ubuciko besizathu esenza ngibhale ngabezindaba yingoba nginentshisekelo kuwo wonke amasiko engqondo futhi ingxenye yawo okulula ukuyifunda abezindaba. Iphuma zonke izinsuku. Ungenza uphenyo oluhlelekile. Ungakwazi ukuqhathanisa inguqulo yayizolo nenguqulo yanamuhla. Kunobufakazi obuningi mayelana nokuthi yini edlalwayo nokungadlalwa kanye nendlela izinto ezakhiwe ngayo.
Umbono wami ukuthi abezindaba abahlukile kakhulu emfundweni yezemfundo noma emaphephandabeni ombono wongqondongqondoโkuneminye imigoqo eyengeziweโkodwa awehluke kakhulu. Bayahlanganyela, yingakho abantu behla benyuka kalula phakathi kwabo.
Ubheka abezindaba, nanoma yisiphi isikhungo ofuna ukusiqonda. Ubuza imibuzo mayelana nesakhiwo sangaphakathi sesikhungo. Ufuna ukwazi okuthile mayelana nesimo sabo emphakathini obanzi. Zihlobana kanjani nezinye izinhlelo zamandla negunya? Uma unenhlanhla, kukhona irekhodi langaphakathi elivela kubantu abaholayo ohlelweni lolwazi elikutshela ukuthi benzani (uhlobo lohlelo lwezimfundiso). Lokho akusho ama-handouts okuxhumana nomphakathi, kodwa lokho abakushoyo komunye nomunye ngalokho abaphezu kwakho. Maningi impela amadokhumenti athokozisayo.
Leyo yimithombo emithathu emikhulu yolwazi ngobunjalo bemithombo yezindaba. Ufuna ukuwatadisha ngendlela, ake sithi, usosayensi angatadisha i-molecule eyinkimbinkimbi noma okuthize. Ubheka isakhiwo bese wenza i-hypothesis ethile esekelwe esakhiweni sokuthi umkhiqizo wemidiya ungase ubukeke kanjani. Bese uphenya umkhiqizo wemidiya futhi ubone ukuthi uhambisana kahle kangakanani nemibono. Cishe wonke umsebenzi ekuhlaziyeni abezindaba yile ngxenye yokugcinaโukuzama ukufunda ngokucophelela ukuthi uyini umkhiqizo wemidiya nokuthi uyahambisana yini nokuqagela okusobala mayelana nesimo nokwakheka kwabezindaba.
Awu, utholani? Okokuqala uthola ukuthi kunemithombo yezindaba eyahlukene eyenza izinto ezihlukene, njengokuzijabulisa/Hollywood, imidlalo ewuchungechunge, njalo njalo, noma iningi lamaphephandaba akuleli (iningi lawo). Baqondisa izilaleli eziningi.
Kukhona omunye umkhakha wabezindaba, abezindaba abasezingeni eliphezulu, kwesinye isikhathi ababizwa nge-ajenda-setting media ngoba yibona abanezinsiza ezinkulu, babeka uhlaka lapho wonke umuntu esebenza khona. I New York Times kanye ne-CBS, lolo hlobo lwento. Izilaleli zabo ikakhulukazi abantu abanelungelo. Abantu abafunda incwadi New York Timesโabantu abacebile noma abayingxenye yalokho ngezinye izikhathi okubizwa ngokuthi isigaba sezombangazweโempeleni bahileleka ohlelweni lwezombangazwe ngendlela eqhubekayo. Ngokuyisisekelo bangabaphathi bohlobo oluthile noma olunye. Kungaba abaphathi bezombangazwe, abaphathi bebhizinisi (njengabaphathi bezinkampani noma lolo hlobo lwento), abaphathi bezifundo zobudokotela (njengosolwazi basenyuvesi), noma ezinye izintatheli ezibambe iqhaza ekuhleleni indlela abantu abacabanga ngayo nababheka ngayo izinto.
Abezindaba abasezingeni eliphezulu babeka uhlaka lapho abanye basebenza khona. Uma ubukele i-Associated Press, egaya njalo ukugeleza kwezindaba, phakathi nezinsuku zantambama kuyaphuma futhi kukhona into efika nsuku zonke ethi, โIsaziso kubahleli: Kusasa New York Times izoba nezindaba ezilandelayo ekhasini lokuqala.โ Iphuzu lalokho ukuthi, uma ungumhleli wephephandaba e-Dayton, e-Ohio futhi ungenazo izinsiza zokuthola ukuthi ziyini izindaba, noma ungafuni ukucabanga ngazo, lokhu kuyakutshela. zithini izindaba. Lezi izindaba zekhasi lekota ozozinikela kokuthile okungezona izindaba zasendaweni noma uphambukise izethameli zakho. Lezi yizindaba ozibeka lapho ngoba yilokho okushiwo yi New York Times usitshela ukuthi yini okufanele uyikhathalele kusasa. Uma ungumhleli e-Dayton, e-Ohio, kuzomele wenze kanjalo, ngoba awunakho okunye okuningi endleleni yezinsiza. Uma uphuma kulayini, uma ukhiqiza izindaba ezingathandwa abezindaba ezinkulu, uzozwa ngazo maduze nje. Eqinisweni, kwenzekani at I-San Jose Mercury News yisibonelo esimangalisayo salokhu. Ngakho-ke ziningi izindlela imidlalo yamandla engakubuyisela ngayo kulayini uma uphuma. Uma uzama ukuphula isikhunta, ngeke uhlale isikhathi eside. Lolo hlaka lusebenza kahle kakhulu, futhi kuyaqondakala ukuthi luwumfanekiso nje wezakhiwo zamandla ezisobala.
Imithombo yezindaba yangempela izama ukuphambukisa abantu. Mabenze okunye, kodwa ningasihluphi (thina singabantu abaphethe uhlelo). Bavumele bathole intshisekelo kwezemidlalo ezikhokhelwayo, isibonelo. Wonke umuntu makaxakwe ngezemidlalo ezikhokhelwayo noma amahlazo ocansi noma abantu nezinkinga zabo noma into enjalo. Noma yini, inqobo nje uma ingekho serious. Yiqiniso, izinto ezibucayi ezabantu abakhulu. "Thina" siyakunaka lokho.
Iyini imidiya ye-elite, okuyiyona ebeka i-ajenda? I New York Times kanye ne-CBS, isibonelo. Okokuqala, ziyizinkampani ezinkulu, ezinenzuzo kakhulu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iningi lazo lixhumene, noma liphethwe yizinkampani ezinkulu kakhulu, njengeGeneral Electric, Westinghouse, njalonjalo. Baphezulu kakhulu kwesakhiwo samandla somnotho ozimele, okuyisakhiwo esinonya kakhulu. Izinkampani ngokuyisisekelo zingamashiqela, ama-hierarchic, alawulwa phezulu. Uma ungakuthandi abakwenzayo uyaphuma. Imithombo yezindaba emikhulu iyingxenye yalolo hlelo.
Kuthiwani ngesizinda sabo sesikhungo? Nokho, lokho kucishe kufane. Lokho abasebenzisana nakho nabahlobene nakho ngezinye izikhungo zamandla amakhuluโuhulumeni, ezinye izinhlangano, noma amanyuvesi. Ngenxa yokuthi abezindaba bawuhlelo lwezimfundiso basebenzisana eduze namanyuvesi. Ake sithi uyintatheli ebhala indaba eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia noma e-Afrika, noma into efana naleyo. Kufanele uye enyuvesi enkulu futhi uthole uchwepheshe ozokutshela ukuthi ubhale ini, noma uye kwesinye sezisekelo, njenge-Brookings Institute noma i-American Enterprise Institute futhi uzokunikeza amagama ozowasho. Lezi zikhungo zangaphandle zifana kakhulu nabezindaba.
Isakhiwo Sesikhungo
Amanyuvesi, isibonelo, awazona izikhungo ezizimele. Kungase kube khona abantu abazimele abahlakazekile kuzo kodwa kunjalo nakwabezindaba. Futhi ngokuvamile kuyiqiniso ngezinkampani. Kuyiqiniso ezifundeni zobuFascist, ngaleyo ndaba. Kodwa isikhungo ngokwaso siyi-parasitic. Kuncike emithonjeni engaphandle yokwesekwa kanye naleyo mithombo yokwesekwa, njengengcebo yangasese, izinkampani ezinkulu ezinezibonelelo, kanye nohulumeni (oxhumene kakhulu namandla ezinkampani awukwazi ukuwahlukanisa), empeleni yilokho amanyuvesi akuwo. phakathi kwe. Abantu abangaphakathi kwabo, abangazivumelanisi naleso sakhiwo, abangasamukeli futhi basifake ngaphakathi (awukwazi ngempela ukusebenza ngaso ngaphandle kokuthi usifake ngaphakathi, futhi ukholwe); abantu abangakwenzi lokho kungenzeka ukuthi bakhishwe ukhula endleleni, kusukela enkulisa, kuze kufike phezulu. Kukhona zonke izinhlobo zokuhlunga ukuze kukhishwe abantu ababuhlungu entanyeni futhi bacabange ngokuzimela. Labo kini abadlule ekolishi bayazi ukuthi uhlelo lwezemfundo luhloselwe kakhulu ukuvumelana nokulalela okunomvuzo; uma ungakwenzi lokho, uyinkinga. Ngakho-ke, uhlobo lwethuluzi lokuhlunga eligcina selinabantu abaneqiniso ngempela (abangaqambi amanga) abafaka ngaphakathi uhlaka lwenkolelo nezimo zengqondo zesistimu yamandla ezungezile emphakathini. Izikhungo eziphakeme ezifana, njengokuthi, i-Harvard ne-Princeton kanye namakolishi amancane aphezulu, isibonelo, ahloselwe kakhulu ukuhlalisana. Uma udlula endaweni efana ne-Harvard, okuningi okuqhubekayo lapho ukufundisa ukuziphatha; indlela yokuziphatha njengelungu lamakilasi aphezulu, indlela yokucabanga imicabango efanele, njalonjalo.
Uma ufunde kaGeorge Orwell Ipulazi lezilwane, ayibhala maphakathi nawo-1940, kwakuwukubhuqa ngeSoviet Union, izwe elinobushiqela. Kwaba ukushaya okukhulu. Wonke umuntu wayeyithanda. Kuvele ukuthi wabhala isingeniso ku Ipulazi lezilwane eyayicindezelwe. Kwavela kuphela eminyakeni engama-30 kamuva. Umuntu wayeyitholile emaphepheni akhe. Isingeniso ku Ipulazi lezilwane yayimayelana โne-Literary Censorship in Englandโ futhi ekushoyo ukuthiโngokusobala le ncwadi ihlekisa ngeSoviet Unionโkanye nesakhiwo sayo sobushiqela. Kodwa, wathi, iNgilandi ayihlukile kangako. Asinayo i-KGB entanyeni yethu, kodwa umphumela uphuma ngendlela efanayo. Abantu abanemibono ezimele noma abacabanga uhlobo olungalungile lwemicabango bayanqanyulwa.
Ukhuluma kancane, imisho emibili kuphela, mayelana nesakhiwo sesikhungo. Uyabuza, kungani lokhu kwenzeka? Hhayi-ke, ngenxa yokuthi umshini wokunyathelisa ungowabantu abacebile abafuna izinto ezithile kuphela ukuze zifinyelele umphakathi. Okunye akushoyo ukuthi uma udlula ohlelweni lwemfundo ephakeme, uma udlula ezikoleni ezifanele e-Oxford, ufunda ukuthi kunezinto ezithile okungafanele ukuzisho futhi kunemicabango ethile engafanele ukuba nayo. Leyo indima yezokuhlalisana yezikhungo eziphakeme futhi uma ungavumelani nalokho, ngokuvamile uyaphuma. Leyo misho emibili kakhulu noma ngaphansi ixoxa indaba.
Uma ugxeka abezindaba bese uthi, bheka, nakhu okubhala u-Anthony Lewis noma omunye umuntu, bathukuthela kakhulu. Bathi, kahle impela, โakekho oke angitshele ukuthi ngibhale ini. Ngibhala noma yini engiyithandayo. Lonke leli bhizinisi elimayelana nengcindezi nezingqinamba liwumbudane ngoba angikaze ngibe ngaphansi kwengcindezi.โ Okuyiqiniso impela, kodwa iphuzu wukuthi bebengeke babe khona ngaphandle kokuthi bebevele bekhombisile ukuthi akekho okumele abatshele ukuthi babhale ini ngoba bazokhuluma okufanele. Ukube bebeqale edeskini likaMetro, noma okuthize, futhi baphishekela uhlobo olungalungile lwezindaba, bebengeke bafinyelele ezikhundleni lapho bengasho noma yini abayithandayo. Okufanayo kuyiqiniso ikakhulukazi kubuhlakani basenyuvesi emikhakheni eminingi yemibono. Sebedlule ohlelweni lokuhlalisana kwabantu.
Kulungile, ubheka ukwakheka kwalo lonke uhlelo. Ulindele ukuthi izindaba zibe njani? Hhayi-ke, kusobala kakhulu. Thatha i New York Times. Kuyinkampani futhi ithengisa umkhiqizo. Umkhiqizo izethameli. Abayenzi imali uma uthenga iphephandaba. Bayajabula ukuyibeka kuwebhu mahhala. Empeleni balahlekelwa yimali uma uthenga iphephandaba. Kodwa izethameli ziwumkhiqizo. Umkhiqizo ngabantu abanenhlanhla, njengabantu ababhala amaphephandaba, uyazi, abantu abathatha izinqumo eziqophelweni eliphezulu emphakathini. Kufanele uthengise umkhiqizo emakethe, futhi imakethe, vele, ingumkhangisi (okungukuthi, amanye amabhizinisi). Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ithelevishini noma amaphephandaba, noma yini, bathengisa izethameli. Izinkampani zithengisa izethameli kwezinye izinkampani. Endabeni yemithombo yezindaba esezingeni eliphezulu, ingamabhizinisi amakhulu.
Awu, ulindele ukuthi kwenzekeni? Yini ongayibikezela mayelana nemvelo yomkhiqizo wemidiya, uma kubhekwa leyo sethi yezimo? Kungaba yini i-null hypothesis, uhlobo lokuqagela ongeke ulwenze ungacabangi lutho. Umbono osobala uwukuthi umkhiqizo wemithombo yezindabaโlokho okubonakala, okungabonakali, indlela okutsheke ngayoโuyobonisa isithakazelo sabathengi nabathengisi, izinhlangano, nezimiso zikagesi ezikuzungezile. Uma lokho kungenzeki, kungaba uhlobo lwesimangaliso.
Kulungile, bese kuza umsebenzi onzima. Uyabuza, ingabe kusebenza ngendlela obikezela ngayo? Hhayi-ke, ningazahlulela nina. Kunezinto eziningi ezitholakala kulo mbono osobala, oye wabhekana novivinyo olunzima kunawo wonke umuntu angacabanga ngakho, futhi asasukuma kahle ngendlela emangalisayo. Cishe awutholi lutho kwisayensi yezenhlalo esekela ngokuqinile noma yisiphi isiphetho, okungesona isimanga esikhulu, ngoba bekungaba isimangaliso uma singamile uma kubhekwa indlela amandla asebenza ngayo.
Into elandelayo oyitholayo ukuthi sonke lesi sihloko asivumelekile ngokuphelele. Uma uya eKennedy School of Government noma eStanford, noma kwenye indawo, futhi ufunda ubuntatheli nezokuxhumana noma isayensi yezepolitiki yezemfundo, njalo njalo, le mibuzo ngeke ivele. Okungukuthi, inkolelo-mbono yokuthi noma ubani angahlangana engazi nakancane okungavunyelwe ukuvezwa, nobufakazi obuhambisana nakho abunakudingidwa. Awu, nawe ukubikezela lokho. Uma ubheka ukwakheka kwesikhungo, ungathi, yebo, impela, lokho kufanele kwenzeke ngoba kungani laba bafana kufanele bafune ukuvezwa? Kungani kufanele bavumele ukuhlaziywa okugxekayo kwalokho abaphezu kwabo ukuba kwenzeke? Impendulo iwukuthi, asikho isizathu sokuthi kungani kufanele bakuvumele lokho futhi, empeleni, abakwenzi. Futhi, akukhona ukucwaninga okunenjongo. Ukuthi nje awungeni kulezo zikhundla. Lokho kuhlanganisa kwesokunxele (okubizwa ngokuthi kwesokunxele), kanye kwesokudla. Ngaphandle uma uke waxoxisana ngokwanele futhi waqeqeshwa ukuze kube nemicabango ongenayo, ngoba ukube ubunayo, ngabe awukho. Ngakho-ke unohlelo lwesibili lokubikezela okungukuthi uhlelo lokuqala lokubikezela aluvunyelwe engxoxweni.
Imboni Yezobudlelwano Bomphakathi, Izazi Zomphakathi, Ukusakaza Kwezemfundo
Into yokugcina okumele ibhekwe wuhlaka lwezimfundiso lokhu kuqhubeka ngalo. Ngabe abantu abasemazingeni aphezulu ophikweni lolwazi, okuhlanganisa abezindaba nezokukhangisa nesayensi yezepolitiki yezemfundo nokunye, ingabe laba bantu banaso isithombe sokuthi kufanele kwenzekeni uma bebhalelana (hhayi uma benza izinkulumo zokuthweswa iziqu) ? Uma wenza inkulumo yokuqala, ingamagama amahle nokunye. Kodwa lapho bebhalelana, bathini abantu ngakho?
Kunemisinga emithathu okufanele uyibheke. Enye imboni yobudlelwano bomphakathi, uyazi, imboni eyinhloko ye-propaganda yebhizinisi. Bathini-ke abaholi bemboni ye-PR? Indawo yesibili okufanele ibhekwe yilokho okubizwa ngokuthi ongqondongqondo bomphakathi, ongqondongqondo abakhulu, abantu ababhala "ama-op-eds" nalolo hlobo lwento. Bathini? Abantu ababhala izincwadi ezihlaba umxhwele mayelana nesimo sentando yeningi nalolo hlobo lwebhizinisi. Into yesithathu oyibhekayo wukulandelana kwezemfundo, ikakhulukazi leyo ngxenye yesayensi yezepolitiki ephathelene nezokuxhumana kanye nolwazi kanye nalezo zinto ebeziyingxenye yesayensi yezepolitiki eminyakeni engama-70 noma engama-80 edlule.
Ngakho-ke, bheka lezo zinto ezintathu futhi ubone ukuthi zithini, futhi ubheke izibalo ezihamba phambili ezibhale ngalokhu. Bonke bathi (engxenye ngicaphuna), umphakathi jikelele โabantu bangaphandle abazi lutho nabaxakayo.โ Kumele sibavimbe bangangeni ezinkundleni zomphakathi ngoba bayiziphukuphuku futhi uma bengenela bazovele baxakeke. Umsebenzi wabo uwukuba โizibukeli,โ hhayi โabahlanganyeli.โ Bavunyelwe ukuvota njalo ngemva kwesikhashana, bakhethe oyedwa wethu abafana abahlakaniphile. Kodwa-ke kufanele bagoduke bayokwenza okunye njengokubuka ibhola noma ngabe kuyini. Kodwa โabangaphandle abangenalwazi nabaxakayoโ kufanele babe izibukeli bangabi abahlanganyeli. Kwavela kanjani konke lokhu?
IMpi Yezwe Yokuqala kwaba ngokokuqala ngqa ukuthi kube nenkulumo-ze yombuso ehlelekile kakhulu. AmaNgisi ayenoMnyango Wezolwazi, futhi ayewudinga ngempela ngoba kwakufanele afake i-US empini kungenjalo ayesenkingeni embi. UMnyango Wezolwazi wawuhloselwe kakhulu ukuthumela inkulumo-ze, okuhlanganisa namanga amakhulu mayelana nezenzo zonya zika-โHun,โ nokunye. Babeqondise ongqondongqondo baseMelika emcabangweni ozwakalayo wokuthi laba ngabantu abakhohliseka kakhulu futhi okungenzeka ukuthi bakholwe inkulumo-ze. Yibo futhi abasabalalisa ngohlelo lwabo. Ngakho-ke yayihloselwe kakhulu ongqondongqondo baseMelika futhi yasebenza kahle kakhulu. Imibhalo ye-Ministry of Information yaseBrithani (kukhululiwe okuningi) ikhombisa ukuthi umgomo wabo, njengoba bekubeka, kwakuwukulawula umcabango wezwe lonke, umgomo omncane, kodwa ikakhulukazi i-US Babengenandaba nokuthi abantu bacabangani kuyo. I-India. Lo Mnyango Wezolwazi ube yimpumelelo enkulu ekukhohliseni izihlakaniphi zaseMelika ezishisa izikhotha ukuthi zamukele amanga waseBrithani. Babeziqhenya kakhulu ngalokho. Ngokufanelekile, kwasindisa ukuphila kwabo. Babeyolahlekelwa yiMpi Yezwe yokuqala uma kungenjalo.
E-US, kwakukhona umlingani. UWoodrow Wilson wakhethwa ngo-1916 endaweni yokulwa nempi. I-US yayiyizwe eline-pacifist kakhulu. Bekulokhu kunjalo. Abantu abafuni ukuyolwa izimpi zakwamanye amazwe. Izwe laliphikisana kakhulu neMpi Yezwe yokuqala futhi uWilson, eqinisweni, wakhethwa esikhundleni sokulwa nempi. โUkuthula ngaphandle kokunqobaโ kwakuyisiqubulo. Kodwa wayehlose ukuya empini. Ngakho-ke umbuzo wawuwukuthi, wenza kanjani ukuthi abantu bama-pacifist babe izihlanya eziphikisana namaJalimane ukuze zifune ukubulala wonke amaJalimane? Lokho kudinga inkulumo-ze. Ngakho-ke bamisa i-ejensi yokuqala ye-propaganda yokuqala futhi enkulu kuphela emlandweni wase-US. IKomidi Lolwazi Lomphakathi lalibizwa ngokuthi (isihloko esihle se-Orwellian), elibizwa nangokuthi iKhomishini YaseCreel. Insizwa eyayigijima kwakuthiwa uCreel. Umsebenzi wale khomishana bekuwukusabalalisa umphakathi ukuthi ube nesiphithiphithi. Isebenze kahle ngendlela emangalisayo. Ezinyangeni ezimbalwa kwaba nesiphithiphithi sempi futhi i-US yakwazi ukuya empini.
Abantu abaningi bahlabeke umxhwele ngalezi mpumelelo. Umuntu oyedwa owahlabeka umxhwele, futhi lokhu kwaba nemiphumela ethile ngekusasa, kwakunguHitler. Uma ufunda Mein Kampf, uphetha, ngezizathu ezithile, ukuthi iJalimane yalahlekelwa iMpi Yezwe yokuqala ngoba yalahlekelwa impi ye-propagandaโฆ. Okubaluleke nakakhulu kithi, umphakathi wamabhizinisi waseMelika nawo wahlabeka umxhwele kakhulu ngomzamo wenkulumo-ze. Babenenkinga ngaleso sikhathi. Izwe lase liba nentando yeningi ngokusemthethweni. Abantu abaningi bakwazi ukuvota futhi into enjalo. Izwe laliceba futhi abantu abaningi babekwazi ukubamba iqhaza futhi inqwaba yabafuduki abasha babengena, njalonjalo.
Creel Commission, Edward Bernays, Walter Lippmann
Wenzani-ke? Kuzoba nzima ukuqhuba izinto njengeqembu elizimele. Ngakho-ke, ngokusobala, kufanele ulawule lokho abantu abakucabangayo. Le mboni enkulu yokuxhumana nomphakathi, okusungulwe yi-US futhi iyimboni embi kakhulu, yaphuma ngeMpi Yezwe yokuqala. Izibalo ezihamba phambili bekungabantu beKhomishini yaseCreel. Eqinisweni, oyinhloko, u-Edward Bernays, uphuma eKhomishini yaseCreel. Wayenencwadi eyaphuma khona lapho ebizwa Inkulumo-ze. Igama elithi โinkulumo-ze,โ empeleni lalingenazo izincazelo ezimbi ngalezo zinsuku. Kwakuphakathi neMpi Yezwe Yesibili lapho leli gama laqala ukuphikiswa ngoba lalixhumene neJalimane. Kodwa kulesi sikhathi, igama elithi propaganda lalisho ulwazi noma into enjalo. Ku Inkulumo-ze (cishe ngo-1925), uBernays uqala ngokuthi usebenzisa izifundo zeMpi Yezwe yokuqala. Uthi uhlelo lwenkulumo-ze lweMpi Yezwe Yokuqala kanye nale khomishana ayeyingxenye yayo kwabonisa, uthi, kungenzeka โukuqondisa ingqondo yomphakathi njalo njengoba ibutho lezempi lilawula imizimba yalo.โ Lezi zindlela ezintsha zokuhlela ingqondo, uthe, bekufanele zisetshenziswe yidlanzana elihlakaniphile ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi ama-slobs ahlala endleleni efanele. Singakwenza manje ngoba sinalawa masu amasha.
Lena imanuwali eyinhloko yemboni yezobudlelwane bomphakathi. UBernays ungumbungazi ovelele. WayenguRoosevelt/Kennedy oqotho. Uphinde wasungula umzamo wobudlelwano bomphakathi ngemuva kokuketula umbuso okusekelwa yi-US okwaketula uhulumeni wentando yeningi waseGuatemala. Ukuketulwa kwakhe umbuso okukhulu, okuyikhona okwamenza waduma ngasekupheleni kwawo-1920, kwakuwukwenza abesifazane babheme. Wathola udumo olukhulu ngalokho. Ngakho waba umholi wemboni, futhi incwadi yakhe kwaba manual.
Elinye ilungu leKhomishana yeCreel kwakunguWalter Lippmann, umuntu ohlonishwa kakhulu kubuntatheli baseMelika cishe ikhulunyaka (ngisho ubuntatheli obujulile baseMelika, izingcezu ezijulile zokucabanga). U-Lippmann uphinde wabhala lokho okubizwa ngokuthi izindatshana eziqhubekayo ngentando yeningi, ezithathwa njengentuthuko emuva ngeminyaka yawo-1920. Futhi, wayesebenzisa izifundo zomsebenzi wenkulumo-ze ngokucacile. Uthi kunobuciko obusha embusweni wentando yeningi obubizwa ngokuthi ukukhiqiza imvume. Inkulumo yakhe leyo. Mina no-Edward Herman sayiboleka ngencwadi yethu, kodwa ivela kuLippmann. Ngakho-ke, uthi, kukhona lobu buciko obusha endleleni yentando yeningi, "ukwenziwa kwemvume." Ngemvume yokukhiqiza, unganqoba iqiniso lokuthi ngokusemthethweni abantu abaningi banelungelo lokuvota. Singakwenza kungabi ndaba zalutho ngoba singakwazi ukwenza imvume futhi siqinisekise ukuthi ukukhetha kwabo nendlela abacabanga ngayo izohlelwa ngendlela yokuthi bayohlala benza lokho esibatshela khona, ngisho noma benendlela esemthethweni yokubamba iqhaza.
Isayensi yezenhlalo yezemfundo nesayensi yezepolitiki iphuma entweni efanayo. Umsunguli walokho okubizwa ngezokuxhumana kanye nesayensi yezepolitiki yezemfundo ngu-Harold Glasswell. Impumelelo yakhe enkulu kwakuyincwadi, a Isifundo Se-Propaganda. Uthi, ngokungananazi, izinto ebengizicaphuna ngaphambiliโlezo zinto ezimayelana nokungavumeli inkolelo-ze yentando yeningi, ezivela kusayensi yezombangazwe yezemfundo (Lasswell nabanye). Futhi, ethatha izifundo kokuhlangenwe nakho kwesikhathi sempi, amaqembu ezombusazwe athola izifundo ezifanayo, ikakhulukazi iqembu elilandela imithetho eNgilandi. Imibhalo yabo yokuqala, esanda kukhululwa, ibonisa ukuthi babuye baqaphela impumelelo yoMnyango Wezolwazi WaseBrithani. Babona ukuthi izwe liya ngokuya libuswa ngentando yeningi futhi lalingeke libe iklabhu yamadoda yangasese. Ngakho-ke isiphetho kwaba, njengoba bekubeka, ezombangazwe kufanele zibe impi yezombangazwe, zisebenzisa izindlela zenkulumo-ze ezasebenza kahle kakhulu phakathi neMpi Yezwe yokuqala ekulawuleni imicabango yabantu.
Lolo wuhlangothi lwezimfundiso futhi luhambisana nesakhiwo sesikhungo. Iqinisa izibikezelo mayelana nendlela into okufanele isebenze ngayo. Futhi izibikezelo ziqinisekiswa kahle. Kodwa lezi ziphetho, nazo, azivunyelwe ukuba kuxoxwe ngazo. Konke lokhu manje sekuyingxenye yezincwadi ezijwayelekile, kodwa ezabantu abangaphakathi kuphela. Uma uya ekolishi, awufundi okwakudala mayelana nendlela yokulawula imiqondo yabantu.
Njengoba nje ungafundi okwashiwo uJames Madison ngesikhathi somhlangano womthethosisekelo, mayelana nokuthi inhloso enkulu yohlelo olusha kufanele kube โukuvikela idlanzana labadla izambane likapondo ngokumelene neningi,โ futhi kufanele iklanywe ukuze ifezeke. leso siphetho. Lesi wukusungulwa kohlelo lomthethosisekelo, ngakho akekho olwenzayo. Awukwazi ngisho ukukuthola kumfundaze wezemfundo ngaphandle kokuthi ubukeke uqinile.
Leso cishe yisithombe, njengoba ngisibona, sendlela uhlelo oluyisikhungo, izimfundiso ezilele emva kwayo, indlela ephuma ngayo. Kukhona enye ingxenye eqondiswe kwabangaphandle "abangazi lutho". Lokho ikakhulukazi ukusebenzisa ukuphambukisa kolunye uhlobo noma olunye. Kusukela kulokho, ngicabanga, ungakwazi ukubikezela ukuthi yini ongalindela ukuyithola.
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Ilotshwe enkulumweni eyayise-Z Media Institute, ngo-2002.
Izingcaphuno ezivela Imvume Yokukhiqiza
NguNoam Chomsky no-Edward S. Herman
Ekuphikiseni izinzuzo zemakethe yamahhala njengendlela yokulawula imibono ephikisayo maphakathi nekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalolunye, ushansela we-Liberal we-exchequer yaseBrithani, uSir George Lewis, waphawula ukuthi imakethe yayizokhuthaza lawo maphepha "ukujabulela okuthandwa ukukhangisa. emphakathini.โ Ukukhangisa, empeleni, kusebenze njengendlela enamandla yokwenza buthaka imithombo yezindaba yabasebenzi. U-Curran no-Seaton banikeza ukukhula kokukhangisa isimo esiqathaniswa nokwenyuka kwezindleko zempahla njengesizathu esivumela imakethe ukuthi ifeze lokho izintela zombuso nokuhlukumeza okuhlulekile ukukwenza, iphawula ukuthi laba โbakhangisi bathole igunya lelayisense le-de facto kusukela, ngaphandle kwabo. ukwesekwa, amaphephandaba ayeka ukusebenza kahle kwezomnotho.โ
Ilayisensi Yokukhangisa Yokwenza Ibhizinisi
Ngaphambi kokuba ukukhangisa kugqame, inani lephephandaba kwakudingeka libhekane nezindleko zokwenza ibhizinisi. Ngokukhula kokukhangisa, amaphepha ahehe izikhangiso akwazi ukukhokhela inani lekhophi elingaphansi kwezindleko zokukhiqiza. Lokhu kubeka amaphepha okuntula ukukhangisa kusimo esibucayi esibucayi: amanani awo avame ukuba phezulu, anciphise ukuthengiswa, futhi azoba nensalela encane yokutshala ekuthuthukiseni ukukhokhelwa kwephepha (izici, ifomethi ekhangayo, ukukhushulwa, njll.). Ngenxa yalesi sizathu, uhlelo olusekelwe kwezokukhangisa luzovame ukuxosha izinkampani zemidiya nezinhlobo ezincike emalini engenayo evela ekuthengisweni kuphela. Ngokukhangisa, imakethe yamahhala ayikhiqizi isistimu engathathi hlangothi lapho ukukhetha komthengi kokugcina kunquma khona. Izinketho zabakhangisi zinethonya ekuchumeni nasekuphileni kwabezindaba. Imithombo yezindaba esekelwe ezikhangisweni ithola uxhaso lokukhangisa olubanika umkhawulo wekhwalithi yentengo yokuthengisa, okubavumela ukuthi bangene futhi benze buthaka izimbangi zabo ezingenazo izikhangiso (noma abangenazo izikhangiso). Ngisho noma imidiya esekelwe ezikhangisweni ibhekelela izithameli ezicebile ("ezisezingeni eliphezulu"), zicosha kalula ingxenye enkulu yezethameli "ezisezingeni eliphansi", futhi izimbangi zabo zilahlekelwa isabelo semakethe futhi ekugcineni zikhishwe noma zikhishwe inyumbazane.
Eqinisweni, ukukhangisa kubambe iqhaza elinamandla ekwandiseni ukugxila ngisho naphakathi kwezimbangi ezigxila ngamandla alinganayo ekufuneni imali engenayo yokukhangisa. Isabelo semakethe kanye nomkhawulo wokukhangisa engxenyeni yephepha elilodwa noma isiteshi sikamabonakude kuzosinikeza imali eyengeziwe ukuze siqhudelane ngokuphumelelayoโsikhuthaze ngobudlova, sithenge izici nezinhlelo ezingadayiswaโfuthi imbangi encishwe amathuba kufanele yengeze izindleko engakwazi ukuzikhokhela. inqubo enqwabelanayo yokuncipha kwesabelo semakethe (kanye nemali engenayo). Ngokuvamile ukushwabana kuyabulala, futhi kuyasiza ekuchazeni ukufa kwamaphepha nomagazini abaningi abasakazwa kakhulu kanye nokuncipha kwenani lamaphephandaba.
Kusukela ngesikhathi kwethulwa ukukhangisa kwabezindaba, ngakho-ke, isigaba sabasebenzi kanye namaphepha aqinile abesesimweni esibucayi kakhulu. Abafundi bazo bathambekele ekubeni abantu abaphansi, okuyisici esihlale sithinta intshisekelo yabakhangisi. Esinye isikhulu sezokukhangisa sathi ngo-1856 abanye omagazini bayizimoto ezimpofu ngenxa yokuthi โabafundi babo abathengi, futhi noma iyiphi imali ephonswa kubo ilahlwa kakhulu.โ Ukunyakaza kwabantu abaningi ngaphandle kokusekelwa kwabezindaba okukhulu, futhi okungaphansi kwenzondo enkulu yabezindaba, ikhubazeka kakhulu, futhi izabalaza ngokumelene nobunzima obukhulu.
Umbono wokuthi ukushisekela izethameli eziningi kwenza imidiya enkulu โibe yentando yeningiโ ihlushwa ubuthakathaka bokuqala bokuthi i-analogue yayo yezombangazwe iwuhlelo lokuvota olulinganiswa ngemali engenayo. Amandla abakhangisi ngaphezu kwezinhlelo zethelevishini avela eqinisweni elilula lokuthi bathenga futhi bakhokhele izinhleloโโbangabaxhasiโ abanikeza uxhaso lwabezindaba.
Kuhleloxhumano lwethelevishini, ukuzuza noma ukulahlekelwa kwezithameli ngephesenti elilodwa ezilinganisweni ze-Nielsen kuhumusha ushintsho emalini engenayo yokukhangisa esuka ku-$800 kuya ku-$100 wezigidi ngonyaka, ngokuhluka okuthile kuye ngezilinganiso โzekhwalithiโ yezilaleli.
Ukuthola izindaba zeMisa-Media
Imithombo yezindaba idonseleka ebudlelwaneni be-symbiotic nemithombo enamandla yolwazi ngesidingo sezomnotho kanye nokuvumelana kwentshisekelo. Abezindaba badinga ukugeleza okuqhubekayo, okuthembekile kwezindaba ezingavuthiwe. Banezidingo zezindaba zansuku zonke kanye neshejuli yezindaba ezibalulekile okufanele bahlangabezane nazoโฆ. I-White House, iPentagon, kanye noMnyango Wezwe, eWashington, DC, yizindawo ezimaphakathi zomsebenzi wezindaba onjalo. Ubukhulu bokusebenza kolwazi olusesidlangalaleni kukahulumeni omkhulu kanye nezikhulu zezinkampani ezakha imithombo eyinhloko yezindaba bukhulu futhi buqinisekisa ukufinyelela okukhethekile kwabezindaba. I-Pentagon, isibonelo, insizakalo yolwazi lomphakathi ebandakanya izinkulungwane eziningi zabasebenzi, echitha amakhulu ezigidi zamaRandi minyaka yonke futhi ingafinyeleli nje kuphela izinsiza zolwazi lomphakathi zanoma yimuphi umuntu noma iqembu eliphikisayo kodwa isamba samaqembu anjalo. Ngo-1979 no-1980, ngesikhathi sokungenelela okufushane kokuvuleleka okuhlobene (selokhu kwavalwa), i-US Air Force yembula ukuthi ukufinyelela kwayo kolwazi lomphakathi kufaka lokhu okulandelayo (qaphela ukuthi leli yibutho lomoya nje):
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- Amaphephandaba angu-140, amakhophi angu-600,000 ngesonto
- Umagazini we-Airman, ezisakazwa nyanga zonke ezingu-125,000 XNUMX
- Imisakazo engama-34 kanye neziteshi ze-TV eziyi-17, ikakhulukazi phesheya kwezilwandle
- 45,000 indlunkulu kanye neyunithi yezindaba ezikhishwe
- 615,000 izindaba zedolobha lasekhaya
- 6,600 izingxoxo nabezindaba
- Izingqungquthela zezindaba ezingu-3,200
- Izindiza ezingama-500 zokuqondisa imidiya
- Imihlangano engama-50 namabhodi okuhlela
- 11,000 izinkulumo
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Isiphetho
Lolu hlelo alunawo wonke amandla, nokho. Uhulumeni kanye nokubusa okuphakeme kwabezindaba akuphumelelanga ukunqoba isifo saseVietnam kanye nobutha bomphakathi ukuze kuqondiswe ukubandakanyeka kwe-US ekucekeleni phansi nasekuketulweni kohulumeni bangaphandle. Umzamo omkhulu wenkathi ka-Reagan wokungabi nalwazi kanye nomzamo wenkulumo-ze, obonisa kakhulu ukuvumelana kwezikhulu, uphumelele ezinhlosweni zawo ezinkulu zokugqugquzela ukwesekwa kwezifundazwe zamaphekula zase-US ("intando yeningi elisafufusa"), ngenkathi kukhishwa ama-Sandinistas futhi isusa kuCongress kanye ne abezindaba eziningi zonke izingxabano ezingaphezu kwenkulumo-mpikiswano mayelana nendlela okufanele isetshenziswe ukubuyisela i-Nicaragua "kumodi ye-America Emaphakathi" futhi "iqukethe" "ubudlova" bayo ekuzameni ukuzivikela ekuhlaselweni okubulalayo nokulimazayo kwe-US kuzo zonke izinhlangothi. Kepha yehlulekile ukuzuza ukwesekwa ngumphakathi ngisho nangempi yamasosha e-proxy ngokumelene neNicaragua, futhi njengoba izindleko ze-US zikhuphuka, kanye nempi ye-proxy ehambisana ne-embargo nezinye i-pressu.I-res iphumelele ukubuyisela "imodi yaseMelika Ephakathi" yosizi nokuhlupheka eNicaragua futhi yahoxisa izinguquko eziphumelele kakhulu kanye namathemba okuthuthukiswa kweminyaka yokuqala ngemva kokugumbuqelwa komlingani waseWashington u-Somoza, umbono we-elite nawo washintsha kakhulu, eqinisweni, ekuphendukeni. kokunye, izindlela ezingabizi kakhulu zokuthola izinjongo ezihlanganyelwe. Ukwehluleka okuyingxenye kwe umzamo wenkulumo-ze wombuso ohlelwe kahle kakhulu nobanzi, kanye nokukhuphuka kanyekanye kwenhlangano ephikisayo eqinile enokufinyelela okulinganiselwe kwemithombo yezindaba, kwakubalulekile ekwenzeni ukuhlasela kwe-US eNicaragua kungenzeki futhi kuqhubekisele phambili umbuso ngomshoshaphansi, emisebenzini eyimfihlo engekho emthethweni. ingafihlwa kangcono kubantu basekhayaโeqinisweni, ukuhambisana okukhulu nabezindaba.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, nakuba kube nezinguquko ezibalulekile zesakhiwo ezibeka endaweni eyodwa futhi ziqinisa uhlelo lwenkulumo-ze, kube khona amandla aphikisanayo emsebenzini anamandla okufinyelela okubanzi. Ukukhuphuka kwezokuxhumana ngekhebula nesethelayithi, ngenkathi kuthathwe kuqala futhi kubuswa izithakazelo zezentengiselwano, kwenzรฉ buthaka amandla e-oligopoly yenethiwekhi futhi kugcine amandla okufinyelela okuthuthukisiwe kweqembu lendawo. Sekuvele kuneziteshi ezingaba ngu-3,000 ezisetshenziswa umphakathi e-United States, nakuba zonke kufanele zizabalazele ukuthola uxhaso. Izinhlangano eziphansi kanye nezinhlangano ezihlomula umphakathi kumele zibone futhi zizame ukuzitholela la mathuba emidiya (kanye nawenhlangano).
Ukuhleleka nokuzifundisa kwamaqembu emphakathini nasezindaweni zokusebenza, kanye nokuxhumana kwawo kanye nobushoshovu, kuyaqhubeka nokuba yizici ezibalulekile ezinyathelweni ezibheke embusweni wentando yeningi empilweni yethu yomphakathi kanye nanoma yiluphi ushintsho olunenjongo emphakathini. Uma intuthuko enjalo iphumelela kuphela lapho singathemba khona ukubona abezindaba bekhululekile futhi bezimele.
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Mi-nufacturing Imvume: Umnotho Wezepolitiki Wezindaba Eziningi ngu-Edward S. Herman kanye noNoam Chomsky yashicilelwa ngo-1988 yi-Pantheon Books.