Source: TomDispatch.com
“Namu ne sanadin ‘yanci.
Mun ci nasara a kan makiya 'yanci a baya, kuma za mu sake kayar da su…
[W] mun san dalilinmu adalci ne kuma nasararmu ta tabbata…
‘Yan uwana Amurkawa, mu yi birgima.”
- George W. Bush, Nuwamba 8, 2001
A cikin tashin hankali na 9/11, ya kai ga Shugaba George W. Bush don bayyana wa ’yan uwansa abin da ya faru da kuma tsara martanin da al’ummar ƙasar za ta mayar game da wannan bala’i guda ɗaya. Bush ya cika wannan aikin ta hanyar ƙaddamar da Yaƙin Duniya akan Ta'addanci, ko GWOT. Dangane da abin da ke cikin hadari da kuma abin da Amurka ta yi niyya ta yi, shugaban ya kwatanta wannan sabon rikici a fili da ma'anar gwagwarmayar karni na ashirin. Ko da yake babban sadaukarwa da ayyukan da ake jira, abu ɗaya ya tabbata: GWOT zai tabbatar da nasarar 'yanci, kamar yadda yakin duniya na biyu da yakin cacar baki ya yi. Hakanan zai tabbatar da fifikon Amurkawa na duniya da fifikon salon rayuwar Amurkawa.
Yanzu haka ana gab da cika shekaru ashirin da kai harin ta'addanci a cibiyar kasuwanci ta duniya da ma'aikatar tsaro ta Pentagon. A ranar 11 ga Satumba, 2021, Amurkawa za su yi bikin da manyan abubuwan tunawa, watakila ma su ajiye a gefe, aƙalla na ɗan lokaci, gwaji iri-iri da, a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, suka dabaibaye al'ummar.
Shekaru 20 zuwa minti daya bayan da jirgin saman farko da aka yi awon gaba da shi ya kutsa cikin Hasumiyar Arewa ta Cibiyar Kasuwancin Duniya, kararrawa za ta yi yawa. A cikin sa'o'i masu zuwa, jami'ai za su shimfiɗa furanni tare da yin jawabai masu tsinkaya. Limamai da malamai da limamai zasu karanta addu'o'i. Masu rubutun ra'ayin yanar gizo da masu sharhi na TV za su ba da jagoranci. Idan na ɗan lokaci ne al'umma za ta haɗu.
Yana da wuya cewa taron zai sa Amurkawa yin tunani a kan jerin kamfen na soja a cikin shekaru ashirin da suka biyo bayan 9/11. Wannan abin takaici ne. Ko da yake ba a lura da shi ba, waɗannan kamfen ɗin - kalmar GWOT tuntuni ba ta da ni'ima - suna ba da kowace alamar a ƙarshe ta ƙare, ba tare da nasarar da aka alkawarta ba amma tare da wani abu mafi kama da shrug. A kan wannan maki, yakin Afghanistan yana aiki azaman Nunin A.
Tabbacin da Shugaba Bush ya yi na samun babban nasara a yanzu ya yi kama da yin riya cewa karnin Amurka yana nan da rai da lafiya ta hanyar daga yatsan kumfa yana rera "Mu ne na daya!" A Washington, kare mai barci na gazawar soja ya yi barci ba tare da damuwa ba. Manyan kwamandojin filaye da dadewa sun yi watsi da tsammanin cin nasara a kan abokan gaba.
Yayin da 'yan siyasa ke ba da sanarwar sha'awarsu ga "sojoji," a cikin wani sabon salon nuna bangaranci, sun nisanta kansu daga yin tambaya game da abin da sojojin Amurka suka samu da kuma farashi. Amma ga talakawan Amurkawa masu rugujewa, suna da ƙarin abubuwan da za su damu da su fiye da yaƙe-yaƙe masu nisa waɗanda ba su taɓa fitowa kamar yadda aka yi alkawari ba.
Zuwa cikin Kabari na Dauloli
A cikin jawabinsa na ban kwana na Janairu 2001, yana maraba da wayewar karni na Uku, Shugaba Bill Clinton. tabbatar tare da tabbatar da cewa, a cikin shekaru takwas da ya yi yana mulki, Amurka ta kammala “shiga cikin zamanin bayanan duniya, zamanin babban sabuntawar Amurka.” A haƙiƙa, wannan sabon ƙarnin ba zai kawo sabuntawa ba amma ɗimbin rikice-rikice da suka bar talakawan ƙasa cikin tashin hankali.
Da farko ya zo 9/11 kanta, yana rushe tabbacin cewa tarihi yana da fassara yanke hukunci ga Amurka. Yaƙe-yaƙe da yawa da suka biyo baya sun kasance iri ɗaya ta wannan ma'ana: da zarar an fara, sun ci gaba da ci gaba. Fiye ko žasa da zamani, da "tashi" na kasar Sin da alama yana nuni da cewa zamanin da ake da shekaru aru-aru na mulkin yammacin duniya yana ƙarewa. Bayan haka, yayin da Amurka ta kasance ciyarwa Jamhuriyar Jama'a ta kasance tarawa Kasuwannin kasuwannin duniya a farashi mai ban mamaki. A halin yanzu, a fagen cikin gida, a populist koma baya A adawa neoliberal da postmodern nostrums sun jefar da rashin cancanta a cikin Fadar White House.
Kamar yadda annoba mafi muni a cikin ƙarni sannan ta mamaye duniya, kashe wasu Amurkawa fiye da wanda ya mutu a yakin duniya na biyu, zababben shugaban kasar ya dithere ya rabu, yana kwatanta kansa a matsayin ainihin wanda aka azabtar na rikicin. Abin mamaki, waccan da'awar ta bogi ta sami tagomashi ga dubun-dubatar masu jefa kuri'a. A wani yunƙuri na neman ci gaba da jarumtarsu a kan karagar mulki na wasu shekaru huɗu (ko sama da haka), manyan magoya bayan shugaban sun hau kujerar naƙi. kokarin tashin hankali don soke tsarin mulki. Ƙara zuwa ga mahaɗar bala'in tattalin arziki mai maimaitawa da damuwa game da abubuwan da ke tattare da sauyin yanayi kuma Amurkawa suna da kyakkyawan dalili na jin buguwa.
Ba abin mamaki ba ne cewa suna da ɗan ƙaramin bandwidth da ya rage don yin tunani game da yaƙin Afghanistan yayin da yake shiga abin da zai iya zama mataki na ƙarshe. Bayan haka, tare da mamaye mafi yawan tashin hankali da tsadar rayuwa na Iraki, rikice-rikicen Afghanistan bai taɓa samun cikakkiyar labari ba. Rashin manyan duels ko fadace-fadacen fadace-fadace, sojoji ne kwatankwacin farar amo, suna tuki a bango amma ba a gane su ba. Ƙarshen ƙarancin ƙarewa ya bayyana azaman ma'anar siffa.
Shugaba Bush na biyu ya kaddamar da yakin Afghanistan kasa da wata guda bayan 9 ga Satumba. Duk da abin da ya zama kamar farkon farawa, amma duk ya yi watsi da wannan yunƙurin a cikin gaggawa don neman manyan ganima, wato Saddam Hussein. A cikin 11, Barack Obama ya gaji wannan rikici na Afganistan da aka yi a yanzu rantsuwa don cin nasara da fita. Ba zai yi ba. Nasarar Obama a cikin 2017, Donald Trump ya ninka sau biyu wa'adin don kawo karshen yakin gaba daya, sai dai ya zo da kansa.
Yanzu, inda ya tsaya daga inda Trump ya tsaya, Joe Biden ya nuna sha'awar sa na soke labulen yakin Amurka mafi dadewa da makamai don haka ya yi nasara inda magabatansa uku suka gaza. Yin hakan ba zai yi sauƙi ba. Yayin da yakin ya ci gaba, sai ya taru rikitarwa, duka a cikin Afghanistan da kuma yanki. Halin ya ci gaba da cike da yuwuwar tarnaki.
Yayin da yake kan karagar mulki, Trump ya kuduri aniyar janye sojojin Amurka gaba daya daga Afghanistan nan da 1 ga watan Mayun wannan shekara. Kodayake kwanan nan Biden ya yarda cewa saduwa da irin wannan wa'adin zai kasance "mai wahala," shi ma alkawari cewa duk wani jinkiri ba zai wuce wasu watanni ba. Don haka ya bayyana da alama cewa ƙarshen wani nau'in na iya kasancewa a ƙarshe. Haƙiƙa don kyakkyawan ƙarshe, duk da haka, yana tsakanin siriri da babu shi.
Wani abu daya bayyana a fili: ko kokarin da Washington ke ci gaba da yi na kulla yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tsakanin Taliban da gwamnatin Afghanistan ya yi nasara, ko kuma bangarorin da ke fada da juna sun zabi ci gaba da fada, lokaci ya kure kan aikin sojan Amurka a can. A Washington, son yin nasara ya daɗe, yayin da haƙuri tare da ɓangaren da muke ikirarin tallafawa ɓarna da yunƙurin cimma ƙaramin buri na guje wa shan kaye kai tsaye yana gushewa cikin sauri. Da ta saba ganin kanta a matsayin marubucin tarihi, Amurka ta sami kanta a matsayin mai addu'a, da fatan ceto wasu 'yan tsiraru na alheri.
Menene wannan yaki mafi dadewa a tarihinmu yake nufi? Ko da kuwa batun ba shi ne wanda Amurkawa ke kallonsa a matsayin na gaggawa musamman ba, aƙalla amsa ta farko tana da tsari, idan dai kawai saboda sojojin Amurka da suka yi aiki a wurin - fiye da kashi uku cikin huɗu na miliyan gaba ɗaya - sun cancanci ɗaya.
Kuma akwai kuma wannan: Yaƙin da ke ja da baya har tsawon shekaru 20 ba kamar wasan ƙwallon ƙafa ba ne da ke shiga cikin kari. Fassara ce ta tsari na farko da ya kamata masu mulki da masu mulki su fuskance su daidai. Don tafiya kawai, kamar yadda za a iya jarabtar Amurkawa su yi, zai fi rashin alhaki. Zai zama batsa.
Sabon Cizon Tufafin Imperial Mai Guba
Yin la'akari da mahimmancin Afganistan yana buƙatar sanya shi cikin yanayi mai girma. A matsayin yaƙin farko na zamanin bayan-9/11, yana wakiltar misali mai koyarwa na musamman na mulkin mallaka wanda aka tattara azaman ɗaukaka.
Turawan mulkin mallaka na karni na sha tara da farkon karni na ashirin sun fara aikin farfagandar son kai wanda ya ba da kyakyawar dabi'a ga cin moriyar mulkin mallaka a duk fadin Asiya da Afirka. Lokacin da Amurka ta mamaye Cuba tare da mamaye kasar a cikin 1898 kuma ba da jimawa ba bayan ta mamaye dukkanin tsibiran Philippine, shugabanninta sun tsara irin wannan hujja don ayyukan girman kai.
Manufar aikin Amurka a Philippines, alal misali, shine "m assimilation, ” tare da mika wuya na Filipino mai alƙawarin fansa na ƙarshe. Mahukunta da masu gudanar da mulkin mallaka da Washington suka aika don aiwatar da wannan aikin na iya ma sun yarda da waɗancan wuraren. Wadanda aka samu irin wannan alherin, duk da haka, sun kasance ba a yarda da su ba. Kamar yadda jagoran Filipino Manuel Quezon ya shahara saka shi, “Gwamnatin da ’yan Philippine ke tafiyar da ita kamar jahannama, da wadda Amurkawa ke gudu kamar sama.” Wani ɗan kishin ƙasa, Quezon ya gwammace ya ɗauki damarsa tare da ƙwazo, kamar yadda sauran Filipinas da yawa ba su ji daɗin sana'o'in Amurka na kyawawan niyya ba.
Wannan ya kai ga jigon matsalar, wanda ke da nasaba da mamayar da Amurka ta yi wa Afghanistan a karnin da muke ciki. A shekara ta 2001, mahara Amurkawa sun isa wannan ƙasar ɗauke da wata kyauta mai suna "Dorewar 'Yanci"- wani sabon salo na mu'amala mai kyau - kawai an gano cewa ɗimbin ƴan Afganistan suna da nasu ra'ayin game da yanayin 'yanci ko kuma sun ƙi fuskantar kafirai suna gaya musu yadda za su gudanar da al'amuransu. Tabbas, yunƙurin ɓarna manufofin masarautar Washington ta hanyar shigar da Hamid Karzai, ɗan ƙasar Afganistan mai hoto, mai magana da Ingilishi, a matsayin babban shugaban wata gwamnati mai cikakken iko a Kabul ya yaudari kusan kowa. Kuma da zarar Karzai, zababben wakilin kasashen Yamma, shi kansa juya baya duk aikin, jig ya kamata ya tashi.
Yakin Amurka a Afghanistan ya zuwa yanzu ya lakume rayukan sojojin Amurka sama da 2,300, yayin da wasu 20,000 suka jikkata. Girma mai ban mamaki an kashe, an raunata, ko muhallansu na ƴan Afghanistan. Jimillar kuɗin wannan yaƙin na Amurka tuntuni ya haura dala tiriliyan 2. Duk da haka, kamar yadda aka rubuta ta "Takardun Afganistan” wanda aka buga a bara ta Washington Post, Amurka da kawayenta ba su ci galaba a kan Taliban ba, ba su samar da kwararrun jami'an tsaron Afghanistan ba, ko kuma kafa wata gwamnati mai karfin gudanar da mulki yadda ya kamata. Duk da kokarin da suka yi na kusan shekaru 20, ba su zo kusa ba. Babu Amurka da kawayenta na kawancen NATO da suka rinjayi akasarin mutanen Afganistan su rungumi ra'ayin kasashen yamma na tsarin siyasa da ya dace. Idan ya zo ga mafi ƙarancin sharuɗɗa don cim ma manufa, a wasu kalmomi, Amurka da ƙawayenta suna yin 0 don 4.
Yunkurin da Amurka ta yi na dakile cin hanci da rashawa na Afganistan ya yi tsanani kasa a birkice. Don haka, ma, yi ƙoƙarin samun kuɗi mai kyau rage samar da opium. Tare da tsohon sharadi don ingantaccen shugabanci kuma na ƙarshe yana da mahimmanci don cimma wasu kamanni na yuwuwar tattalin arziƙin sama, sanya wannan 0 don 6, duk da cewa abubuwan da suka faru a wannan lokacin suna fifita Taliban. Tare da kashi 75% na kudaden shiga da gwamnati ke samu daga masu ba da taimako na kasashen waje, Jamhuriyar Musulunci ta Afganistan tana kan aikin kasa da kasa kuma tana da inganci. babu tabbas na zama mai dogaro da kai kowane lokaci nan ba da jimawa ba.
Ko yunkurin da Amurka ta jagoranta na daidaita Afganistan da dabi'un yammacin duniya ya ruguje tun da farko ba zai yiwu a ce ba. Aƙalla, duk da haka, an sanar da wannan ƙoƙarin ta hanyar ban mamaki naiveté. Tantance yakin shekaru goma da suka gabata - shekaru 10 bayan ya fara - Janar Stanley McChrystal, tsohon kwamandan sojojin hadin gwiwa a can. ya koka da cewa "ba mu sani ba kuma har yanzu ba mu sani ba" game da Afghanistan da mutanenta. "Mafi yawan mu - na haɗa da - mun fahimci yanayin da tarihi sosai, kuma muna da ra'ayi mai ban tsoro game da tarihin kwanan nan, shekaru 50 da suka gabata." A bayyane a cikin wannan da alama shigar gaskiya shine shawarar cewa sanin ƙarin zai haifar da kyakkyawan sakamako, cewa yakamata Afghanistan ta kasance "nasara."
Ga masu rugujewa amma ba a sake ginawa ba, la'akari da wannan layin ja da baya na ƙarshe: nasara da ta kasance tamu idan kawai masu yanke shawara sun yi abubuwa daban. Duk wanda ya saba da abubuwan da ya kamata-bas da aka yi bayan yakin Vietnam a karnin da ya gabata - yakamata Amurka ta jefa bama-bamai (ko žasa), ta mamaye Arewa, ta kara yin nasara ga zukata-da-hankali, da sauransu - zai gane. waɗannan da'awar ga abin da suke: dodges. Kamar yadda yake tare da Vietnam, yin amfani da wannan idan-kawai layin tunani zuwa Afghanistan shine rasa ainihin mahimmin yaƙin.
Ƙananan Yaƙi, Babban Tasiri
Yayin da yake-yaken Amurka ke tafiya, Afghanistan tana kan gaba a matsayin karama. Amma duk da haka wannan ɗan ƙaramin rikici amma yana da tsayin daka a tsakiyar wani zamani na musamman kuma mai cike da matsala a tarihin Amurka wanda ya samo asali daga ƙarshen yakin cacar baka shekaru 40 da suka gabata. Hukunce-hukunce biyu sun ayyana wannan zamanin. A cewar na farko, a shekara ta 1991 Amurka ta sami wani abu mai kama da karfin soja na duniya wanda ba a taba yi ba. Da zarar Soviets sun bar filin wasa, babu abokin hamayyar da ya cancanci sunan da ya rage. Hakan ya bayyana a fili.
Dangane da hukuncin na biyu, yanzu an yarda da yanayi - har ma da kuka - sanya sojojin Amurka suyi aiki. Sake dawowa, ko an bayyana shi azaman hanawa, tsaro, ko tsarewa, don wusses ne. A Washington, jarabawar yin amfani da sojoji don hambarar da "mugunta” ya zama mara jurewa. Ba haka ba kwatsam, zanga-zangar sojan Amurka na lokaci-lokaci zai kuma yi gargaɗi ga masu fafatawa game da ko da tunanin ƙalubale ga fifikon Amurkawa a duniya.
Kasancewa a baya shine wannan da ba kasafai ake yarda da hukuncin ba: a cikin duniya mai cike da talauci, al'ummomin da ba su dace ba, yawancin mutanen da ke zaune a fakaice a matsayin masu ci baya, wani yana buƙatar ɗaukar nauyi, tilasta horo, da samar da aƙalla tsarin ladabi. An dauki cewa Amurka ita kadai ce ke da karfi da daukakar taka irin wannan rawar. Bayan haka, wa ya rage ya ce a’a?
Don haka, tare da wucewar yakin cacar baki, wani sabon babi a tarihin mulkin mallaka na Amurka ya fara, koda kuwa a cikin da'irar manufofin cewa kalmar I-kalmar ta kasance mai tsauri. Daga cikin abubuwan da aka fi so, agaji agaji, wani lokacin barata ta kwanan nan "hakin karewa," ya sami tagomashi na musamman. Amma wannan galibi gidan wasan kwaikwayo ne, sabuntawa na haɗin kai irin na Philippine wanda aka tsara don inganta hazaka na ƙarni na ashirin da ɗaya.
A zahiri, ya kai ga shugaban Amurka, yawanci kuma ba tare da damuwa da ake magana da shi a matsayin “mutumin da ya fi kowa ƙarfi a duniya ba,” ya yanke shawarar inda bama-baman Amurka za su faɗo kuma sojojin Amurka suka isa. Lokacin da sojojin Amurka suka dunkule tsokoki a wurare masu nisa, tun daga Panama, Iraki, Somaliya, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, Serbia, Afghanistan, Sudan, da Philippines zuwa Afghanistan (sake), Iraki (sake), Libya, kasashen yammacin Afirka daban-daban. , Somalia (sake), Iraki (a karo na uku), ko Siriya, izini daga Kwamitin Tsaro na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ko Majalisar da aka sanya a matsayin wani wuri tsakanin abin da bai dace ba da kuma wanda ba dole ba. Don ayyukan soji da suka yi kama da cikakken mamayewa zuwa kisan kai don nuna ƙarfi kawai, duk wani dalili na "shugaban Duniya na 'Yanci" ya zaɓi bayarwa ya isa.
Matakin sojan da aka yi bisa umarnin babban kwamandan ya zama bayyananniyar jagororin Amurkawa na duniya mara magana amma tabbatacce. Wannan Bush mahaifin, Clinton, Bush da, Obama, da Trump duk za su yi amfani da karin ikon tsarin mulki - don haka hujjar ta ci gaba - ci gaba da tabbatar da zaman lafiya da 'yanci a duk duniya kawai ya ba da shaida ga kasancewar Amurka. Ta wannan hanyar, shugabancin daular ya tafi kafada da kafada da nauyin da ya rataya a wuyan sarki.
Da farko ba zato ba tsammani, amma a fili tare da wucewar lokaci, sha’awar soja da shuwagabannin daular suka yi ya haifar da yanayin munafunci, rashin gaskiya, son zuciya, ɓarna, rashin tausayi, da rashin jin daɗi waɗanda a yau suka zama ruwan dare gama gari. A wasu ɓangarorin, yanayin ya ci gaba da zargi tsohon Shugaba Trump game da duk wani abu da ke damun wannan al'umma, gami da wariyar launin fata, jima'i, rashin daidaito, rikice-rikicen lafiyar jama'a, da kuma murƙushe maganganun jama'a, ba don yin magana game da rashin kulawa ba. lalata muhalli da kuma mu crumbling kayayyakin more rayuwa. Ba tare da barin shi daga ƙugiya ba, bari in ba da shawarar cewa juyin mulkin daular Washington bayan yakin cacar baka ya ba da gudummawa sosai ga rashin jin daɗinmu da rudani fiye da duk abin da Trump ya yi a cikin shekaru huɗu da ya yi a Fadar White House.
A kan haka, yakin Afganistan ya ba da gudummawa mai mahimmanci kuma musamman ma na baƙin ciki, tare da bayyana a matsayin iƙirarin ruɗi na ikon sojan Amurka. Har ma a ƙarshen 2001, makonni kaɗan bayan Shugaba George W. Bush ya yi alkawarin "nasara ta ƙarshe," yakin da aka yi a can ya riga ya kasance. tafi kashe rubutun. Tun da farko, a wasu kalmomi, akwai wata shaida maras tabbas cewa gwagwarmayar soji bisa ga buri na sabon sarki yana haifar da haɗari mai yawa, yayin da farashin da ya wuce kowane fa'ida mai ma'ana.
Yakin da ya fi dadewa a tarihin Amurka kamata ya yi a yanzu ya sa Amurkawa yin tunani a kan sakamakon da zai biyo baya daga fadawa cikin jarabawar daular a cikin duniyar da daular ta dade ba ta daina aiki ba. Wasu na iya nace cewa Amurkawa na yau sun yi wannan darasi. A cikin Washington, shaho sun bayyana an hukunta su, tare da 'yan kaɗan suna kira ga Shugaba Biden ya tura sojojin Amurka zuwa Yemen ko Myanmar ko ma Venezuela, "makwabciyarmu mai arzikin mai," don daidaita al'amura. A yanzu, da alama al'ummar kasar na son shiga tsakani na soji a kasashen waje.
Amma ka sa ni a matsayin mai shakka. Sai kawai lokacin da Amurkawa suka yarda da laifinsu na daular ne kawai tuba na gaske zai yiwu. Kuma tare da tuba kawai ne guje wa wasu lokuta na zunubi zai zama al'ada. A wasu kalmomi, kawai lokacin da Amirkawa suka kira mulkin mallaka da sunansa zai yi alƙawarin "ba za a sake ba" ya cancanci a ɗauka da muhimmanci.
A halin yanzu, wajibinmu na gama gari shine mu tuna. Sigawa na tsohon Troy, wanda ya dau shekaru goma, ya sa Homer ya rubuta Iliad. Ko da yake yakin Amurka a Afganistan ya ci gaba da kusan sau biyu, kar a yi tsammanin za a iya tunawa da shi a cikin wata waka ta almara. Duk da haka tare da irin wannan waƙar ba ta dace ba, ƙila wani nau'i na kiɗa na wani nau'i na iya zama madadin. Kira shi - kawai don ba da shawarar take - "Bukata don Ƙarnin Amirka." Abu daya yakamata ya fito fili a yanzu: tsawon yakin da aka yi a kasar, karnin Amurka ya numfasa na karshe.
Haƙƙin mallaka 2021 Andrew Bacevich
Andrew Bacevich, a TomDispatch yau da kullum, shine shugaban kungiyar Cibiyar Quincy don alhakin Statecraft. Littafinsa na baya-bayan nan shine Zamanin Ruɗi: Yadda Amurka Ta Yi Almubazzaranci Da Nasarar Yaƙin Cadi. Sabon littafinsa, Bayan Afocalypse: Matsayin Amurka a Duniya ya Canza, zai fito a watan Yuni.
Wannan labarin ya fara bayyana akan TomDispatch.com, gidan yanar gizon Cibiyar ta Nation, wanda ke ba da madaidaiciyar kwararar hanyoyin daban-daban, labarai, da ra'ayi daga Tom Engelhardt, editan dogon lokaci a cikin wallafe-wallafe, wanda ya kafa Cibiyar Daular Amurka, marubucin Ƙarshen Al'adun Nasara, kamar na labari, Kwanakin Ƙarshe na Bugawa. Sabon littafinsa shine A Nation Unmade By War (Littattafan Haymarket).
ZNetwork ana samun kuɗi ta hanyar karimcin masu karatun sa.
Bada Tallafi