ma mua o ka hoʻomau ʻana i nā haku haole. I ka makahiki 1961, ua hōʻike ʻo Arthur Schlesinger, kahi kākāʻōlelo kiʻekiʻe o Kennedy, i ka hopohopo e pili ana i "ka hoʻolaha ʻana o ka manaʻo Castro no ka lawe ʻana i nā mea i loko o ka lima ponoʻī." Ma mua o ka hana kūʻokoʻa ʻana mai ka US, ua manaʻo ʻia ka ʻAmelika ʻAmelika e ʻae i ka US e alakaʻi iā lākou i kahi ala kūpono i kahi "kipi waena waena," e kū'ē ana i kahi "lima hana a me nā mahiʻai" [25]. ʻO ke koʻikoʻi o ka hōʻoki ʻana i ka lāhui kūʻokoʻa a me ka hoʻomohala ʻana, a me ka hoʻopaʻi ʻana i ka poʻe i hoʻokipa i ia mau moemoeā, ua hoʻi loa i ka mōʻaukala imperial US; ʻO ia mau mea koʻikoʻi i koʻikoʻi, no ka laʻana, ma ka palapala a nā luna koa o ka makahiki ʻumikūmāiwa i ʻimi e hoʻopau i nā ʻAmelika ʻAmelika a pau i hōʻole ʻole e hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ke ʻano o ke kahua hoʻomoana [26].
ʻO ka pilikia nui loa me kēia kūʻē ʻana, ʻo ia ka hoʻoweliweli ʻana i ka mana o ka US elites ma luna o nā kumuwaiwai kūlohelohe, hana, a me ka mālama ʻana i nā huaʻōlelo hoʻohana. ʻO nā ʻōlelo hoʻoweliweli ʻelua o ka "statism and nationalism," i ʻōlelo ʻia e ka 1958 Intelligence Estimate, i loaʻa mai i ka makemake o nā ʻAmelika ʻAmelika e ʻoi aku ka mana ma luna o kā lākou waiwai waiwai. "ʻAmelika Latin," e like me ka ʻōlelo aʻoaʻo o ka Moku'āina ʻo Laurence Duggan, ua "manaʻo ʻia ʻo ka poʻe e loaʻa mua i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai o ka ʻāina ʻo ia ka poʻe o ia ʻāina." Akā ua kūʻē kēlā manaʻoʻiʻo me kekahi mau pono US. E like me kā ka ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa i Bolivia, ʻo Philip Bonsal, i kākau ai i kona luna i kēlā makahiki hoʻokahi, "ʻO kēia pilikia o ka mālama ʻana i ke kūlana o nā hui aila ʻAmelika ma Bolivia a ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe o ʻAmelika Hema, ʻoiai ua ʻoi aku kou ʻike ma mua o koʻu. ʻO kekahi o nā mea koʻikoʻi a mākou e kū nei. " ʻO ka pilikia, wahi a Bonsal, ʻo ia ka hopena o ka hilinaʻi nui ʻana o ka poʻe Latin America i nā aupuni a me nā hui ʻē aʻe: "ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo he hana koʻikoʻi ka lanakila ʻana i ka manaʻoʻiʻo o nā poʻe he nui ma ʻaneʻi i ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā waiwai aila o Bolivia. E haʻalele ʻia ka makemake aupuni Bolivian a i ʻole, e waiho ʻia ma kahi kūlana haʻahaʻa. Ua pilikia nā pilikia like ʻole i ka poʻe hana kulekele US ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe, ʻo ia hoʻi ma ka Middle East [27].
ʻO ka nui o ka pono o ka militarization i puka mai i kēia mau mea maoli. Ua hoʻomaka ka puka ʻana o nā papahana palekana kūloko, me ka in Kolomepia, ma kahi o ka manawa like i kākau ai ʻo Ambassador Bonsal ma 1958 [28]. Ua haʻi aku ʻo George Kennan, ka mea kākau kiʻi kiʻi Cold War i ka pilikia i hoʻokahi makahiki ma mua:
Loaʻa iā [W] ma kahi o 50% o ka waiwai o ka honua akā he 6.3% wale nō o kona heluna kanaka. He ʻokoʻa loa kēia ʻokoʻa ma waena o mākou a me nā kānaka o Asia. Ma kēia kūlana, ʻaʻole hiki iā mākou ke lilo i kumu o ka lili a me ka huhū. ʻO kā mākou hana maoli i ka wā e hiki mai ana, ʻo ia ka hoʻolālā ʻana i ke ʻano o nā pilina e ʻae iā mākou e mālama i kēia kūlana o ka ʻokoʻa me ka ʻole o ka pōʻino maikaʻi i ko mākou palekana aupuni. [29]
Ma hope mai ua like nā luna o ʻAmelika e pili ana i ka pono o ka militarization. Wahi a General Maxwell Taylor, kekahi o ka poʻe hana hewa nui o ke kaua ʻo Vietnam, “ʻOiai he mana ko ka poʻe waiwai nui, hiki iā mākou ke manaʻo e hakakā no kā mākou waiwai aupuni me ka lili ʻana i nā 'have-nots.'” A e like me kā Jimmy Carter's. Ua wehewehe ʻo Kākau'ōlelo o ka Defence, Harold Brown, i ka makahiki 1980 i ka wā e hoʻopaʻapaʻa ana no ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā "pūʻali hoʻoneʻe wikiwiki": "ʻO ka haunaele, ka hoʻoweliweli o ka hana ʻino a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ikaika e hoʻomau ʻia. [ʻO kēia mau pilikia] he nui nā kumu like ʻole, [ʻo ia hoʻi ka hemahema o nā lāhui waiwai] i ka hoʻolako ʻana i nā pono kumu o nā kānaka a hōʻemi i ka ʻokoʻa pahū ma waena o ka waiwai a me ka pōloli" [30].
Loaʻa i nā kūkākūkā hou i loko o nā pōʻai aupuni US nā leo o kēia mau ʻōlelo. ʻO ka hoʻomalu ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai ʻAmelika Latin, ʻoi aku ka aila, ke ʻano nui i kēia lā. I ka makahiki 2008, he 'Aha Kūkākūkā no nā 'Aha Hana Hana ua hakakā "ʻAʻole ʻoi aku ka nui o ʻAmelika Latin no ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa." Ma waena o nā kumu liʻiliʻi, ʻo ka mea i ʻōlelo mua ʻia ʻo ia "ʻo ia ka ʻāina ʻo ia ka mea hoʻolako ʻaila nui loa i ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa" [31]. ʻO ka hoʻolaha ʻana i ka "kūʻai kūʻokoʻa" - hoʻomaopopo ʻia ma kona ʻano ʻenehana, ʻoiai nā kulekele e hoʻihoʻi hou i ka waiwai o ka lehulehu i loko o nā lima o nā ʻoihana pilikino, e kaumaha ana i ka pono kanaka a me ke kaiapuni i loko o ke kaʻina hana - ke kikowaena o ka hoʻolālā US. Eia naʻe, pono e lanakila kēia hoʻoikaika ʻana i nā pilikia maʻamau, ʻo ia hoʻi ke kūʻē ʻana ma ka ʻaoʻao o ka lāhui ʻAmelika Latin. A 2008 hoike e ka US Director of National Intelligence (DNI) i ʻike i ka hoʻoweliweli i hoʻopuka ʻia e "kahi pūʻulu liʻiliʻi o nā aupuni populist radical" e "hoʻokūpaʻa i ka nationalism hoʻokele waiwai ma ka lilo ʻana o nā ala e pili ana i ka mākeke," no laila "hoʻokūkū pololei me nā hana US. ” ʻO ka mea pōʻino, ua ʻōlelo ka hōʻike, ua kaulana loa kēia "ʻike hoʻokūkū" ma ka ʻāina, kahi e hoʻomau ai ka "kiʻekiʻe kiʻekiʻe o ka ʻilihune a me ka loaʻa ʻole o ka loaʻa kālā e hoʻomau i ka hoʻokumu ʻana i ka poʻe e hiki ke hoʻokipa i ka ʻōlelo a ka populism radical." ʻO ka 2010 DNI hoike mai ka mea i koho ʻia ʻo Obama e hana hou i kēia mau manaʻo nui: ʻo nā aupuni ma Venezuela, Bolivia, a me ʻEkuador ke "kūʻē i nā kulekele a me nā pono o ʻAmelika i ka ʻāina" ma o ka hoʻonui ʻana i nā koho "statist" i ka "market capitalism." A e like me nā mea loiloi hoʻokumu ʻē aʻe i hala i kuhikuhiʻia, "Ke hoʻomau nei ka hilinaʻi ʻole i ka manaʻo o Wakinekona ma ka ʻāina" [32].
ʻO Hillary Clinton ʻo ia kekahi o nā pololei loa nā leo i ka hoʻokele Obama e pili ana i nā pahuhopu US ma Latin America. ʻO Malaki i hala aku nei ʻo ia pāleʻa ke aupuni Venezuelan o Hugo Chávez, e koi ana iā Venezuela e "hoʻihoʻi i ka waiwai pilikino a hoʻi i kahi ʻoihana kūʻai kūʻokoʻa." Ua kākoʻo pū ʻo ia i ka hoʻēmi ʻana i nā mea paʻa i ka huakaʻi i Cuba i lilo ai nā ʻAmelika ʻAmelika ma ke ʻano he "ʻelele ... no ka ʻoihana mākeke manuahi." Ua hoʻohālikelike ʻo Clinton i ka "dictator" Venezuelan me nā aupuni ʻāpana ʻē aʻe, me ka ʻōlelo ʻana "[makemake wau e nānā hou aku ʻo Venezuela i kona hema a nānā iā Brazil a nānā iā Chile" [33].
ʻO ka hoʻolaha ʻana i nā koho politika "kūpono" i nā aupuni o kēia manawa ma Venezuela a me Bolivia he mea koʻikoʻi ia o ke kulekele US i nā makahiki i hala. Ma Bolivia, no ka laʻana, declassified US Embassy palapala Ua hōʻike ʻo USAID i ka hana a ka USAID i ke kākoʻo ʻana i nā ʻaoʻao kālai'āina kūʻē i mea e "lawelawe ai i mea kūʻē i ka MAS radical [ka ʻaoʻao o Pelekikena Evo Morales] a i ʻole kona mau hope," a "e hoʻoikaika i nā hui kaiaulu e kū i ka MAS." ʻO nā hōʻike hou e pili ana i ka nui o ke kōkua kālā US i nā hui kū'ē a me nā mea hoʻolaha ma Venezuela-i ke kani o $ 40 miliona ma ka makahiki- ua hōʻike hou aku i kēia hoʻolālā. Ua loaʻa pū i nā luna o ka Moku'āina kākoʻo lehulehu ka hoʻolālā o ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i ka "radical" mai ka "moderate" hema, i mea e hoʻokumu ai i "counterweight i nā aupuni e like me ka poʻe i mana i kēia manawa ma Venezuela a me Bolivia e ʻimi nei i nā kulekele i lawelawe ʻole i ka pono o ko lākou poʻe a me ka ʻāina." ʻO ka hōʻoia hou ʻana o kēia hoʻolālā mai nā faila diplomatic US i hoʻokuʻu ʻia e Wikileaks, ke hāʻawi nei kekahi o ia mau mea i nā hōʻike o nā hana US e hoʻohaʻahaʻa a hoʻokahuli iā Hugo Chávez [34].
Hāʻawi kēia mau ʻōlelo a me nā palapala i kahi kiʻi kūpono o nā mea nui o ʻAmelika i ʻAmelika Latin: hoʻolaha i nā aupuni politika pili i ka US i ka wā e alakaʻi ana i nā ʻoihana ʻAmelika Latin ma ke ala neoliberal maoli (e hōʻemi a hoʻopau paha i ka ʻupena palekana, hoʻomaʻamaʻa i nā lula e pili ana i nā hui ʻē aʻe, ka hoʻokumu ʻana i ka waiwai maka. ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana aku, ka wehe ʻana i nā pale no ka ʻoihana aupuni, etc.). ʻO nā kumu o ka neoliberalism a me ka hoʻolaha ʻana i nā democracies o ka poʻe hoʻolohe e pili pono ana. A ʻo nā ʻōlelo kikoʻī loa a Clinton a me nā mea ʻē aʻe, ma mua o nā ʻōlelo hoʻohiwahiwa a Obama ponoʻī, me he mea lā e noʻonoʻo ana i ka manaʻo kumu ma hope o ke kulekele hoʻokele o kēia manawa ma ka ʻāina, e hoʻomau nei. uku nā aupuni e like me ko Colombia, Peru, a me Mekiko i makemake nui i nā mea hoʻopukapuka ʻoihana ma luna o nā pono kanaka ʻoiai e ʻimi ana e hoʻohaʻahaʻa i ka poʻe ma Venezuela, Bolivia, a me nā wahi ʻē aʻe [35].
Nā kumu no ka hoʻouka kaua
Akā no ke aha i kau ai ka US i ka manaʻo nui hoʻouka kaua hou ʻAmelika Latina i nā makahiki he ʻumi i hala? Ma waho o Kolombia, ʻaʻohe hoʻoweliweli pūʻali koa i nā aupuni aloha US, ʻoiai aia i kekahi manawa i ka wā Cold War i ka wā i hoʻoulu ʻia ai nā pūʻali koa gerila i ka huhū kaulana. ʻAʻole hiki ke hoʻokō ʻia nā pahuhopu US ma o ka imperialism hoʻokele waiwai a me ka politika wale nō, ʻoiai lākou no ka manawa pōkole Bolivia ma hope o ke kipi ʻana o ka ʻāina i ka makahiki 1952 [36]?
ʻOiai ʻo ka hoʻomau ʻana o ka militarization o ke kulekele honua o US e hoʻopaʻa nui ʻia, koi ʻia kona mau aʻa i ka theorization (kahi kumuhana aʻu e manaʻo nei e mālama i ka wā e hiki mai ana). I kēia manawa, akā, makemake wau e hōʻike pōkole i ʻelima mau kumu. Hōʻike nā mea mua ʻelua i ka mea a David Harvey i kapa ai i ka kapitalista a me ka teritorial "logics of power," a i ʻole ka US pono e hoʻoikaika i ka waiwai waiwai a mālama i ka mana geopolitical ma Latin America; ʻO kēia mau mea mua ʻelua e pili pono ana i nā mea nui o US i kūkākūkā ʻia ma luna [37]. ʻO nā kumu ʻekolu i koe e uhi me nā mea mua ʻelua, akā e hōʻike hou i ke ʻano o ka hoʻokele waiwai o US, ka ʻoiaʻiʻo o ka emi ʻana o ka mana honua o US, a me ka moʻomeheu politika o Wakinekona.
- Ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ke kūʻē
- Ke mālama nei i kahi noho ikaika o ʻAmelika ma ka ʻāina
- ʻO ka mana kālai'āina o nā pūʻali koa a me nā mea hana mea kaua
- ʻO ka mana koa e like me ke aupuni hoʻokahi o ke aupuni US
- ʻO ka moʻomeheu politika machista o Wakinekona
- Ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ke kūʻē. I loko o ka hapa nui o nā ʻāina, hoʻomau ʻia ka nui o ka "palekana kūloko" ma waho o nā mea kālepa narco a me nā pūʻali koa kaua. E like me kā Edward Herman i ʻike ai ma kahi o 30 mau makahiki i hala aku nei, ʻo ka manaʻo koʻikoʻi ma hope o ka pilina lōʻihi ma waena o ke kōkua pūʻali koa US a me ka uhai ʻana i nā pono kanaka, ʻo ka hoʻopau ʻana i nā pono kanaka e hana i kahi ʻano kūpono no ka ʻoihana. Ma nā ʻāina i hoʻomohala ʻole ʻia kahi ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka hana maʻalahi a me nā waiwai maka no ke kapikala o nā ʻāina ʻē, ʻaʻole e kūleʻa nā aupuni e hōʻoiaʻiʻo ana i nā kuleana politika, pilikanaka, a me ka waiwai i ko lākou poʻe a pau. nā aupuni home o nā mea hoʻopukapuka kālā [38]. Ua ʻike ʻia kēia ʻike maoli mai ka wā i hana ai ʻo Herman i kēlā ʻike i ka makahiki 1982, ʻoiai ua hoʻokau ʻia nā hoʻoponopono waiwai neoliberal ma ka hapa nui o ka honua i ka pōʻino o ka poʻe maʻamau. Ua lōʻihi nā kulekele Neoliberal halekula ma waena o nā ʻAmelika Latina, a ua kōkua i ka hoʻāla hou ʻana o nā neʻe ʻana o ka ʻAmelika Latin ikaika i nā makahiki i hala iho nei; mai ka hopena o 1990s, e like me ka US mea hoʻolālā i kanikau, ʻo kēia mau neʻe ʻana a me ka nui o ka ʻoluʻolu o ka lehulehu a lākou e hōʻike nei ua hoʻopuka ma kahi o ka ʻumi mau pelekikena hema hema e hoʻohiki ana e uhaʻi i ko lākou mau ʻāina i ka hoʻokele waiwai, politika, a me ka hilinaʻi diplomatic ma United States [39]. ʻO ka Militarization ma ke ʻano o ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o ke kōkua pūʻali koa a me nā mākaʻi kekahi hoʻolālā no ka loaʻa ʻana o kēia ʻano. ʻOiai ʻo nā pahuhopu maʻamau o ka "kōkua" he mau mea kūʻai lāʻau lapaʻau (a ma Kolombia, he mau pūʻali koa kaua), ma nā ʻāina he nui ua kōkua pū kekahi i ke kōkua ʻana i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā neʻe ʻana o ka lehulehu [40]. hōʻole hou ʻana i ka lā 8 o Kepakemapa o Clintonth manaʻo, nā mea hoʻoponopono o ka Mekiko i kēlā me kēia lā ʻO ka Jornada e kuhikuhi i kekahi pono o ka "kaua i nā lāʻau lapaʻau" ʻo ia ka mea maʻalahi e hāʻawi iā ia iho i "ka hoʻopaʻi hewa ʻana o nā neʻe ʻana a me nā mea hana ma lalo o ke kumu o ka hakakā ʻana i nā cartels lāʻau" [41]. I nā makahiki i hala iho nei, ua pepehi ʻia, hoʻopaʻahao ʻia, a hoʻopilikia ʻia nā mea kūʻē a puni ʻo ʻAmelika Latina e nā pūʻali "palekana" i kākoʻo ʻia a hoʻomaʻamaʻa pinepine ʻia e ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa: Kolombia. nā uniona, ʻO Indiana, a kanaka mahiʻai, nā kaiaulu e kū'ē ana i ka 'oihana extractive ma ka Amazon Peruvian, nā mea hana a me nā mea nūpepa ma hope o ka hoʻokahuli aupuni o Iune 2009 ma Honduras, a like ʻole ʻO nā mea kūʻē Mekiko (ʻo nā kumu hou loa, nā miners, a me nā limahana uila, ma kahi o ka Zapatistas). ʻOi aku ka laulā, ʻo ka militarization ke ala ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka instability-mai ka kūʻē ʻana i ka nohona a hiki i ka neʻe ʻana i ka hewa alanui, ka hana ʻana i ka lāʻau lapaʻau, a me ka hana ʻino-ʻo ia ka neoliberalism i wānana mua ʻia [42].
- Ke mālama nei i kahi noho ikaika o ʻAmelika ma ka ʻāina. ʻAʻole pili ka manaʻo o ka poʻe kālai'āina o ʻAmelika i ka noho aliʻi ʻana o ʻAmelika Latin i nā pono waiwai paʻa wale nō. ʻOiai he mea koʻikoʻi kēlā mau makemake, ua manaʻo mau ʻia ka ʻāina he nui kālaiʻāina koʻikoʻi, ka mea i loaʻa mai ka hoihoi waiwai akā ʻaʻole like ka mea like. Ua lōʻihi ka manaʻo o ka US no Latin America i ka obsessive, e like me ka mea i hōʻike ʻia e ka hoʻolaʻa paʻa ʻana o US i ka makahiki 1980 i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā manaʻo reformist i ʻekolu mau ʻāina ʻo ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa i paʻa iki i ka waiwai waiwai o ka ʻoihana ʻoihana US. ʻO ka mālama ʻana i ka mana ma luna o "ko mākou wahi liʻiliʻi ma ʻaneʻi" - ma nā ʻōlelo a ke Kakauolelo mua o ke Kaua Henry Stimson - ma kekahi ʻano he pahuhopu i loko a nona iho, ʻoiai ʻo ka mea i manaʻo ʻia he mea nui "e hoʻokō i kahi kauoha kūleʻa ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe o ka honua. , "e like me ka National Security Council ma 1971 [43]. ʻAʻole i hoʻololi ka hopena o ke Kaua Cold a me ka hoʻonui mau ʻana o ka US me ka Middle East i kēia mea nui - no laila ke koi ʻia nei e ka poʻe alakaʻi alakaʻi alakaʻi alakaʻi manaʻo noʻonoʻo "ʻaʻole ʻoi aku ka nui o ʻAmelika Latin no ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa." Ma ka pōʻaiapili o kēia manawa, he mea koʻikoʻi loa ka pūʻali koa US a i kākoʻo ʻia e US ma ke ʻano he counterweight i kēlā mau aupuni hema hema i manaʻo ʻia ʻo ia ka mea weliweli loa i ka noho aliʻi ʻana o US, me Venezuela ma luna o ka papa inoa. ʻO nā waihona US ma nā ʻāina e like me Kolombia, Honduras, El Salvador, a me Panama, a me ka nui o nā kōkua koa i Kolombia a me Mekiko, ua manaʻo ʻia ma ka hapa nui e hōʻoia hou i ka mana aupuni o US. ʻO ka makahiki 2009 ʻO ka noi kālā Pentagon ua ʻōlelo ʻo Congress i ka pono o nā "hana holoʻokoʻa holoʻokoʻa ma ʻAmelika Hema," ma kahi ʻāpana e kūʻē i ka hiki ʻana mai o "anti-U.S. aupuni" a "hoʻonui i ka mana kaua expeditionary" [44]. ʻOiai ua wehe ʻia kēlā ʻōlelo mai ka palapala hope loa, he hōʻailona maikaʻi paha ia o ka manaʻo o ka poʻe he nui ma Wakinekona. A ʻoiai ʻo ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana o ʻAmelika iā Venezuela a i ʻole Bolivia e like me ka mea ʻaʻole i hiki i ka wā e hiki mai ana, aia ka ʻae ʻana i ka pono o kahi pūʻali koa ikaika o ʻAmelika i ka ʻāina, ma ke ʻano he ʻano pale e kūʻē i ka hoʻolaha hou ʻana o ka "radical populism. .”
- ka ka mana kālai'āina o nā pūʻali koa US a me nā mea hana mea kaua. ʻO ka Militarization kahi kōkua aupuni i nā ʻoihana kūloko o US. Ua nānā nā luna o ʻAmelika i ke kōkua pūʻali koa i ʻAmelika ʻAmelika ma ke ʻano he haʻawina e pono ai i ka pūʻali koa-industrial complex ma ka liʻiliʻi loa mai ka 1940s, i ka wā i ʻike ai lākou ʻo ke kōkua pūʻali koa "e hāʻawi pū i ka hoʻoikaika i ka ʻoihana mokulele," i ka hana moku, a me nā ʻāpana ʻē aʻe. . Mai ia manawa ua ulu nui ka ʻoihana mea kaua a ʻo ia ka mea ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka honua, me ka US ka mea hoʻopuka mea kaua nui o ka honua. A e like me ka ʻoihana kālai'āina e like me Seymour Melman a me Ismael Hossein-Zadeh i hoʻokūpaʻa ʻia, kahi hoʻokele waiwai kūloko e pili nui ana i ke kaua a me nā ʻoihana pili i ke kaua - me ka hapalua o nā hoʻolimalima federal makahiki āpau e hele ana i kēia mau hopena - hoʻopuka i nā ʻāpana a me nā lobbies e pili ana. e lilo i waena o ka leo koa militarist a kōkua i ka hōʻoia ʻana i ka hoʻomau ʻana o ka ʻōnaehana e pono ai lākou [45]. Ma waho aʻe o ke kōkua o ka pūʻali koa a me nā mākaʻi Pentagon pololei, ma 2008 ka ʻoihana mea kaua US a me ke aupuni US i kūʻai aku ma kahi o $ 2 biliona. nā mea kaua i ʻAmelika Latina, ʻoi aku ma mua o 60 pakeneka o lākou i hele i Mexico a me Kolombia. I ka hihia o Plan Colombia, mea hoolako lako kaua a hui ʻoihana ʻike ʻia ua hoʻopiʻi ikaika lākou no ka holo ʻana o ka bila, a ʻo nā hui like i kēia manawa pōmaikaʻi mai Plan Mexico (ka "Mérida Initiative") [46].
- ʻO ka mana koa e like me ke aupuni hoʻokahi o ke aupuni US. I ka emi ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai o ʻAmelika e pili ana i ko Kina, India, a me ʻAsia Hikina, ʻo kahi ʻāpana o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa o ke kūlana kiʻekiʻe ʻole e mau ana kona ikaika koa. E like me nā mea pāʻani i ka hoʻokūkū - e kiʻi i kahi kikowaena basketball nui a me ka lāʻau - ʻo ia ka mea e hilinaʻi ma luna o kona mau ikaika pili, me ka manaʻo e hoʻohana i kona nui a me kona mana e lanakila ai i kāna mau hoa paio wikiwiki aʻe. ʻO ka slam dunk i kekahi manawa, a i ʻole ka hōʻike ʻana i ka ikaika, ʻo ia kekahi mea e hoʻomanaʻo i nā mea a pau nona ka "ʻaha," a i ʻole ke kahua kaua geopolitical. No ke aupuni US, ua hoʻonui nui ʻia ka ikaika pili o ka pūʻali koa i mea hoʻohana mua no nā ʻano pilikia a me nā pahuhopu like ʻole, ʻoiai ke kūʻē i ka hopena. ʻO kēia manaʻo paha kekahi kumu ma hope o ka piʻi ʻana o Obama i nā kaua US ma Central Asia, ʻoiai he ikaika hoike ʻAʻole maikaʻi ka pūʻali koa i ke kōkua ʻana i ka United States e hoʻohui i kahi aupuni mea kūʻai paʻa ma Afghanistan [47].
- ʻO ka moʻomeheu politika chauvinistic o Wakinekona. ʻO ka hui pū ʻana o ka ikaika kino me ka male kāne ua pālahalaha ʻia, a ua hoʻokau pinepine ʻia ka ʻōlelo hoʻohālikelike i nā haʻiʻōlelo politika elite e pili ana i nā mokuʻāina ʻāina i mea e hōʻoiaʻiʻo ai i nā kulekele koʻikoʻi. I nā makahiki mua o ke "kaua i ka weliweli" ma Afghanistan a me Iraq, ua hoʻolaha pinepine nā poʻe kālai'āina o US a me kā lākou mau ʻīlio kūpaʻa i ka US press i ka ikaika o ʻAmelika i ka wā e hoʻolei ana i kekahi mau alakaʻi ʻEulopa e kānalua nei e kākoʻo i ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana me he nāwaliwali a he wahine [48] . Hoʻolauleʻa ʻia New York Times Ua haʻi aku ka mea kākau moʻolelo ʻo Thomas Friedman i kahi mea hoʻokipa TV ma 2003 ʻo ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana o ʻAmelika iā Iraq he ala ia e ʻōlelo ai "Suck on this" i Iraqis a me nā poʻe ʻē aʻe i kūʻē i ka mana US. "Hele nā kāne maoli i Tehran," nā luna US a me Pelekane mai la i ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ke kaua, e koi ana i kahi hoʻouka kaua ma hope o Iran [49]. ʻOiaʻiʻo, nā kāne maoli loa mai ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka pūʻali koa: inā ma ka Middle East, Colombia, Mexico, a i ʻole Hiroshima, ʻo ka makemake e hōʻike i ka ikaika o ka pūʻali koa i ka pane ʻana i kekahi "hoʻoweliweli" i manaʻo ʻia he mea pono ia no ke kāne a me ka mahalo. I ka hapanui o nā hihia, pili pono ka machismo me nā manaʻo racist hohonu o nā lāhui ʻē, ʻo ia hoʻi nā pahuhopu mua o ka pūʻali koa US.
I ka hopena o ka ʻumikumamāiwa a me ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā kenekulia iwakālua, ʻo US kiʻi kālaiʻāina hōʻike mau ʻia ka poʻe ʻAmelika Latin e like me ka wahine a me ka pono o ka pale ʻana o US, a ʻo nā nūpepa ʻoihana o kēia lā e hoʻopuka like kumu ma ke ano maalea. ʻO ka Machismo a me ka haʻaheo chauvinistic (i hoʻokomo pinepine ʻia me ka racism) ʻaʻole ia he hoʻolālā hoʻolālā wale no ka hōʻoia ʻana i ka huhū, akā naʻe - ua paʻa loa lākou i loko o ka noʻonoʻo o ka hapa nui o ka poʻe kālai'āina o ʻAmelika, a kōkua i ke ʻano o ke kulekele a me ka ʻōlelo. He mea kōkua nui paha ʻo Machismo i ka wehewehe ʻana i ke komo ʻana o ka US ma nā wahi e like me Vietnam a me Afghanistan, nā wahi i hoʻoholo nui ʻia ka waiwai waiwai o US. Ua kākau ʻo Assistant Secretary of Defense John McNaughton i loko o kahi memo 1965 ʻo ka pahuhopu nui loa o US ma Vietnam ʻo ia ka "pale aku i ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻana i ka lanakila ʻana o ʻAmelika," pēlā e hōʻoiaʻiʻo ai i ka luku ʻia ʻana o nā miliona mau kānaka hala ʻole [50]. Pēlā nō, he mea kūpono ke hoʻoholo ʻana i ka piʻi ʻana o Obama ma Afghanistan he hapa ia i ka moʻomeheu chauvinism o Wakinekona, a ʻoi aku ka makemake o Democrats e ʻike ʻia he "nawaliwali" (ʻoiai ʻo ka hapa nui o ka lehulehu o ʻAmelika e kūʻē i ke kaua) [51] .
Hoʻololi Hiki iā mākou ke manaʻoʻiʻo: Hoʻolaha i ke kumu hoʻohālike
ʻAʻole hiki ke hoʻopaʻapaʻa ʻia nā hopena o ka neoliberalism militarized. ʻOiai e pōmaikaʻi ana kekahi mau haku lāʻau lapaʻau, nā kālai'āina, a me nā ʻoihana waiwai, ʻo ka poʻe koʻikoʻi ka pilikia i ka nui o ka ʻilihune, a ʻo ia ka mea e hoʻolalelale i nā mea āpau mai ka kūʻē kūʻē ʻana i ka neʻe ʻana i ka hana lāʻau lapaʻau, ka hewa alanui, a me ka hana ʻino - a laila hoʻohana ʻia ia mau mea a pau e hōʻoiaʻiʻo ai i ka militarization. . Ke hoʻomau nei kēia pōʻai, me nā mea lanakila a me nā mea pio a pau, ma Kolombia, Mekiko, a me nā wahi a pau e hoʻohana ʻia ai ke kumu hoʻohālike.
Pule ʻana ʻo Obama pili ua hōʻike i kahi makemake nui no nā mea kumu ʻekolu o kēlā kumu hoʻohālike - nā kulekele hoʻokele waiwai neoliberal, nā alakaʻi politika e hoʻolohe ana i ka United States, a me ka militarization - a ua hōʻike i ka makemake liʻiliʻi e hoʻololi i nā kulekele i kahi ala holomua (ʻoiai ma nā laina o ka haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa. , hoʻololi pragmatic manaʻoʻia e ka Council on Foreign Relations ma 2008). Mai ka wā i lawe ʻia ai ʻo Obama, ua hoʻoneʻe ʻo Mekiko iā Kolombia ma ke ʻano he alakaʻi alakaʻi o ka hemisphere i ke kōkua pūʻali koa US a me nā mākaʻi ma ke ʻano o ka hoʻoikaika ʻana a kekahi luna US. kapaia "ka mea kaua NAFTA." ʻO ka hoʻohui ʻana o Central Amerika i loko o kahi kākoʻo US “alawai palekana” e holo ana mai ka palena US-Mexico a hiki i Kolombia holo wikiwiki [52]. Inā ua lawe mai ka pelekikena o Obama i kekahi "hoʻololi," ʻaʻole ia ke ʻano o ka hoʻololi a ka poʻe maʻamau e makemake ai.
ʻO ka nui o ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa i kēia manawa i loko o nā pōʻai holomua e pili ana i ka nīnau inā makemake pilikino ʻo Obama i ka hoʻomau ʻana i nā kulekele o kona mau mua a i ʻole he puʻuwai holomua i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā pono elite paʻa. ʻAʻole paha ka manaʻo hope loa, no ka mea, inā makemake maoli ʻo Obama i kahi kulekele ʻoi aku ke kanaka a me ka liʻiliʻi o ka imperialistic, hiki iā ia ke hoʻonohonoho i kekahi mau hoʻololi liʻiliʻi ma o ka hoʻopau ʻana i nā papahana "democracy promotion" US ma nā ʻāina e like me. Venezuela a i ʻole ka hoʻihoʻi ʻana i nā makemake kālepa no Bolivia ua hoʻopau ʻo ia i ka makahiki 2009.
Akā ʻoi aku ka liʻiliʻi o nā manaʻo o loko o Obama ma mua o ka hoʻolālā ʻana a me nā ʻoihana hoʻomohala i nā loli nui. ʻO nā pahuhopu a me nā hoʻolālā kumu ma mua o nā laina pāʻina a me nā hopena koho. ʻOiai inā e hoʻopōʻino i kekahi mau makemake US no ka wā lōʻihi, hoʻomau ka militarization e hāʻawi i nā pono pōkole he nui i nā ʻoihana a me nā mea kuleana aupuni. Ma muli o nā hui mana o kēia manawa ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a me ʻAmelika ʻAmelika, ʻo ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa nui ʻana i ke kulekele e hoʻokau wale i nā kūʻē elite, a hāʻawi i kahi uku politika.
ʻO kēlā me kēia kulekele nui e hoʻololi i kahi ala holomua, inā loaʻa ia mau mea, e hopena ia mai nā pilikia e puka mai ana mai ʻAmelika Latina a/a i ʻole mai nā pūʻali koa ʻole i loko o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa.
Notes
* Mahalo iā Sue Dorfman, John Feffer, a me Michael Schwartz no nā manaʻo kōkua i nā kikoʻī mua o kēia ʻatikala.
[1] ʻO Carlos Chirinos, "Hillary Clinton: Ua hoʻohālikelike ʻia ʻo Mexico a me 'Colombia de hace 20 años,'" World BBC, Kepakemapa 8, 2010; "Clinton: ʻO ke kaua lāʻau lapaʻau Mekiko e like me kahi kipi," Los Angeles Times, Kepakemapa 8, 2010. ʻAʻole kēia ʻōlelo ka manawa mua i hoʻomaikaʻi maikaʻi ʻia ke kumu hoʻohālike Plan Colombia ma ke ʻano he mea e hoʻohana ʻia ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe: e ʻike iā Bill Weinberg, "Hoʻolālā Kolombia: Hoʻokuʻu aku i ke kumu hoʻohālike," Nā NACLA Pūnaewele ma nāʻAmelika 42, aole. 4 (2009), a me Greg Grandin, “Muscling Latin America,” Nation (Ianuali 21, 2010). ʻO ka manaʻo maikaʻi o Plan Colombia ua pālahalaha ʻia ma waena o nā elite kulekele ʻē aʻe ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa: no ka laʻana, ʻo Robert C. Bonner, "The New Cocaine Cowboys: How to Defeat Mexico's Drug Cartels," Ka Moku'āina'Āina (Iulai/ʻAukake 2010).
[2] Ma ka paka e nānā i nā Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses—United States, 2000–2004,” Hōʻike Wikiwiki Morbidity a me ka make 57, aole. 45 (2008): 1226–28, i ʻōlelo ʻia ma ka CDC paena; ma ka waiʻona e ʻike iā David J. Nutt, Leslie A. King, a me Lawrence D. Phillips, "Drug Harms in the UK: A Multicriteria Decision Analysis," ʻO ka Lancet 376, aole. 9752 (Novema 6, 2010): 1558-65. No nā ʻikepili hou e ʻike iā Noam Chomsky, "E hoʻolālā iā Colombia," in ʻO Rogue States: ʻO ke kānāwai o ka ikaika ma ka honua (Boston: South End Press, 2000), 78-80.
Ke haʻalele nei au i ka nīnau koʻikoʻi o ka mokuʻāina akau e pāpā, a e kau i nā hoʻopaʻi koʻikoʻi ma luna o ka ʻai ponoʻī ʻana i nā mea kikoʻī; ʻAʻole wau i manaʻo he hana ia, ke ʻole ka hana ʻana, ka hoʻololi ʻana, a/a i ʻole ka ʻai ʻana e hōʻino i nā poʻe ʻē aʻe a i ʻole kaiapuni ma kekahi ʻano hōʻike. Hiki ke hoʻopaʻa ʻia kekahi mau lāʻau lapaʻau i loko o kēia ʻokoʻa, ʻo ia hoʻi he kūpono ke kau ʻana a i ʻole ka pāpā ʻana a pau; ʻo ka hihia o ka hoʻokele ʻona, no ka laʻana, maopopo. Eia naʻe, ʻo ka nui o nā lāʻau lapaʻau weliweli loa (e like me ka waiʻona a me ka paka) he kānāwai, ʻoiai ka nui o nā lāʻau "palekana" ma ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana (ʻoi aku ka marijuana, akā ʻo ka cocaine pū kekahi) i loaʻa i kekahi o nā hoʻopaʻi ʻoi loa. (Ma ka hoʻohālikelike loa malamalama ʻO nā hoʻopaʻi no ke kaʻa ʻona ʻona—ʻo ia ka mea e make ai ma kahi o 22,000 mau kānaka i kēlā me kēia makahiki ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, ʻoi aku ka nui ma mua o nā hewa pili i ka narcotics-e nānā iā Michelle Alexander, ʻO ka Crow Jim Hou: Ka Hoʻohui Mass i ka Makahiki o ka Muliuli [New York: New Press, 2010], 200-01.)
[3] "Democracy and Plan Colombia," Nā NACLA Pūnaewele ma nāʻAmelika 40, no. 1 (2007).
[4] Ua helu ʻia nā helu UN ma "Morales: Ua hōʻike ʻo Bolivia Trade Suspension iā Obama 'Hoopunipuni iā Latin America'” (headline), ʻO ka Democracy Nei! 2 Iulai 2009; UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Hōʻike lāʻau lāʻau honua 2009 (New York, 2009), 11. E nānā pū iā Simon Romero, "Coca Production Makes a Comeback in Peru," New York Times,Iune 13, 2010; Andrés Schipani, "Ke piʻi aʻe nei ka hana ʻana o ka Cocaine i nā pilikia no Bolivia," BBC News, Iune 16, 2010. "Balloon effect": Lisa Haugaard, et al., Ke kali nei no ka hoʻololi ʻana: nā ʻano o ke kōkua palekana ʻAmelika i ʻAmelika Latina a me ka Caribbean (CIP/LAWG/WOLA, Mei 2010), 16.
[5] ʻŌlelo ʻia ma Rory Carroll, "Hoʻokuʻu ʻia ʻo Cocaine Production Surge i ka nalu o ka hana ʻino ma Latin America," kahu, Malaki 9, 2009. E nānā pū i ka Komisina o Pepeluali 2009 hoike, ʻO nā lāʻau lapaʻau a me ka Demokalaka: I ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka Paradigm, a me Michael Kenney, Mai Pablo a hiki iā Osama: Trafficking and Terrorist Networks, Government Bureaucracies, and Competitive Aptations (State College, PA: Penn State UP, 2007).
[6] “He Plan Kolombia no Mekiko,” Nā kulekeleʻokoʻa i ka manaʻo, Kepakemapa 10, 2010. Ma ka piʻi ʻana o ka narcotrafficking Mekiko e ʻike iā Paul Gootenberg, "Blowback: The Mexican Drug Crisis," Nā NACLA Pūnaewele ma nāʻAmelika 43, aole. 6 (2010): 7-12. Ua kākau ʻelua mau mea nūpepa me ka ʻike lōʻihi e uhi ana iā Mekiko "ʻo ka hapa nui o ka poʻe i pepehi ʻia he poʻe Mekiko maʻamau ka poʻe i lilo i mau lālā cartel lāʻau ma mua o ka maloʻo ʻana o ko lākou koko ma nā alanui." Hoʻomaopopo pū lākou i ka maopopo ʻole nui e pili ana i nā ʻike a me nā kumu o ka poʻe i kuleana no ka piʻi nui ʻana o ka hana ʻino e pili ana i ka lāʻau lapaʻau i kēia manawa, ka maopopo ʻole a lākou i manaʻo ai i ka nele o nā noiʻi aupuni Mekiko a me ka nele o ke aupuni US. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo e hoʻomau nei ʻo Plan Mexico i kēia manawa no nā makahiki he nui ʻoiai ʻo kēia kānalua ʻole kahi ʻike ʻē aʻe he mau kumu huna ka papahana. E ʻike iā Charles Bowden lāua ʻo Molly Molloy, "ʻO wai ma hope o nā make he 25,000 ma Mexico?" Nation (Iulai 23, 2010).
[7] N. Chomsky, “Plan Colombia,” 72-73.
[8] ʻŌlelo ʻia ma Teo Ballvé, "The Dark Side of Plan Colombia," Nation (Mei 27, 2009).
[9] Ballvé, "Ka ʻaoʻao ʻeleʻele o ka Plan Colombia"; Weinberg, "Plan Colombia"; ʻO Angel Páez, "Peru: Wikileaks Cables Reveal Two-Faced Politics by US," Inter Press Service, December 16, 2010.
[10] No nā kuhikuhi ʻana i nā loiloi loea i paʻi ʻia ma mua o 1999, N. Chomsky, “Plan Colombia,” 80-81. ʻAʻole pono e huikau me nā polokalamu USAID o kēia manawa ma Kolombia a i ʻole nā wahi ʻē aʻe. Ma ka "War on Drugs" i hoʻohuihui nui ʻia ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, e ʻike i ka puke maikaʻi loa a ka loio ʻo Michelle Alexander, ʻO ka Crow Jim Hou: Ka Hoʻohui Mass i ka Makahiki o ka Muliuli (Nui Ioka: New Press, 2010). E nānā pū i ka pukana kūikawā o Ianuali/Pepeluali 2011 o ʻO ka manaʻoʻAmelika.
[11] ʻO Adam Isacson no ke Keʻena ʻo Wakinekona ma ʻAmelika Latin, Mai Kāhea iā ia he kumu hoʻohālike: Ma ka hoʻolālā ʻana i ka makahiki ʻumi o Colombia, ʻaʻole e kū i ka nānā ʻana i nā koi o ka 'holomua'. (WOLA, Iulai 2010), p. 5.
[12] ʻO 101 mau pepehi kanaka i hoʻopaʻa ʻia i nā hui uniona, 48 ma Kolombia. ʻO nā ʻāina ʻekolu e hiki mai ana ma ka papa inoa he mau hoa pili pili loa iā ʻAmelika: Guatemala me 16, Honduras me 12, Mekiko me 6; Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ʻo Bangladesh me Mexico (International Trade Union Confederation, Ike Makahiki no na Kue ana i na Kuleana Hui Kalepa [2010]). I ka nā hua'ōlelo ʻO ke Kakauolelo Nui o ITUC ʻo Guy Ryder, "ʻO Kolombia ka ʻāina kahi e kū nei i nā kuleana koʻikoʻi o nā limahana ma mua o nā wahi ʻē aʻe i manaʻo ʻia he hoʻopaʻi make, ʻoiai ʻo ke aupuni Kolombia ka hoʻolaha pili aupuni e kū'ē. ʻO ke kūlana koʻikoʻi ma Guatemala, Honduras a me nā ʻāina ʻē aʻe ke kumu no ka hopohopo nui. No ka hope a me ka hoʻonui hou ʻana, e ʻike iā Federico Fuentes, "Kolombia: Hana ʻoihana, pepehi i nā limahana," Ke Kuhi Wai Lele, Nowemapa 13, 2010. Ua hoʻomau ʻia ka pepehi kanaka ʻana i nā mea hoʻoikaika ʻēheu hema mai ka wā i lawe ai ke Kuhina Kūʻē mua ʻo Juan Manuel Santos i ka pelekikena i ʻAukake 2010; see Manuela Kuehr, "Ua pepehi ʻia nā mea hana 22 i nā lā 75 mua o Santos," Hōʻike ʻo Kolombia,ʻOkakopa 29, 2010.
[13] Conn Hallinan, "He 'False-Positives' ka ʻike ʻana i ka lua kupapaʻu nui o Kolombia hou," Nā kulekeleʻokoʻa i ka manaʻo, ʻAukake 1, 2010; “Informe del Relator Special sobre las ejecuciones, extrajudiciales, sumarias or arbitrarias, Philip Alston,”A/HRC/14/24/Add.2 (Malaki 31, 2010), 12.
[14] ʻO Oeindrila Dube lāua ʻo Suresh Naidu, Nā kumu, nā pōkā, a me nā balota: ka hopena o nā kōkua koa US i ka hakakā politika ma Colombia., Pepa Hana 197 (Ianuali 2010), hōʻuluʻulu a me ka ʻaoʻao 3.
[15] "Hoʻolālā ʻia ʻo Colombia i ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o nā hana hoʻomāinoino koa," Nūhou NACLA, Iulai 30, 2010. ʻO ka hōʻike piha, i hoʻokuʻu ʻia i Iulai 2010, ke kuleana. Kokua Koa a me na Kuleana Kanaka: Kolombia, U.S. Accountability, and Global Implications. ʻO ka puka ʻana ma hope o 1990 o Kolombia ʻo ia ka mea ʻino loa o ka ʻāina i ka hāʻule ʻana, i ka waena o ka makahiki 1980, o kahi kaula o nā pūʻali koa i kākoʻo ʻia e US me nā moʻolelo pono kanaka weliweli.
[16] Ma kahi loiloi ʻōnaehana o ka moʻolelo no 1975-77, ua ʻike ka ʻepekema politika ʻo Lars Schoultz "ʻo ka pilina ma waena o ka pae piha o ke kōkua ʻana o US i Latin America a me ka uhai ʻana i nā pono kanaka e nā aupuni i loaʻa… Ua hele like ʻole kēlā kōkua i nā aupuni ʻAmelika Latin e hoʻomāinoino ana i ko lākou poʻe kamaʻāina" (“U.S. Foreign Policy and Human Rights Violations in Latin America: A Hoʻohālikelike Nānā i nā hāʻawi kōkua o nā ʻāina ʻē," Hoʻohālikelike Politics 13, aole. 2 [1981]: 155). E nana hoi ia Edward S. Herman, ka Real Pūnaehana Terror: Terrorism in Fact and Propaganda (Boston: South End Press, 1982), 126 passsim.
Hiki i kekahi ke nīnau inā hoʻomau ka pilina o Schoultz i ka wā ma hope o ke Kaua anu; ʻO koʻu manaʻo, ʻoiai ʻoi aku ka maʻamau o ka hoʻomāinoino a me ka pepehi kanaka i kēia manawa ma mua o nā makahiki he kanakolu i hala aku nei, aia nō ka pilina paʻa ma waena o ka manaʻo maikaʻi o ʻAmelika a me ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ka democracy social participatory-style. ʻO ka pilina pili i kēia manawa, ke manaʻoʻiʻo nei au, aia ma waena o nā pae o ka hoʻomalu a me ka makemake o US, ma mua o nā pae o ka hoʻomāinoino mokuʻāina a me ka makemake o US. No kekahi mau hōʻike hou e kākoʻo ana i kēia manaʻo, e ʻike i nā kumu i haʻi ʻia ma nā memo 21 a me 40, ma lalo.
[17] ʻO nā palapala i nīnau ʻia, loaʻa ma ka paena o ka National Security Archive, e hōʻike i ka ʻike aupuni o ʻAmelika ma mua o 1990 o nā loulou pūʻali koa i nā pūʻali make.
[18] ʻO ka hōʻike AP mai Iulai 15, 2009, i ʻōlelo pū ʻia ma Noam Chomsky, "Ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana iā ʻAmelika Latina," In These Times online, Kepakemapa 9, 2009. Ma ka ʻae ʻana o ka Moku'āina i ka moʻolelo pono kanaka o Kolombia, e ʻike iā Gimena Sánchez-Garzoli, "Ke hāʻawi aku nei iā Kolombia i kahi Pass Free: ʻAʻole i nānā ka Oihana Moku'āina i nā hana hōʻino o Afro-Colombia a me nā kuleana ʻōiwi," UpsideDownWorld.org, Sepatemaba 22, 2010. Ma nā manaʻo o kēia manawa no kahi ʻaelike "free-trade" US-Colombia, e ʻike iā Dawn Paley, "He aha ka mea e hiki mai ana no ka ʻaelike kālepa kūʻokoʻa ʻo US-Colombia?" Nūhou NACLA, December 3, 2010.
[19] Haʻi ʻia ma Haugaard, et al., Ke kali nei no ka Hoololi, 4.
[20] ʻIsakona, Mai Kāhea He Kiʻi Hoʻohālike, 10 (quote), i hoʻokumu ʻia ma ka UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Social Panorama o Latin America (pepa pōkole, 2009), 11–12.
[21] Ua helu mua ʻo Mexico ma ka ʻāina i ka "maʻalahi o ka hana ʻoihana" ma laila, me Peru a me Kolombia ka lua a me ke kolu (Hana ʻoihana 2011: Hana i kahi ʻokoʻa no ka poʻe ʻoihana [Washington, 2010], 4). Ua kūkākūkā pū ʻia ma Fuentes, "Kolombia: Hana ʻoihana, pepehi i nā limahana."
[22] “Latin America: Guidelines of United States Policy and Operations” (draft), ʻApelila 24, 1962, p. 57, ma US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Record Group 59, Entry 3172, Box 2, Folder 31.
[23] ʻO ka "Penetration" kahi trope maʻamau i ka haʻiʻōlelo hoʻopukapuka; ʻike, no ka laʻana, kōkua Kakauolelo o ka Moku'āina no Western Hemisphere Affairs Thomas C. Mann i ka Under Secretary of State (C. Douglas Dillon), Nowemapa 10, 1960, ma NARA 59/3172/1/30.
[24] “Nā ʻAmelika Latina e pili ana i ka US,” NIE 80/90-58, Dekemaba 2, 1958, ma Nā pilina ʻē o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa [ma hope mai FRUS], 1958-1960, vol. V: ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1991), 61-62 (quote). Ma ka wā Kennedy e ʻike iā Stephen G. Rabe, ʻO ka ʻāpana pōʻino loa o ka honua: ʻO John F. Kennedy ke kūʻē nei i ka Communist Revolution ma Latin America (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1999), 125-47. Ua hoʻomaka mua ka makaʻu ʻAmelika i ka nationalism ʻAmelika Latin, akā naʻe, e like me ka hōʻike ʻana o David Green ʻO ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o ʻAmelika ʻAmelika: He Moʻolelo o nā Moʻolelo Moʻolelo a me nā ʻoiaʻiʻo o ke kulekele kaiāulu maikaʻi (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971). Green notes (p. 208) i ka wā ma hope koke iho o ke kaua, "Ua ʻike maopopo ka poʻe ʻike ʻike ʻAmelika ma Latin America ʻo ka nationalism ʻōiwi, ʻaʻole ka komunisme honua, ʻo ia ka hoʻoweliweli maoli i nā pono o ʻAmelika i Latin America." Cf. James Siekmeier, "Fighting Economic Nationalism: US Economic Aid and Development Policy toward Latin America, 1953-1961" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1993).
[25] ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa ma Bolivia i ke Keʻena Mokuʻāina, ʻApelila 30, 1953, ma NARA 59, Central Decimal File, 1950-54, 824.00/4-3053; “Summary Guidelines Paper: United States Policy toward Latin America,” Iulai 3, 1961, p. 33; “The Threat to US Security Interests in the Caribbean Area,” SNIE 80-62, Ianuali 17, 1962, p. 212; Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., “Report to the President on Latin American Mission, February 12-March 3, 1961” (kaʻi taimí), 12–13. Loaʻa nā palapala hope ʻekolu i loko FRUS, 1961-1963, vol. XII: Lepupalika ʻAmelika (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1996).
[26] ʻO nā ʻano like ʻole, kamaʻilio a me nā mea ʻē aʻe, he mea kupanaha. No ka lawe ʻana i hoʻokahi hiʻohiʻona, i ka makahiki 1879, ua ʻōlelo ʻo General Philip Sheridan i ka pono e ʻimi i nā Cheyenne Indians i pakele i nā kūlana pōʻino, me ka ʻōlelo ʻana "inā ʻaʻole e hoʻihoʻi ʻia lākou i ko lākou wahi i hele mai ai [a pepehi ʻia] E loaʻa ka ʻōnaehana hoʻopaʻa i kahi haʻalulu e hoʻoweliweli i kona kūpaʻa. Ua kaulana ʻo Sheridan no ka hoʻolaha ʻana i ka huaʻōlelo "ʻo ka India maikaʻi wale nō he India make." Kuhi ʻia ma Dee Brown, E kanu i koʻu puʻuwai ma nā kuli ʻeha: He Moʻolelo Inia o ke Komohana ʻAmelika (New York: Washington Square Press, 1981), 327-28, 166; cf. aoao 271, 344.
[27] Ua ʻōlelo ʻia ʻo Duggan ma Green, ʻO ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o ʻAmelika Latin, 188. Bonsal to Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Roy Rubottom, May 20, 1958, in NARA, 59/1162/27/“Bolivia 1958—Chronological—93—Letters from Amembassies—Jan.-June.” I kēlā makahiki hoʻokahi, ua haʻi aku ʻo Pelekikena Eisenhower i ka National Security Council "ʻo ka pilikia ʻo ka loaʻa ʻana o ka inaina iā mākou [ma ka Middle East], ʻaʻole na nā aupuni akā na nā kānaka… ʻaoʻao" (i ʻōlelo ʻia ma Douglas Little, ʻAmelika Orientalism: ʻO ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a me ka Hikina Waena mai 1945 [Puʻu Chapel: UNC Press, 2002], 136). Ua hōʻike mua ka NSC "ʻaʻole i alakaʻi ʻia kā mākou ʻoihana waiwai a me ka moʻomeheu i ka wahi e hoʻopau i ka pilina o ʻAmelika me nā mea i loko o ka honua Arab nona ka makemake nui i ka mālama ʻana i nā pilina me ke Komohana a me ke kūlana quo i ko lākou mau ʻāina" ; no laila "ka hapa nui o nā ʻArabia" "manaʻoʻiʻo ʻo ʻAmelika e ʻimi nei e pale i kona makemake i ka ʻaila Near East ma ke kākoʻo ʻana i ke kūlana quo a me ke kūʻē ʻana i ka holomua politika a i ʻole ka hoʻokele waiwai" (i ʻōlelo ʻia ma Noam Chomsky's. pane ma "No ke aha lākou e makemake ai e hana ʻino iā mākou? [Mahele ʻEkolu],” In These Times, ʻApelila 2, 2010). Cf. Salim Yaqub, Loaʻa i ka Arab Nationalism: The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2004).
[28] Ma ka hoʻokumu ʻana i nā pūʻali make Kolombia ma lalo o ka nānā ʻana o US i nā makahiki 1960 mua e ʻike iā Greg Grandin, Ka Papahana a ka Empire: ʻAmelika ʻAmelika, ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, a me ke ala ʻana o ka Imperialism Hou (New York: Metropolitan, 2006), 96, 98; Dennis M. Rempe, "Guerrillas, Bandits, and Independent Republics: U.S. Counter-insurgency Efforts in Colombia, 1959-1965," Nā kaua liʻiliʻi a me nā kipi 6, aole. 3 (1995): 304-27; ʻO Aviva Chomsky, Nā Moʻolelo Hoʻohui Hana: New England, Colombia, a me ka hana ʻana i kahi papa hana honua (Durham: Duke UP, 2008), 231-40; N. Chomsky, “Plan Colombia,” 69.
[29] PPS/23: “Nānā ʻana i nā ʻano o kēia manawa ma nā kulekele ʻē aʻe o ʻAmelika,” ma FRUS, 1948, vol. I (Washington: USGPO, 1974), 524-25.
[30] Ua ʻōlelo ʻia lāua ʻelua ma Michael Klare, "Have R.D.F., Will Travel: The Brown Doctrine," Nation (Malaki 8, 1980), ka uhi mua a me 263-66. Cf. Grandin, Hale Hana o Empire, 179.
[31] U.S. Latin America Relations: A New Direction for a New Reality (Mei 2008) (hua'ōlelo mai ka hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo). Ua ʻike ʻia ka manaʻo like i ka makahiki 2009 hoike i paʻi ʻia e ka Council on Hemispheric Affairs: Sebastián Castañeda, "The Consolidation of US Military Presence in Colombia and Those Who Are Apprehensive Over it," Kepakemapa 25, 2009 (“The protection of vital natural resources, especially oil reserves, is central to the ʻO ka hoʻolālā hoʻokele waiwai o US ma ka ʻāina ").
[32] ʻO J. Michael McConnell (Ka Luna Hoʻokele o ka National Intelligence), ʻO ka loiloi hoʻoweliweli makahiki o ka Luna Hoʻokele o ka National Intelligence no ke Kōmike Wae Senate no ka Naʻauao, Pepeluali 5, 2008, p. 34. ʻO ka mana o ka makahiki 2010, i hōʻike ʻia e Obama DNI Dennis C. Blair i ka lā 2 o Pepeluali, he ʻano hoʻopaʻapaʻa ʻē aʻe i mua o nā aupuni hema hema, ʻo ia hoʻi ʻo Chávez o Venezuela, ka mea i hewa no ka "hana e kūʻē i ka mana US ma Latin America. ” (p. 43; nā huaʻōlelo ʻē aʻe mai ka ʻaoʻao 30, 32). ʻO ka ʻōlelo hope loa mai Christopher Sabatini lāua ʻo Jason Marczak, "Obama's Tango: Restoring US Leadership in Latin America," Ka Moku'āina'Āina (hoʻouna ʻia ma ka pūnaewele ma Ianuali 13, 2010). Hoʻopuka nā mea kākau i kēia manaʻo i ka pōʻaiapili o ke kākoʻo ʻana i ka "alakaʻi ikaika loa" mai ka US ma Latin America.
[33] "ʻO ka ʻōlelo a ke Kakauolelo Clinton, ke Kuhina Haole ʻo Brazil ʻo Amorim," Malaki 3, 2010, loaʻa mai america.gov pūnaewele puni honua; "ʻO ka hoʻolohe manaʻo o ka Senate: Hillary Clinton," New York Times, Ianuali 13, 2008; ʻO Garry Leech, "E hoʻololi liʻiliʻi ke kulekele ʻAmelika iā Venezuela a me Kolombia ma lalo o Obama, " Kolomepia Nupepa, Ianuali 20, 2009; Mark Weisbrot, "Venezuela, he hooweliweli noʻonoʻo, " kahu, Fepeluali 18, 2009.
[34] Nā palapala mai 2002 a me 2007, i ʻōlelo ʻia ma Jeremy Bigwood, "Hōʻike nā mea hou i ke komo ʻana o US ma Bolivia," UpsideDownWorld.org, ʻOkakopa 13, 2008; Eva Golinger, "Hōʻike nā palapala i nā kālā miliona miliona i nā mea nūpepa a me nā Media ma Venezuela," Postcards from the Revolution (blog), July 15, 2009; US Hope Kakauolelo o ka Mokuaina James Steinberg, i oleloia ma Weisbrot, “Venezuela, he hooweliweli noʻonoʻo”; ʻO Eva Golinger, "Wikileaks: Hōʻoia nā palapala i nā hoʻolālā US e kūʻē iā Venezuela," ZNet ʻōlelo manaʻo, Dekemaba 20, 2010 (e like me kēia kākau ʻana, hoʻokahi palapala i kapa ʻia ʻo "A Southern Cone Perspective on Countering Chavez and Reasserting U.S. Leadership," i loaʻa mai. http://213.251.145.96/cable/2007/06/07SANTIAGO983.html).
[35] No ka hōʻuluʻulu a me ka loiloi o ke kulekele hoʻokele mua o Obama ma ka ʻāina e ʻike i kaʻu "Obama a me Latin America: ʻO nā mahina ʻeono mua," Nūhou NACLA, Iulai 23, 2009. ʻAʻohe mea i hoʻololi nui ʻia i kēlā kulekele mai ia manawa. Ma ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana o ʻAmelika iā Peru - "kahi democracy holomua," ma nā ʻōlelo a Obama-e ʻike iā Lisa Skeen, “U.S. ʻO ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ka hoʻokele waiwai o Peru i hala i ka māka, " Nūhou NACLA, September 13, 2010.
[36] ʻAha Kūkākūkā Lahui, ʻO ka National Security Strategy o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, Malaki 2006, p. 25. Mahalo iā Michael Schwartz no ke kuhikuhi ʻana iaʻu i kēia kuhikuhi.
[37] ʻO Stephen Zunes, "ʻO ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, Bolivia, a me Dependency," Ka Pepa Kūkākūkā o ka Polokalamu Hoʻolaha ʻAmelika (Washington, DC: Center for International Policy, November 5, 2007); Zunes, "ʻO ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a me Bolivia: ʻO ka Taming of a Revolution, 1952-1957," Nā Manaʻo ʻAmelika Latina 28, no. 5 (2001): 33-49.
[38] Ka Imperialism Hou (New York: Oxford UP, 2003), 26-42.
[39] ka Real Pūnaehana Weliweli, 45, 126-32. E like me ka hōʻike ʻana o nā haʻawina ʻelua 2010 ma Kolombia (ma luna, nā moʻolelo 14-15), ʻo ke kōkua pūʻali koa US ka mea e hoʻonui ai i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana - ʻo ia hoʻi, loaʻa ka correlation mai ka ʻoiaʻiʻo. loiloi mua ʻO nā haʻawina kōkua US e makemake i nā aupuni e hōʻike ana i ko lākou makemake e kāohi, a mai ka ʻoiaʻiʻo ua hāʻawi ikaika ʻia ke kōkua US. hoʻonui ka pilikia.
[40] No ka loiloi ʻana i nā helu koho balota hou e hōʻike ana i ka hōʻole ʻana o ka poʻe ʻAmelika Latin i ka nui o ka neoliberal dogma, e ʻike i kaʻu "Latinobarómetro 2010: Manaʻo lehulehu ʻAmelika ʻAmelika," ZNet, Kekemapa 7, 2010, a me nā hopena koho balota i hala i kuhikuhi ʻia ma ka palapala 3 o ia ʻatikala. ʻO ka neoliberalism i hoʻomaka e kāhili i ka honua i ka waena o 1970s ua hoʻomaopopo pono ʻia ʻo ia ke ʻano koʻikoʻi koʻikoʻi o ka hoʻokele waiwai ʻoihana, a ʻo kekahi me nā mea he nui ma mua o ka makahiki 1970; ʻaʻole ia i hōʻike i kahi hanana hou loa a i ʻole hoʻolālā ma ka ʻaoʻao o ka poʻe hana kulekele.
[41] ʻOiai ʻaʻole koʻu manaʻo ma ʻaneʻi, aia nā pilina koʻikoʻi ma waena o ka neoliberalism, ka hana lāʻau lapaʻau, a me ka militarization; ʻO ka loulou nui e like me ka neoliberalism i hoʻopau i nā ʻoihana kūloko, ua neʻe nā mea hana lāʻau lapaʻau e hoʻopiha i ka hakahaka, no laila e hāʻawi ana i ka pono no ka militarization alakaʻi ʻia e US. ʻO nā ʻano like ʻole o ka "stability" e hoʻonui ai ka neoliberalism - mai ke kūʻē ʻana, a hiki i ka hewa alanui, a hiki i ka hana lāʻau lapaʻau nui - a laila hui ʻia i loko o ka ʻāpana like, ma ka liʻiliʻi loa, me ka manaʻo e hoʻopau ʻia lākou ma o ka pūʻali koa a me nā mākaʻi. hana. Hoʻomaopopo ʻo Greg Grandin e "hoʻoikaika ʻia ka pōʻaiapuni o ka hana ʻino [pili i ka lāʻau lapaʻau] e ka hoʻolaha wikiwiki ʻana o nā hana mining, hydroelectric, biofuel a me ka ʻaila, e hoʻopōʻino ana i nā kaiaola kūloko, ka ʻāina ʻawaʻawa a me ka wai, a me ka wehe ʻana o nā mākeke aupuni ʻO ka agroindustria US, ka mea e hoʻopau i nā ʻoihana kūloko. ʻO ka hoʻoneʻe ʻana e hana ana i nā ʻano hoʻoweliweli hewa ʻole i hoʻouka ʻia ke kaua ākea e kūʻē a hoʻonāukiuki paha, i hana ʻia e nā mea hoʻopaʻi i ke kaua ākea "("Muscling Latin America").
[42] "Clinton: Confusiones peligrosas," Kepakemapa 9, 2010.
[43] Ma Kolombia e nānā i nā memo 11-13 ma luna a me Mario A. Murillo, "Ua Hoʻi hou ka Moʻolelo iā ia iho no nā kaiāulu ʻōiwi ma lalo o ka hoʻouka ʻana ma Kolombia," Nūhou NACLA, ʻOkakopa 15, 2008; Peru: Kristina Aiello, "Bagua, Peru: Hoʻokahi makahiki ma hope," Nūhou NACLA, Iune 25, 2010; Honduras: Linda Cooper lāua ʻo James Hodge, "Alakaʻi Coup ʻo Honduran i kahi puka SOA ʻelua manawa," National Catholic Reporter, Iune 29, 2009; Nā hui ʻo Mekiko: James D. Cockroft, "Mexico: 'Failed States,' New Wars, Resistance," Ka Hoʻohālāwai Mahina 62, aole. 6 (Nowemapa 2010), 37.
[44] Ua ʻōlelo ʻia ʻo Stimson ma Green, ʻO ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o ʻAmelika Latin, 230; NSC i ʻōlelo ʻia ma N. Chomsky, "Militarizing Latin America." E like me kā Noam Chomsky i kākau ai ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe, ʻike pinepine ka poʻe hoʻolālā US i ka palekana o ʻAmelika e koi i ka mana piha… E like me ka ʻike ʻana o kēlā me kēia Mafia Don, ʻo ka lilo iki ʻana o ka mana e alakaʻi i ka wehe ʻana o ka ʻōnaehana o ka noho aliʻi ʻana e like me ka paipai ʻia ʻana o kekahi e hahai i kahi like. ala" ("Ka palekana a me ka Mana I," ZNet, Kepakemapa 16, 2010). Cf. memo 25-26 maluna.
[45] ʻŌlelo ʻia ma Grandin, "Muscling Latin America." Cf. Haugaard, et al., Ke kali nei no ka Hoololi, 4.
[46] E like me ka ʻike ʻana o Senatoa William Fulbright i ka wā Vietnam, "ʻO nā miliona o ʻAmelika nona ka makemake wale i ka hana ʻana i kahi ola maikaʻi ua loaʻa iā lākou ka makemake i ka hoʻokele waiwai i hoʻolālā ʻia i ke kaua… ” ʻŌlelo ʻia ma Hossein-Zadeh, ʻO ka hoʻokele waiwai politika o ka US Militarism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 15. Cf. Melman, ʻO ka Pentagon Capitalism:ʻO ka Economical Economy of War (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970).
[47] ʻŌlelo mai ka Air Force General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, e kamaʻilio ana i ka makahiki 1947, i ʻōlelo ʻia ma Green, ʻO ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o ʻAmelika Latin, 260. Na mea kaua i laweia mai Just the Facts paena. Ma ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana no Plan Colombia e ʻike i ka Center for Public Integrity, "Ke Kaua Helicopter," ʻAʻole i helu ʻia, a me nā kumu i haʻi ʻia ma N. Chomsky, "Plan Colombia," 77. Ma Mekiko e ʻike iā Laura Carlsen, "Hāʻawi ka Hale a me ka Senate i ke kōkua koa hou i Mexico," Polokalamu ʻAmelika (hoʻopuka hou ʻia ma UpsideDownWorld.org), Mei 18, 2009.
[48] ʻO Seth G. Jones lāua ʻo Martin C. Libicki, Pehea ka pau ʻana o nā pūʻulu Terrorist: Nā haʻawina no ke kūʻē iā al Qaʻida (RAND Corporation, 2008). Ua ʻike ka poʻe ʻepekema ʻē aʻe ua hoʻonui ke aupuni US i ka "hoʻololi i kona ʻiʻo pūʻali koa ʻo ia wale nō ka mana maoli i waiho ʻia" (Harvey, Ka Imperialism Hou, 77).
[49] Noam Chomsky, Nā Moku'āina i hāʻule: ʻO ka hōʻino ʻana i ka mana a me ka hoʻouka ʻana i ka Democracy (New York: Metropolitan, 2006), 35.
[50] Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Friedman ma David Swanson, ʻO Kaua ke Kaua (Charlottesville, VA, 2010), 187; Ua haʻi ʻia ka luna Pelekane ma David Remnick, “Ke Kaua Pau ʻole?” New Yorker (ʻApelila 21, 2003).
[51] Haʻi ʻia ma Swanson, ʻO Kaua ke Kaua, 184.
[52] Eia naʻe i loko o kekahi o nā mea hoʻohenehene o ka mōʻaukala i hala iho nei, ua hiki i ka ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa o ka pūʻali koa honua ke lanakila ʻole iā Iraq a me Afghanistan.
[53] Grandin, "Muscling Latin America" (me ka ʻōlelo NAFTA mai ka luna US); Kevin Alvarez, "ʻO ke kaua lāʻau lapaʻau: i kahi 'Plan Central America,'" Nūhou NACLA,ʻOkakopa 28, 2010.
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