Tizincwadi zokuhlukumeza ezikhishwe yi-White House ngo-Ephreli zavusa ukushaqeka, intukuthelo, nokumangala. Ukushaqeka nokucasuka kuyaqondakalaโikakhulukazi ubufakazi obuseKomidini Lethimba Lezempi Lezempi mayelana neCheney-Rumsfeld yokufisa ukuthola izixhumanisi phakathi kwe-Iraq ne-al-Qaeda, izixhumanisi kamuva ezaqanjwa njengezizathu zokuhlasela, amaqiniso angabalulekile. Owayengudokotela wezengqondo wamasosha uMajor Charles Burney ufakaze ngokuthi โisikhathi esiningi besigxile ekuzameni ukuhlanganisa i-Al Qaeda ne-Iraq. Lapho abantu bekhungatheka ngokwengeziwe bengakwazi ukusungula lokhu kuxhumana...kwaba nengcindezi eyengeziwe yokuba kuthathwe izinyathelo ezingase ziveze imiphumela esheshayoโโokungukuthi, ukuhlukunyezwa. Iphephandaba iMcClatchy libike ukuthi lowo owayeyisikhulu sezobunhloli owayelwazi udaba lokuphenywa wanezela ukuthi โAbaphathi bakaBush bafaka ingcindezi engapheli kubaphenyi ukuthi basebenzise izindlela ezinonya eziboshweni ngokwengxenye ukuthola ubufakazi bokubambisana phakathi kwe-al Qaida kanye nombuso kamashiqela wase-Iraq ongasekho uSaddam Hussein. โฆ. [UCheney noRumsfeld] bafuna ukuthi abaphenyi bathole ubufakazi bokusebenzisana kwe-al Qaida-Iraqโฆ. โBekulokhu kucindezelwa abezobunhloli nabaphenyayo ukuthi benze noma yini ukuze bakhiphe lolo lwazi kwababoshiwe, ikakhulukazi lezi ezimbalwa ezinenani eliphezulu ebesinazo, kwathi uma abantu belokhu beqhamuka bengenalutho, batshelwa ngabakwaCheney. abantu bakaRumsfeld ukuthi baphushe kakhulu'. Lezi kwakuyizambulo ezibaluleke kakhulu, ezingabikwanga kangako.
Nakuba ubufakazi obunjalo mayelana nonya nenkohliso yabaPhathi kufanele bushaqise ngempela, ukumangala kwesithombe esivamile esiveziwe kuyamangaza nokho. Isizathu esincane ukuthi ngisho ngaphandle kophenyo, kwakunengqondo ukucabanga ukuthi iGuantanamo yayiyigumbi lokuhlushwa. Kungani enye ithumela iziboshwa lapho zingeke zifinyeleleke khona ngumthetho-okwenzeka, indawo esetshenziswa iWashington ngokwephula isivumelwano esaphoqelelwa eCuba lapho kudutshulwa khona? Kusolwa izizathu zokuphepha, kodwa kunzima ukuzithathela phezulu. Okwakulindelwe okufanayo kumajele ayimfihlo nokukhishwa kwezincwadi, futhi kwagcwaliseka.
Isizathu esibanzi ukuthi ukuhlukunyezwa bekulokhu kuwumkhuba ojwayelekile kusukela ezinsukwini zokuqala zokunqotshwa kwendawo kazwelonke, futhi emva kwalokho, njengemizamo yombuso "yombuso wezinsana" - njengoba uGeorge Washington abiza iRiphabhulikhi entsha - yanabela ePhilippines, Haiti, nakwezinye izindawo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlukunyezwa kuwubugebengu obuncane emacaleni amaningi obudlova, ubushokobezi, ukuketula umbuso, kanye nokuklinywa komnotho okuye kwafiphaza umlando wase-US, njengoba kwenzeka kwamanye amazwe amakhulu. Ngakho-ke, kuyamangaza ukubona ukusabela ngisho nangabanye babagxeki abangagwegwesi nabangagwegwesi bobubi bukaBush: isibonelo, ukuthi sasikade โsiyisizwe esinezimiso zokuziphathaโ futhi asikaze ngaphambi kukaBush โabaholi bethu bakhaphele ngokuphelele yonke into. isizwe sethu simeleโ (uPaul Krugman). Ukusho okuncane, lokho kubuka okuvamile kubonisa inguqulo yomlando etshekile.
Kwesinye isikhathi ukungqubuzana phakathi kokuthi โlokho esikumelelayoโ kanye โnesikwenzayoโ kuye kwaxazululwa ngokuqondile. Esinye isazi esivelele esawenza lo msebenzi nguHans Morgenthau, umsunguli wethiyori yobudlelwane obungokoqobo bamazwe ngamazwe. Ocwaningweni lwakudala olubhalwe ngokukhazimula kwe-Camelot, uMorgenthau uthuthukise umbono ojwayelekile wokuthi i-US โinenhloso eyeqileโ: ukumisa ukuthula nenkululeko ekhaya futhi ngempela yonke indawo, njengoba โinkundla lapho i-United States kufanele ivikele futhi ikhuthaze injongo isibe emhlabeni wonke.โ Kodwa njengesazi esihlakaniphile, waqaphela ukuthi umlando ogciniwe awuhambisani kakhulu โnenhloso eyedluleleโ yaseMelika.
Akufanele, nokho, sikhohliswe yilokho kushayisana, uMorgenthau uyeluleka: emazwini akhe, akufanele โsiphambanise ukuxhashazwa kweqiniso ngokwalo.โ Okungokoqobo โinjongo yesizweโ engafezekanga eyembulwa โubufakazi bomlando njengoba izingqondo zethu zikubonisa.โ Okwenzekile empeleni kumane nje โkuwukuxhashazwa kweqiniso.โ Ukuphambanisa ukusetshenziswa kabi kweqiniso nokungokoqobo kufana โnephutha lokungakholelwa ebukhoneni bukaNkulunkulu, obuphika ubuqiniso benkolo ngezizathu ezifanayo.โ Isilinganiso esifanele.
Ukukhishwa kwamamemo okuhlushwa kwaholela abanye ukuba babone inkinga. Kwe New York Times, umlobeli wengosi uRoger Cohen wabukeza incwadi yentatheli yaseBrithani uGeoffrey Hodgson, ephetha ngokuthi i-US โiyizwe elilodwa nje elikhulu, kodwa elingaphelele, phakathi kwamanye.โ UCohen uyavuma ukuthi ubufakazi busekela isahlulelo sikaHodgson, kodwa usithatha njengephutha elikhulu. Isizathu ukwehluleka kukaHodgson ukuqonda ukuthi โiMelika yazalwa njengombono, ngakho-ke kufanele iwuqhubekisele phambili lowo mbono.โ Umbono waseMelika wembulwa ngokuzalwa kweMelika โnjengedolobha elisegqumeni,โ โumbono okhuthazayoโ ohlala โujule emqondweni waseMelikaโ; "nangomoya ohlukile wokuzicabangela komuntu ngamunye waseMelika kanye nebhizinisi" oboniswe ekwandeni kwaseNtshonalanga. Iphutha likaHodgson ukuthi uqhubeka โnokuhlanekezelwa kombono waseMelika emashumini eminyaka amuva nje,โ โukuhlukunyezwa kweqinisoโ eminyakeni yamuva nje.
Ifa Lobugebengu Obuyingozi
Lbese siphendukela โkungokoqobo uqoboโ: โumbonoโ waseMelika kusukela ezinsukwini zawo zokuqala. Inkulumo ekhuthazayo ethi โumuzi osegqumeniโ yaqanjwa uJohn Winthrop ngo-1630, eboleka emaVangelini, futhi echaza ikusasa elikhazimulayo lesizwe esisha โesimiswe uNkulunkulu.โ Ngonyaka owodwa ngaphambili iMassachusetts Bay Colony yakhe yasungula iGreat Seal yayo. Iveza umNdiya ephethe umqulu ophuma emlonyeni wakhe. Kuyo kunamagama athi โWoza lapha uzosisiza.โ Ngakho abakhi bamakoloni baseBrithani babengabashisekeli bobuntu abanomusa, besabela ekunxuseni kwabomdabu โabalusiziโ ukuba bakhululwe esiphethweni sabo esibuhlungu sobuqaba.
Uphawu Olukhulu luwumfanekiso ocacile "womqondo weMelika," kusukela ekuzalweni kwayo. Kufanele ikhishwe ekujuleni kwe-psyche futhi iboniswe ezindongeni zekilasi ngalinye. Kufanele kuvele ngemuva kwakho konke ukukhulekelwa kukaKim Il-Sung kombulali ononya nomhlukumezi uRonald Reagan, owazichaza ngenjabulo njengomholi โwedolobha elikhazimulayo egqumeniโ ngenkathi ehlela ubugebengu obunyantisayo futhi eshiya idolobha. ifa elesabekayo.
Lesi simemezelo sangaphambi kwesikhathi โsokungenelela kosizo,โ ukuze kusetshenziswe isisho esisemfashinini yamanje, sivele sifana kakhulu nabasilandelayo, amaqiniso ayengafihlekile kuma-ejenti. UNobhala Wezempi wokuqala, uJenene Henry Knox, wachaza โukuqothulwa ngokuphelele kwawo wonke amaNdiya ezingxenyeni eziningi zeNyunyanaโ ngendlela โelimaza kakhulu abomdabu baseNdiya kunokuziphatha kwabanqobi baseMexico nasePeru.โ Sekudlule isikhathi eside amagalelo akhe abalulekile kule nqubo esedlulile, uJohn Quincy Adams wadumala isiphetho โsalolo hlanga olubi lwendabuko yaseMelika, esiluqeda ngonya olungenasihawu nolubi ... phakathi kwezono ezimbi zalesi sizwe, engikholelwa ukuthi Ngolunye usuku uNkulunkulu uyokuletha ekwahlulelweni.โ Unya olungenasihawu nolunya lwaqhubeka kwaze kwaba yilapho โkunqotshwa iNtshonalanga.โ Esikhundleni sokwahlulela kukaNkulunkulu, izono ezimbi ziletha udumo kuphela ngokugcwaliseka โkombonoโ waseMelika (Reginald Horsman, Ukwandiswa kanye Nenqubomgomo YaseMelika YamaNdiya, Isifunda saseMichigan, ngo-1967; UWilliam Earl Weeks, UJohn Quincy Adams kanye ne-American Global Empire, Kentucky, 1992).
Ngokuqinisekile, kwakukhona inguqulo elula kakhulu nevamile, eyashiwo ngokwesibonelo iJaji LeNkantolo Ephakeme uJoseph Story, owacabanga ukuthi โukuhlakanipha kwe-Providenceโ kwabangela ukuba abantu bomdabu banyamalale โnjengamaqabunga abunile ekwindlaโ nakuba abakhi bamakoloni. โwayehlale ebahloniphaโ (bheka uNicholas Guyatt, Providence and Invention of the United States, 1607-1876, Cambridge 2007).
Ukunqotshwa kanye nokuzinza kweNtshonalanga kwabonisa ngempela ubuntu kanye nebhizinisi. Amabhizinisi ama-Settler-colonilist, uhlobo olunonya lwe-imperialism, avame ukwenza. Umphumela wanconywa iSenator ehlonishwayo nenethonya u-Henry Cabot Lodge ngo-1898. Icela ukungenelela eCuba, i-Lodge yancoma irekhodi lethu โlokunqoba, ukwenziwa kwamakoloni, nokwanda kwezindawo okungenakulinganiswa yinoma yibaphi abantu ekhulwini le-19โ futhi yanxusa ukuthi โ hhayi ukuvinjwa manje,โ njengoba abaseCuba nabo besincenga ukuthi size sizobasiza (okucashunwe nguLars Schoultz, Leyo IRiphabhulikhi encane yase-Infernal yaseCuban). Isicelo sabo saphendulwa. I-US yathumela amasosha, ngaleyo ndlela yavimbela ukukhululwa kweCuba eSpain futhi iguqule ikoloni ebonakalayo, njengoba yahlala kwaze kwaba ngu-1959.
โUmbono waseMelikaโ uboniswa ngokuqhubekayo ngomkhankaso ophawulekayo, owaqalwa cishe kanye nje, wokubuyisela iCuba endaweni yayo efanele: impi yezomnotho ngenjongo ebekwe ngokucacile yokujezisa abantu ukuze bagumbuqele uhulumeni ongalaleli; ukuhlasela; ukuzinikela kwabazalwane bakaKennedy ukuletha โizinto ezesabisayo zomhlabaโ eCuba (umusho wesazi-mlando u-Arthur Schlesinger, emlandweni wakhe kaRobert Kennedy, owathatha lo msebenzi njengenye yezinto eziza kuqala kuye); kanye nobunye ubugebengu obuqhubekayo kuze kube manje, ngokungahambisani nombono womhlaba ovumelana ngazwi linye.
Kufanele kube nabagxeki abaqinisekile, abathi imizamo yethu yokuletha intando yeningi eCuba yehlulekile, ngakho kufanele siphendukele kwezinye izindlela โzokuza sizobasiza.โ Bazi kanjani laba abagxekayo ukuthi inhloso bekuwukuletha intando yeningi? Bukhona ubufakazi: abaholi bethu bayakumemezela. Kukhona nobufakazi obuphikisayo: irekhodi langaphakathi elehlisiwe, kodwa lokho kungachithwa โnjengokuhlukumeza umlandoโ nje.
I-imperialism yaseMelika ivame ukulandelelwa ekuthathweni kweCuba, iPuerto Rico, neHawaii ngo-1898. Kodwa lokho kuwukuthobela lokho isazi-mlando se-imperialism uBernard Porter esikubiza ngokuthi โiphutha lamanzi anosawoti,โ umqondo wokuthi ukunqoba kumane kuba umbuso wombuso lapho uwela usawoti. amanzi. Ngakho-ke, ukube iMississippi yayifana noLwandle Lwase-Ireland, ukwanda kwaseNtshonalanga bekuyoba i-imperialism. Ukusuka eWashington kuya e-Lodge, labo ababenebhizinisi babenokuqonda okucacile.
Ngemuva kokuphumelela "kokungenelela kosizo" eCuba ngo-1898, isinyathelo esilandelayo emsebenzini owajutshwa yi-Providence kwaba ukuletha "izibusiso zenkululeko nempucuko kubo bonke abantu abahlengiwe" basePhilippines (ngamazwi enkundla ye-Lodge's Republican Party)โokungenani labo abasinda ekubulaweni kwabantu kanye nokuhlukunyezwa okukhulu nezinye izenzo zonya ezazihambisana nakho. Le miphefumulo enenhlanhla ishiywe ezenzweni zezikhulu zasePhilippine ezisungulwe yi-US ngaphakathi kwemodeli esanda kuklanywa yokubuswa kwamakholoni, ithembele emabuthweni ezokuphepha aqeqeshwe futhi ahlonyiselwe izindlela eziyinkimbinkimbi zokugada, ukusabisa, kanye nodlame (Alfred McCoy, Umbuso Wamaphoyisa WaseMelika, 2009). Amamodeli afanayo asetshenziswa kwezinye izindawo eziningi lapho i-US yabeka khona ama-National Guards anonya namanye amabutho amakhasimende, ngemiphumela okufanele yaziwe kahle.
Eminyakeni engu-60 edlule, izisulu emhlabeni wonke ziye zabekezelela "i-paradigm yokuhlushwa" ye-CIA, eyakhiwe ngezindleko ezifinyelela ku-$ 1 billion ngonyaka, ngokusho kwesazi-mlando u-Alfred McCoy, obonisa ukuthi lezi zindlela zavela ngokushintsha okuncane e-Abu Ghraib. Ayikho i-hyperbole lapho u-Jennifer Harbury enikeza ukucwaninga kwakhe okujulile kwerekhodi lokuhlushwa lase-US Iqiniso, Ukuhlukunyezwa, kanye ne-American Way. Kuyadukisa kakhulu, ukusho okungenani, lapho abaphenyi beqembu lezigelekeqe likaBush ezangena epayipini lendle bekhala ngokuthi โekulweni impi yokulwa nobushokobezi, iMelika ilahlekelwe indlela yayoโ (McCoy, Umbuzo Wokuhlushwa, Metropolitan, 2006; noMcCoy, โI-US Inomlando Wokusebenzisa Ukuhlukumeza,โ http://hnn.us/articles/32497.html; Jane Mayer, "Impi Yomphefumulo Wezwe," New York Review of Books, Agasti 14, 2008).
Ukuhlukumeza Okusunguliwe nama-Paradigms
Bush-Cheney-Rumsfeld et al. yethule izinto ezintsha ezibalulekile. Imvamisa, ukuhlukunyezwa kwenzelwe izinkampani ezingaphansi, akwenziwa abantu baseMelika ngqo emakamelweni abo okuhlushwa amiswe uhulumeni. U-Alain Nairn, owenze olunye uphenyo olwembula kakhulu nolwesibindi ngokuhlukumeza, uveza ukuthi โLokho u-Obama [ukuvinjelwa kokuhlushwa] akuqeda ngokusobala ukuthi iphesenti elincane lokuhlukunyezwa manje okwenziwa abantu baseMelika kuyilapho egcina ingxenye enkulu yohlelo lokuhlukunyezwa. ukuhlukunyezwa, okwenziwa abantu bakwamanye amazwe, ngaphansi kokusekelwa kwe-US. U-Obama angayeka ukweseka amabutho angaphandle ahlukumezayo, kodwa ukhethe ukungakwenzi lokho.โ U-Obama akazange awuvale umkhuba wokuhlukunyezwa, kusho uNairn, kodwa โwamane wakubeka kabusha,โ ekubuyisela esimweni esivamile, indaba yokunganaki kwabahlukunyeziwe. Kusukela eVietnam, โi-US ngokuyinhloko ibone ukuhlukunyezwa kwayo kwenzelwa yona ngommeleliโikhokha, ihlomisa, iqeqesha, futhi iqondisa abantu bangaphandle ikwenza, kodwa ngokuvamile iqikelela ukuthi isusa abantu baseMelika okungenani isinyathelo esisodwa sobuhlakani.โ Ukuvinjelwa kuka-Obama โakuvimbeli nokuhlushwa ngokuqondile abantu baseMelika ngaphandle kwezindawo 'zokulwa ngezikhali,' okuyilapho kwenzeka khona ukuhlukunyezwa okuningi .... [H] kuwukubuyela esimweni se-status quo ante, umbuso wokuhlukunyezwa kwe-Ford ngoClinton, okuthi, unyaka nonyaka, uvame ukukhiqiza usizi oluningi oluxhaswe yi-US kunalolo olwakhiqizwa ngeminyaka kaBush/Cheneyโ (Izindaba kanye namazwana, Januwari 24, 2009, www.allannairn.com).
Ngezinye izikhathi ukuhlanganyela ekuhlukumezeni akuqondile kakhulu. Ocwaningweni lwango-1980, isazi saseLatin America u-Lars Schoultz wathola ukuthi usizo lwase-US โluvame ukugeleza ngendlela engafanele kohulumeni baseLatin America abahlukumeza izakhamuzi zaboโฆkubahlukumezi abakhulu bamalungelo abantu ayisisekelo.โ Lokho kufaka phakathi usizo lwezempi, oluzimele ngaphandle kwesidingo, futhi luqhubeka neminyaka yeCarter. Ucwaningo olubanzi olwenziwa ngu-Edward Herman luthole ukuhlobana okufanayo futhi lwaphakamisa nencazelo. Akumangalisi ukuthi usizo lwase-US lujwayele ukuhlobana nesimo sezulu esivumayo sokusebenza kwebhizinisi futhi lokhu kuvame ukwenziwa ngcono ngokubulawa kwabasebenzi nabahleli bamapulazi kanye nezishoshovu zamalungelo abantu, nezinye izenzo ezinjalo, ziveza ukuhlobana kwesibili phakathi kosizo kanye nokwephulwa okukhulu kwamalungelo abantu ( Schoultz, Ukuqhathanisa ezepolitiki, Jan. 1981; UHerman, eChomsky naseHerman, Umnotho Wezepolitiki Wamalungelo Abantu I, I-South End, ngo-1979; Herman, I-Real Terror Network, 1982).
Lezi zifundo zandulela iminyaka ye-Reagan, lapho isihloko sasingafanele ukufundwa ngoba ukuhlobana kwakucace kakhulu. Futhi ukuthambekela kuyaqhubeka kuze kube manje. Akumangalisi ukuthi umongameli useluleka ukuthi sibheke phambili, hhayi emuvaโimfundiso elungele labo abaphethe amakilabhu. Abashaywe yibo bajwayele ukubona umhlaba ngendlela ehlukile, kuyasicasula.
Kungenziwa ingxabano yokuthi ukuqaliswa "kwepharadigm yokuhlukumeza" ye-CIA akwephuli I-1984 Torture Convention, okungenani njengoba iWashington ihumusha. U-Alfred McCoy uveza ukuthi i-CIA eyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu, esekelwe "enqubweni ye-KGB yokuhlukumeza kakhulu," igcina ngokuyinhloko ekuhlukunyezweni kwengqondo, hhayi ukuhlukunyezwa ngokomzimba, okubhekwa njengento engasebenzi kahle ekuguquleni abantu imifino ethambile. UMcCoy ubhala ukuthi abaphathi bakwaReagan bawubukeza ngokucophelela uMhlangano Wokuhlushwa Wezizwe Ngezizwe โngokungabazaโ okune okuningiliziwe okugxile egameni elilodwa emakhasini angu-26 omhlanganoโโigama elithi โngokwengqondo.โ "[T] lokhu kubhuka okwakhiwe ngokuyinkimbinkimbi kwezombusazwe kuchazwe kabusha ukuhlukunyezwa, njengoba kuhunyushwa yi-United States, ukuze kungabi khona ukuswela izinzwa kanye nobuhlungu bokuzenzela-wona kanye amasu i-CIA ayewacwengisile ngezindleko ezinkulu kangaka." Ngenkathi uClinton ethumela iNgqungquthela ye-UN kuCongress ukuze ivunywe ngo-1994, wafaka nokubhuka kukaReagan. Ngakho-ke, umongameli kanye neCongress bawukhulula umnyombo we-CIA yokuhlukumeza ekuchazeni iNgqungquthela Yokuhlushwa yase-US. Lokho kubhuka, kuphawula uMcCoy, โkwaphinde kwenziwa izwi nezwi emthethweni wasekhaya owashaywa ukuze unikeze amandla angokomthetho eSivumelwaneni Se-UN.โ Lelo โibhomu lezombangazweโ elaqhuma ngamandla amakhulu kangakaโ ehlazweni lika-Abu Ghraib kanye naseMthethweni oyihlazo wamaKhomishana Ezempi owaphasiswa ngokusekelwa yizinhlangothi ezimbili ngo-2006. USolwazi Sanford Levinson waphawula ukuthi kungase kuthethelelwe ngokwencazelo โevumelana nemibuzoโ yokuhlukunyezwa eyamukelwa uReagan noClinton ekubuyekezeni kwabo umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe wamalungelo abantu (McCoy, โUS has a historyโ; Levinson, โTorture in I-Iraq kanye Nomthetho Womthetho eMelika," Daedalus, Ihlobo 2004).
Bush/Obama kanye nezinkantolo
Bush wadlulela ngalรฉ kwabamanduleli bakhe ekugunyazeni ukwephulwa kwemithetho yamazwe ngamazwe kanye nokuqanjwa kwakhe okuningi okweqisayo kwachithwa yiZinkantolo. Nakuba u-Obama, njengoBush, eqinisekisa ukuzibophezela kwethu okungaguquki emthethweni wamazwe ngamazwe, ubonakala ehlose ukubuyisela kakhulu izinyathelo zikaBush ezinokweqisa. Endabeni ebalulekile Boumediene v. Bush ngoJuni 2008, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasichitha njengesiphambene nomthethosisekelo isimangalo sikaBush sokuthi iziboshwa zaseGuantanamo azinalo ilungelo le-habeas corpus. U-Glenn Greenwald ubukeza umphumela. Ngokufuna "ukugcina amandla okuthumba abantu emhlabeni wonke" futhi baboshwe ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele, abaphathi bakaBush banquma ukubathumela e-Bagram, bephethe "isinqumo se-Boumediene, esisekelwe eziqinisekiso zethu eziyisisekelo zomthethosisekelo, njengokungathi uhlobo lomdlalo ongenangqondoโndiza iziboshwa zakho ezithunjiwe uziyise eGuantanamo futhi zinamalungelo omthethosisekelo, kodwa zindizele e-Bagram futhi ungazinyamalala unomphela ngaphandle kwenqubo yokwahlulela.โ U-Obama wamukela isikhundla sikaBush, "efaka incwadi emfushane enkantolo yombuso ukuthi, emishweni emibili, yamemezela ukuthi yamukela inkolelo-mbono kaBush eyeqisayo ngalolu daba," ephikisa ngokuthi iziboshwa zandiza zaya eBagram zisuka noma yikuphi emhlabeni - ecaleni okukhulunywa ngalo. , amaYemenis namaTunisia abathunjwe eThailand nase-UAEโโbangaboshwa unomphela bengenamalungelo anoma yiluphi uhloboโinqobo nje uma begcinwe eBagram kuneGuantanamo.โ
NgoMashi ijaji likahulumeni eliqokwe uBush โlasenqaba isikhundla sikaBush/Obama lathi isizathu I-Boumediene isebenza yonke into ku-Bagram njengoba yenza eGuantanamo." Abaphathi baka-Obama bamemezele ukuthi bazosiphikisa lesi sinqumo, ngaleyo ndlela babeke uMnyango Wezobulungiswa ka-Obama โkaningi ngakwesokunene kwejaji eliqokwe uBush 43 eliqokwe njengejaji XNUMX ezindabeni zamandla amakhulu kanye nokuvalelwa ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele. ,โ ngokwephula kakhulu izithembiso zika-Obama zomkhankaso kanye nezimo zangaphambili.
Icala URasul v Rumsfeld ibonakala ilandela umgudu ofanayo. Abamangali bamangalele ukuthi uRumsfeld kanye nezinye izikhulu eziphezulu babenecala lokuhlukunyezwa kwabo eGuantanamo, lapho bathunyelwa khona ngemuva kokubanjwa yinduna yempi yase-Uzbeki uRashid Dostum. UDostum uyisigebengu esaziwayo ngaleso sikhathi owayengumholi weNorthern Alliance, iqembu lase-Afghan elalisekelwa yiRussia, Iran, India, Turkey, kanye nezifunda zase-Asia Emaphakathi, elihlanganiswe yi-US ngesikhathi ihlasela i-Afghanistan ngo-Okthoba 2001. UDostum wabe esebajikisa. esitokisini sase-US, kusolwa imali ye-bounty. Abamangali bathi baye e-Afghanistan ukuyohlinzeka ngosizo lwabantu. Abaphathi bakaBush bafuna ukuthi icala lichithwe. UMnyango Wezobulungiswa ka-Obama ufake umbiko omfushane oweseka isikhundla sikaBush sokuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni azinacala lokuhlukumeza kanye nokunye ukwephulwa kwenqubo efanele, ngoba izinkantolo bezingakawacacisi ngokucacile amalungelo eziboshwa eziwajabulelayo (uDaphne Eviatar, โUMnyango Wezobulungiswa ka-Obama Unxusa Ukuxoshwa Kweziboshwa. Elinye Icala Lokuhlukumeza,โ I-Washington Independent, Mashi 12, 2009).
Kubikwa futhi ukuthi u-Obama uhlose ukuvuselela amakhomishana ezempi, okungenye yezinto ezihlukumeza kakhulu umthetho phakathi neminyaka kaBush. Kunesizathu. โIzikhulu ezisebenza ngodaba lwaseGuantรกnamo zithi abameli bezokuphatha sebekhathazekile ngokuthi bazobhekana nezingqinamba ezinkulu ekuzameni abasolwa bobuphekula ezinkantolo zombuso. Amajaji angase akwenze kube nzima ukushushisa iziboshwa eziphathwe ngesihluku noma ukuba abashushisi basebenzise ubufakazi benzwabethi obuqoqwe izinhlangano zezobunhloliโ (William Glaberson, โI-US Ingase Ivuselele Izinkantolo Zezempi ZaseGuantanamo,โ New York Times, Meyi 1, 2009). Kuvela iphutha elikhulu ohlelweni lwezobulungiswa bobugebengu.
Kukhona impikiswano enkulu mayelana nokuthi ukuhlukunyezwa kuye kwaphumelela yini ekutholeni ulwazi-umcabango, ngokusobala, wokuthi uma kuphumelela khona-ke kungase kuthethelelwe. Ngengxabano efanayo, lapho iNicaragua ithumba umshayeli wendiza wase-US u-Eugene Hasenfus ngo-1986 ngemva kokudubula indiza yakhe ehambisa usizo embuthweni kaReagan, kwakungafanele bamzame, bamthole enecala, base bembuyisela e-US, njengoba benza. Kunalokho, bekufanele ngabe basebenzise i-CIA yokuhlukumeza ipharadigm ukuze bazame ukukhipha ulwazi mayelana nezinye izenzo zonya zamaphekula ezihlelwa futhi zenziwa eWashington, akuyona into encane ezweni elincane nelimpofu ngaphansi kokuhlaselwa kwamaphekula amandla amakhulu omhlaba. Futhi iNicaragua bekufanele yenze okufanayo ukube ikwazile ukubamba umxhumanisi omkhulu wobuphekula, uJohn Negroponte, ngaleso sikhathi owayeyinxusa eHonduras, kamuva waqoka i-counter-terrorism Czar, ngaphandle kokukhononda. ICuba bekufanele yenze okufanayo ukube ikwazile ukubeka izandla kubazalwane bakwaKennedy. Asikho isidingo sokuveza ukuthi yini izisulu obekumele zenziwe kuKissinger, uReagan, nabanye abakhuzi abaphambili bamaphekula, abazenzo zabo zishiya i-al-Qaeda kude le, futhi ngokungangabazeki babenolwazi olwanele obelungavimba amanye โamabhomu ahlabayo.โ
Ukucatshangelwa okunjalo, okwandile, akubonakali kungavela ezingxoxweni zomphakathi. Ngakho-ke, siyazi ngaso leso sikhathi ukuthi singazihlola kanjani izicelo mayelana nolwazi olubalulekile.
Ukuhlaziywa Kwezindleko Zomhlukumezi
Tnansi, ngokuqinisekile, impendulo: ubuphekula bethu, noma ngabe ubuphekula ngempela, abulungile, buvela njengoba benza edolobheni elisegqumeni. Mhlawumbe ukuvezwa okugqame kakhulu kwale thesis kwethulwe ngu I-Republic entsha umhleli uMichael Kinsley, umkhulumeli ohlonishwayo โwesobunxele.โ I-America's Watch (Human Rights Watch) ibhikishele ukuqinisekiswa koMnyango Wezwe wemiyalo esemthethweni emabuthweni amaphekula aseWashington ukuthi ahlasele "izindawo ezihlosiwe ezithambile" - okuhloswe ngazo umphakathi okungavinjelwanga - nokugwema amasosha aseNicaragua, njengoba ayengenza ngenxa yokulawula kweCIA endaweni yezindiza yaseNicaragua kanye izinhlelo zokuxhumana eziyinkimbinkimbi ezinikezwe abaphikisanayo. Ephendula, uKinsley wachaza ukuthi ukuhlasela kwamaphekula kwe-US ezindaweni okuhloswe ngaso umphakathi kuyathetheleleka uma kwanelisa imibandela ye-pragmatic: โinqubomgomo ephusile [kufanele] ihlangabezane nokuhlolwa kokuhlaziywa kwenzuzo yezindleko,โ ukuhlaziywa โkwenani legazi nosizi oluyoba khona. kuthululelwe phakathi, kanye nethuba lokuthi intando yeningi izovela ngakolunye uhlangothiโโโidemokhrasiโ njengoba izikhulu zase-US zinquma (I-Wall Street Journal, March 26, 1987). Imicabango yakhe ayizange isho lutho, ngokwazi kwami, kubonakala sengathi iyamukeleka. Ngakho-ke, kubonakala sengathi kulandela ukuthi abaholi base-US nama-ejenti abo abanacala ngokuqhuba izinqubomgomo eziphusile ngokwethembeka, noma ngabe ukwahlulela kwabo ngezinye izikhathi kungase kube namaphutha.
Mhlawumbe icala lingaba likhulu, ngezindinganiso zokuziphatha ezikhona, uma kutholakala ukuthi ukuphathwa kukaBush kubiza izimpilo zaseMelika. Lokho, empeleni, isiphetho esatholwa uMajor Matthew Alexander waseMelika [igama lokungelona], omunye wabaphenyi abamnkantshubomvu e-Iraq, owaveza โulwazi oluholele ekutheni amasosha aseMelika akwazi ukuthola u-Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, inhloko. we-al-Qa'ida e-Iraq,โ kubika umlobeli uPatrick Cockburn. U-Alexander uzwakalisa ukudelela kuphela izindlela zokuphenywa ezinonya: โUkusetshenziswa kokuhlukunyezwa yi-US,โ ukholelwa ukuthi, akugcini nje ngokuveza ulwazi oluwusizo, kodwa โkubonise ukuthi akuzuzisi kangako kangangokuthi kungase kuholele ekufeni kwabantu abaningi base-US. amasosha njengezakhamuzi ezabulawa ngo-9/11.โ Kusukela emakhulwini okuphenywa, u-Alexander wathola ukuthi ama-fighters angaphandle afika e-Iraq ngokusabela ekuhlukunyezweni kwaseGuantanamo nase-Abu Ghraib, nokuthi bona kanye nabalingani basekhaya baphendukela ekuqhumeni kwamabhomu nezinye izenzo zobuphekula ngesizathu esifanayo (uCockburn, "Ukuhlukunyezwa? Cishe babulala abantu baseMelika abaningi kuno-9/11,โ Independent, Ephreli 6, 2009).
Kunobufakazi obukhulayo bokuthi ukuhlukunyezwa kukaCheney-Rumsfeld kwadala amaphekula. Elinye icala elihlolisiswe kahle ngelika-Abdallah al-Ajmi, owayevalelwe eGuantanamo ngecala โlokuzibandakanya ezimpini zomlilo ezimbili noma ezintathu neNorthern Alliance.โ Wagcina ese-Afghanistan ngemuva kokwehluleka ukufinyelela eChechnya ukuze alwe nokuhlasela kweRussia. Ngemva kweminyaka emine yokuphathwa ngonya eGuantanamo, wabuyiselwa eKuwait. Kamuva wathola indlela eya e-Iraq futhi, ngoNdasa wezi-2008, washayela iloli elaligcwele ibhomu endaweni yezempi yase-Iraq, washona yena kanye namasosha angu-13โโisenzo esisodwa esibi kunazo zonke sodlame esenziwa ngowayeboshiwe eGuantanamo,โ Washington Post imibiko, umphumela oqondile wokuboshwa kwakhe okuhlukumezayo, kuphetha ummeli wakhe waseWashington (Ongaziwa, U-Rajiv Chandrasekaran, "Ukusuka Ekuthunjweni Kuya Kuzibulala Ngebhomu," Washington Post, February 22, 2009).
Esinye isizathu esijwayelekile sokuhlukunyezwa yingqikithi: "impi yokwesaba" uBush ayimemezela ngemuva kuka-9/11, "icala elibhekiswe esintwini" elenziwa "ngobubi nonya olumangalisayo," njengoba uRobert Fisk abike. Lobo bugebengu benza umthetho wendabuko wamazwe ngamazwe "uyinto engavamile" futhi "uphelelwe yisikhathi," uBush welulekwa ngummeli wakhe wezomthetho u-Alberto Gonzales, kamuva owaqokwa njengommeli jikelele. Imfundiso iye yaphindwa kabanzi ngendlela eyodwa noma enye ekuhlaziyeni nasekuhlaziyeni.
Ukuhlasela kuka-9/11 akungabazeki ukuthi kwakuyingqayizivele, ngezindlela eziningi. Enye yayilapho izibhamu zazikhomba khona: imvamisa isuke ibheke kolunye uhlangothi. Eqinisweni lokho bekuwukuhlasela kokuqala kwanoma imuphi umphumela endaweni yezwe kusukela abaseBrithani bashisa iWashington ngo-1814. Esinye isici esiyingqayizivele kwakuyizinga lokwesaba komdlali ongeyena wesifundazwe. Kodwa njengoba kwakunjalo, kwakungase kubi nakakhulu. Ake sithi abenzi bobubi bahlasele i-White House, babulala umongameli futhi basungula umbuso wobushiqela ononya owabulala abantu abangu-50,000-100,000 futhi bahlukumeza i-700,000, bamisa isikhungo esikhulu samaphekula samazwe ngamazwe esabulala abantu, basiza ukuphoqelela ubushiqela bezempi obufanayo kwenye indawo, futhi basebenzise. izimfundiso zezomnotho ezacekela phansi umnotho kakhulu kangangokuthi kwadingeka ukuthi umbuso uwuthathe eminyakeni embalwa kamuva. Lokho bekungaba kubi kakhulu kuno-9/11. Futhi kwenzeka, kulokho abantu baseLatin America abavame ukukubiza ngokuthi โumhla ka-9/11 wokuqala,โ ngo-1973. Isibopho silandela emuva ngqo eWashington. Ngakho-ke, isifanisoโesifaneleka kakhuluโasibonwa, kuyilapho amaqiniso edluliselwa โekuhlukunyezweni kweqinisoโ lokho i-naรฏve ebiza umlando.
Kufanele futhi kukhunjulwe ukuthi uBush akazange amemezele "impi yokwesaba"; waphinda wakumemezela. Eminyakeni engamashumi amabili ngaphambili, abaphathi bakwaReagan bangena esikhundleni bememezela ukuthi isizinda senqubomgomo yabo yezangaphandle kuzoba impi yobushokobezi, โinhlupho yenkathi yesimanjeโ kanye โnokubuyela ebuqaba esikhathini sethu,โ ukusampula inkulumo evuthayo ye usuku. Leyo mpi yobushokobezi nayo isusiwe ekuqapheleni umlando ngoba umphumela awukwazi ukufakwa kalula ohlwini lwezincwadi zeBhayibheli: amakhulu ezinkulungwane abulawa emazweni acekeleke phansi eMelika Ephakathi nokunye okuningi kwezinye izindawoโphakathi kwawo okulinganiselwa ezigidini ezingu-1.5 ezimpini zamaphekula ezixhaswe eMelika. amazwe angomakhelwane ngaphansi kombuso wobandlululo owawuthandwa uReagan, okwadingeka ukuthi izivikele ku-African National Congress kaNelson Mandela, elinye lamaqembu โamaphekula adume kakhulu emhlabeni,โ iWashington yanquma ngo-1988. UKhongolose wavotela ukukhipha i-ANC ohlwini lwezinhlangano zamaphekula, ukuze uMandela ekugcineni akwazi ukungena e-US ngaphandle kokuthola imvume kuhulumeni (Joseba Zulaika kanye noWilliam Douglass, Ukwesaba neTaboo, 1996; Jesse Holland, AP, May 9, 2009, NYT).
I-Exceptionalism & Amnesia
Timfundiso yakhe ebusayo ngezinye izikhathi ibizwa ngokuthi "i-American uniqueism." Akuyona into yalolu hlobo. Cishe iseduze nendawo yonke phakathi kwamandla ombuso. I-France ibincoma "umsebenzi wayo wempucuko" ngenkathi uNgqongqoshe Wezempi waseFrance efuna "kuqedwe abantu bomdabu" base-Algeria. Izikhulu zaseBrithani โzaziyinto entsha emhlabeni,โ kusho uJohn Stuart Mill, kuyilapho ekhuthaza ukuthi lo mbuso wezingelosi ungabe usalibazisa ekuqedeni ukukhulula kwawo iNdiya. Lesi sihloko sakudala sokungenelela kosizo sabhalwa ngemuva nje kokwembulwa komphakathi konya olunyantisayo lwaseBritain ekucindezeleni ukuhlubuka kwamaNdiya kwango-1857. Ukunqotshwa kwezwe lonke laseNdiya ngokwengxenye enkulu kwakuwumzamo wokuzuza ukubusa kwe-opium ibhizinisi elikhulu laseBrithani elishushumbisa izidakamizwa, elikhulu kunawo wonke emlandweni womhlaba, elaklanyelwe ngokuyinhloko ukuphoqa iChina ukuba yamukele izimpahla ezikhiqizwa eBrithani.
Ngokufanayo, asikho isizathu sokungabaza ubuqotho bamasosha aseJapane ayeletha โipharadesi lasemhlabeniโ eChina ngaphansi kokuqeqeshwa okuhle kwamaJapane, njengoba ayedlwengula uNanking. Umlando ugcwele iziqephu โezikhazimulayoโ ezifanayo.
Inqobo nje uma le mibono โekhethekileโ isalokhu igxilile, izambulo zezikhathi ezithile โzokuhlukunyezwa komlandoโ zingahlehlela emuva, zisebenze ekuqedeni ubugebengu obubi. Isibhicongo saseMy Lai sasiwumbhalo waphansi wezenzo zonya ezinkulu kakhulu zezinhlelo ze-post-Tet pacification, azinakwa ngenkathi intukuthelo igxile kulobu bugebengu obubodwa. Akungabazeki ukuthi i-Watergate yayiwubugebengu, kodwa isiphithiphithi ngayo sasusa ubugebengu obubi kakhulu ekhaya naphesheyaโukubulawa okuhleliwe kwe-FBI komgqugquzeli omnyama uFred Hampton njengengxenye yengcindezelo edumile ye-COINTELPRO noma ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu kweCambodia, ukusho izibonelo ezimbili ezimbi. Ukuhlukunyezwa kubi kakhulu; ukuhlasela kwe-Iraq kuyicala elibi kakhulu. Ngokuvamile, izenzo zonya ezikhethiwe zinalo msebenzi.
I-amnesia yomlando iyisenzakalo esiyingozi, hhayi nje ngoba ibukela phansi ubuqotho bokuziphatha nobuhlakani, kodwa futhi ibeka isisekelo sobugebengu obuzayo.