Igama ukuwohloka imele umndeni wezindlela zepolitiki nezomnotho okuthi, lapho sibhekene nenhlekelele yanamuhla yezemvelo, yenqabe ukukhula komnotho okungenamkhawulo njengencazelo yenqubekelaphambili yomuntu. Ukuyeka ukukhula komnotho emiphakathini ecebile kusho ukushintshela ku-zero Net Capital formation. Ngokuthuthuka okuqhubekayo kwezobuchwepheshe kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwamakhono abantu, ukutshalwa kwezimali esikhundleni nje kuyakwazi ukukhuthaza intuthuko eqhubekayo yekhwalithi ekukhiqizeni emiphakathini yezimboni evuthiwe, kuyilapho kuqeda izimo zokusebenza ezixhaphazayo futhi kuncishiswe namahora okusebenza. Ngokuhambisana nokusatshalaliswa kabusha komhlaba wonke komkhiqizo oyinsalela yomphakathi kanye nokunciphisa imfucuza, lokhu kuzovumela intuthuko enkulu ezimpilweni zabantu abaningi. Ukukhula, okuqondiswe ngokukhethekile emikhakheni enothile kakhulu yabantu bomhlaba, ngakho-ke kuqondiswe ekuthuthukisweni kwezimo zokuphila zeningi ngenkathi kugcinwa izimo zemvelo ezikhona futhi kukhuthazwa intuthuko yabantu esimeme.2
Isayensi ithole ngaphandle kokungabaza ukuthi, “emnothweni womhlaba ogcwele” wanamuhla, kuyadingeka ukusebenza ngaphakathi kwesabelomali seSistimu Yomhlaba sisonke ngokuphathelene nokusebenza okubonakalayo okuvumelekile.3 Kodwa-ke, kunokuba kube isithiyo esingenakunqotshwa ekuthuthukisweni komuntu, lokhu kungabonakala njengokusungula isigaba esisha sempucuko yezemvelo esekelwe ekwakhiweni komphakathi wokulingana okubonakalayo nokusimama kwemvelo, noma i-ecosocialism. Ukukhula, ngalo mqondo, akuhloswe ekuzibambeni, kodwa ekutholeni "indlela ephumelelayo phansi" kusukela ku-extractivist yethu yamanje, emoshayo, engenakulondolozwa kwemvelo, engathuthukisiwe, exhaphazayo, futhi engalingani, emhlabeni wezinga eliphezulu.4 Ukukhula okuqhubekayo kuzokwenzeka kwezinye izindawo zomnotho, okungenzeka kube nokwehla kwezinye izindawo. Ukuchitha imali ezintweni ezibaswayo, izikhali, izindiza ezizimele, izimoto zezemidlalo, izindlu zesibili, nokukhangisa kuyodingeka kunqanyulwe ukuze kunikezwe indawo yokukhula ezindaweni ezifana nezolimo ezivuselelayo, ukukhiqizwa kokudla, izindlu ezihloniphekile, amandla ahlanzekile, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo okufinyelelekayo. , imfundo yendawo yonke, inhlalakahle yomphakathi, ezokuthutha zomphakathi, ukuxhumana kwedijithali, nezinye izindawo ezihlobene nokukhiqizwa okuluhlaza kanye nezidingo zomphakathi.5
Ngenkathi izinhlelo zokuqala zokubalwa kwemali kazwelonke ziqanjwa ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe Yesibili, konke ukwenyuka kwemali engenayo yezwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ikuphi, kwaphawulwa njengokuhlanganisa ukukhula komnotho. I-Gross Domestic Product, noma i-GDP, ibe isilinganiso esiyinhloko senqubekelaphambili yomuntu.6 Noma kunjalo, okuningi kwalokhu kwakungabazeka ngokombono obanzi wezenhlalo nezemvelo. Ngokohlelo olukhona lokubalwa kwezomnotho kuzwelonke, noma yini enikeza “ivalue added,” ngokuvumelana nenqubo yokugunyazwa konxiwankulu, imelela “ukukhula.” Lokhu kuhlanganisa izinto ezifana nokusetshenziswa kwemali ezimpini; ukukhiqizwa kwemikhiqizo emoshayo futhi enobuthi; ukusetshenziswa okunethezeka ngabacebile kakhulu; ukumaketha (okuhlanganisa ucwaningo lokugqugquzela, ukuqondisa, ukukhangisa, nokukhuthazwa kokuthengisa); ukushintshwa kwezenhlalo ngokusetshenziswa kwangasese, njengokufaka esikhundleni semoto yangasese ezokuthutha umphakathi; ukuchithwa kwe-commons; izindleko zebhizinisi ukuthuthukisa ukuxhashazwa kwabasebenzi; izindleko zomthetho ezihlobene nokuphatha, ukulawula, kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwezakhiwo ezizimele; imisebenzi emelene nezinyunyana ngabaphathi bezinkampani; lokho okubizwa ngokuthi uhlelo lwezobulungiswa bobugebengu; ukukhuphuka kwezindleko zemithi kanye nomshwalense; ukuqashwa emkhakheni wezezimali; ukusetshenziswa kwemali kwezempi; ngisho nezenzo zobugebengu.7 Ukukhishwa okuphezulu kwemithombo yemvelo kubonakala kubalulekile ekukhuleni komnotho ngokushesha, njengoba kusekelwe “esiphweni samahhala semvelo…emalini”.8
Ngokuphambene, ukukhiqizwa okungezona izimakethe kanye nokudla okwenziwa emhlabeni wonke; imisebenzi yasendlini ikakhulukazi eyenziwa ngabesifazane; izindleko eziningi zokukhula nokuthuthuka komuntu (ezibonakala zingenzi lutho); ukulondolozwa kwemvelo; kanye nokwehliswa kobuthi bokukhiqiza konke kubonakale “njengokubala ize” noma kwabelwa inani elincishisiwe, njengoba akuthuthukisi umkhiqizo noma akuthuthukisi ngokuqondile inani lezomnotho.9
Namuhla inhlekelele yokuqala yalokhu isisizungezile. Manje sekubonwa kabanzi ukuthi ukukhula komnotho, okusekelwe ekuqongeleleni izimali ezingami, kuyimbangela eyinhloko yokucekelwa phansi komhlaba njengendawo ephephile yesintu. Inkinga ye-Earth System ibonakala ngokuwela imingcele yeplanethi ehlobene nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, i-acidification yolwandle, ukucekelwa phansi kwe-ozone, ukushabalala kwezinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo, ukuphazamiseka kwemijikelezo ye-nitrogen ne-phosphorus, ukulahlekelwa kwe-groundcover (kuhlanganise namahlathi), ukuchithwa kwamanzi ahlanzekile, ukulayishwa kwe-aerosol, nezinhlaka ezintsha (njengamakhemikhali okwenziwa, imisebe yenuzi, nezinto eziphilayo eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo).10 Umgomo wokuqongelela imali ngaleyo ndlela udala “inkinga yokuhlala” esintwini kuleli khulu leminyaka.11
Ukuvumelana kwesayensi yomhlaba wonke, njengoba kumelelwe i-UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), sekuthole ukuthi izinga lokushisa elijwayelekile lomhlaba wonke lidinga ukugcinwa lingaphansi kwe-1.5°C ngaphezu kwamazinga angaphambi kwezimboni kuleli khulu leminyaka—noma-ke, libe nenani elingenakuqhathaniswa. izinga eliphakeme lengozi, “ngaphansi kakhulu” ukwenyuka okungu-2°C—uma ukuwohloka kwesimo sezulu kungekona ukusongela inhlekelele egcwele njengoba izindlela zokuphendula ezinhle ziqala ukusebenza. Ku-IPCC Umbiko Wesithupha Wokuhlola (I-AR6, ekhishwe ezingxenyeni zayo ezahlukahlukene ngonyaka ka-2021–23), isimo esinethemba elikhulu singenye yokwenyuka kokuphela kwekhulu leminyaka kwezinga lokushisa elimaphakathi lomhlaba ngaphezu kwamazinga angaphambi kwemboni angaphansi kuka-1.5°C. Lokhu kudinga ukuthi umngcele ongu-1.5°C ungawelwa kuze kube ngu-2040, ukhuphuke ngengxenye yeshumi yedigri ukuya ku-1.6°C, bese wehla ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leminyaka uhlehle ukhuphuke ngo-1.4°C. Konke lokhu kubikezelwe ekufinyeleleni ku-net zero (empeleni, u-zero wangempela) ekukhishweni kwekhabhoni ngo-2050, okunikeza amathuba angamashumi amahlanu nanhlanu ukuthi umngcele wesimo sezulu ngeke weqiwe.12
Nokho, ngokososayensi ophambili wesimo sezulu uKevin Anderson weSikhungo Sokucwaninga Ngokushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu, iTyndall Center, lesi simo sesiphelelwe isikhathi. Manje sekudingekile, ngokusekelwe ezibalweni zayo siqu i-IPCC, ukuze kufinyelelwe izinga lokukhishwa kwe-zero-carbon dioxide ngo-2040, ukuze sibe nethuba elifanayo elingamaphesenti angu-50 lokugwema ukwanda ngo-1.5°C. "Kusukela manje," u-Anderson wabhala ngoMashi 2023,
ukuze ungeqi ku-1.5°C wokufudumala kudinga ukuncishiswa okungu-11% konyaka nonyaka ekukhishweni kwekhabhoni, kwehle kufinyelele eduze kuka-5% ngo-2°C. Kodwa-ke, la mazinga amaphakathi omhlaba awawunaki umqondo oyinhloko wokulingana, okuwumgogodla wazo zonke izingxoxo zesimo sezulu ze-UN, okunikeza “izinhlangano zamazwe asathuthukayo” isikhathi eside ukuze zivumelane ne-decarbonise. Faka ukulingana futhi amazwe amaningi "athuthukile" adinga ukufinyelela ku-zero CO2 ephumayo phakathi kuka-2030 no-2035, amazwe asathuthuka alandele okufanayo eminyakeni eyishumi kamuva. Noma yikuphi ukubambezeleka kuzonciphisa le migqa yesikhathi nakakhulu.13
I-World Meteorological Organization yabonisa ngoMeyi 2023 ukuthi kunamathuba angamaphesenti angu-66 okuthi izinga lokushisa lomhlaba eliseduze nomhlaba lizokweqa okwesikhashana ukukhuphuka okungu-1.5°C ngaphezu kwamazinga angaphambi kwezimboni phakathi “nokungenani” konyaka owodwa ngo-2027.14
Izimo ezikhona ze-IPCC ziyingxenye yenqubo elandelanayo, eklanyelwe ukuhambisana nezimfuneko zomnotho wonxiwankulu, okwakha ukukhula komnotho okuqhubekayo emazweni acebile kuzo zonke izimo kuyilapho ingafaki noma yiziphi izinguquko ezinkulu ebudlelwaneni bomphakathi. Okuwukuphela kwedivayisi okuthenjelwe kuyo ekumodeleni isimo sezulu esinjalo ukuthatha amashifu abangelwa amanani kubuchwepheshe. Ngakho-ke izimo ezikhona zithembele kakhulu kubuchwepheshe bezinto ezikhishwayo ezingezinhle, njenge-Bioenergy neCarbon Capture and Sequestration (BECCS) kanye ne-Direct Carbon Air Capture (DAC), ezingekho esikalini njengamanje futhi azikwazi ukuqaliswa ngaphakathi komugqa wesikhathi onqunyiwe, ngenkathi futhi yethula. izingozi ezinkulu zemvelo ngokwazo. Lokhu kugcizelelwa kobuchwepheshe obungekho empeleni obulimaza imvelo (uma kubhekwa izimfuneko zabo ezinkulu zomhlaba, amanzi, namandla) kuye kwaphonselwa inselelo ososayensi ngaphakathi kwe-IPCC ngokwayo. Ngakho-ke, Esifingqiweni sokuqala Sabenzi Bezinqubomgomo sombiko wokunciphisa, ingxenye yesi-3 ye-AR6, ososayensi abagunyaze umbiko bavumile ukuthi lobu buchwepheshe abusebenzi ngesikhathi esifanele futhi baphakamisa ukuthi izixazululo zamandla aphansi ezisekelwe ekuhlanganiseni okudumile zinganikeza okungcono kakhulu. ithemba lokufeza izinguquko ezinkulu zemvelo ezidingekayo manje. Konke lokhu, nokho, bekukhishiwe kuSifinyezo sokugcina esishicilelwe Sabenzi Bezinqubomgomo njengoba kunqunywa ohulumeni, njengengxenye yenqubo evamile ye-IPCC, evumela ukucutshungulwa kososayensi.15
Izixazululo zobuchwepheshe ezibangelwa amanani, ezingavumela ukukhula komnotho okuqhubekayo kanye nokuqhubekisela phambili ubudlelwano bamanje bomphakathi, azikho kunoma yini efana nesilinganiso esidingekayo kanye ne-tempo. Ngakho-ke, izinguquko ezinkulu zenhlalo-mnotho endleleni yokukhiqiza nokusebenzisa ziyadingeka, okuphambene nombuso wezombangazwe nomnotho obusayo. “Iminyaka engamashumi amathathu yokunganaki,” kubhala u-Anderson, “kuye kwasho ukuthi ubuchwepheshe ngokwabo abukwazi manje ukunqamula ukukhishwa kwegesi ngokushesha ngokwanele.” Ngakho-ke kunesidingo esikhulu sezisombululo zamandla aphansi ezisekelwe ekushintsheni kobudlelwano bokukhiqiza nokusetshenziswa okubuye kubhekane nokungalingani okujulile. Ukwehliswa okudingekile kokukhishelwa ngaphandle “kungenzeka kuphela ngokuthi kwabiwe kabusha amandla okukhiqiza omphakathi kude nokuvumela ukunethezeka kwangasese kwabambalwa nokubamba kwawo wonke umuntu, futhi kubheke ekuchumeni okubanzi komphakathi kanye nokwanela kwangasese. Kubantu abaningi, ukubhekana nokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu kuzoletha izinzuzo eziningi, kusukela ezindlini ezithengekayo kuya ekutholeni umsebenzi ovikelekile. Kodwa kulabo abambalwa bethu abaye bazuza ngendlela engafanele kulesi simo esikhona,” kugcizelela u-Anderson, “kusho ukuncipha okukhulu kokuthi mangakanani amandla esiwasebenzisayo nezinto esiziqongelelayo.”16
Indlela yokwehlisa/yokuqongelela inselelo emphakathini oqongelelayo kanye nokubaluleka kokukhula komnotho ibalulekile lapha. Ukuhlinzekwa komphakathi ngezidingo zomuntu kanye nokwehliswa okubukhali kokungalingani kuyizingxenye ezibalulekile zokushintshela ekuguqulweni kwamandla aphansi emnothweni kanye nokuqedwa kwamafomu okulimaza imvelo kanye nezikali zomkhiqizo. Ngale ndlela, izimpilo zabantu abaningi zingathuthukiswa ngokomnotho kanye nemvelo. Ukufeza lokhu, nokho, kudinga ukuphambana nomqondo wonxiwankulu kanye nenganekwane yohlelo lwezimakethe oluzilawulayo. Uguquko olunjalo lungafezwa kuphela ngokwethula amazinga abalulekile okuhlelwa kwezomnotho nenhlalakahle, okuthi uma kwenziwa ngokugcwele, abakhiqizi abahambisanayo basebenze ndawonye ngendlela ephusile yokulawula inqubo yezabasebenzi neyokukhiqiza elawula ukuguquguquka kwemvelo kwesintu. kanye nemvelo iyonke.
I-classical socialism yekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalolunye emsebenzini kaKarl Marx noFrederick Engels yabona isidingo sokusungulwa kweqoqo. ukuhlela ekuphenduleni ukungqubuzana kwemvelo nezenhlalo konxiwankulu, kanye nokwezomnotho kwabo. Ukuhlaziya kuka-Engels kugcizelele esidingweni sokuhlelwa kobusoshiyali ukuze kunqotshwe ukuhlukana kwemvelo phakathi kwedolobha nezwe, kuyilapho inkolelo-mbono kaMarx ye-metabolic rift, esebenza ngezinga elivamile, igcizelela isidingo sokuthuthukiswa komuntu okuqhubekayo.
Ukuhlela bekubalulekile kuwo wonke umnotho, wobunxiwankulu nowezenhlalakahle, ngezikhathi zezimpi. Izinkampani ezinkulu, ezizimele ngokwazo zizisungulele ngokwazo lokho isazi sezomnotho uJohn Kenneth Galbraith akubiza ngokuthi “uhlelo lokuhlela,” nakuba lusebenza kakhulu. Ngaphakathi, kunoku Phakathi, izingqungquthela zamazwe ngamazwe.17 Noma kunjalo, wonke umqondo wokuhlelela umnotho ubonakala, emibonweni eyamukelwe, njengephikisana nemakethe yonxiwankulu futhi uye wavinjelwa ngempumelelo enkulumweni yomphakathi—okuthiwe angeke kusetshenzeki futhi kuwuhlobo lokucindezela—okulandela ukunqoba konxiwankulu eMpini Yomshoshaphansi kanye neMpi Yomshoshaphansi. ukubhujiswa kweSoviet Union.
Lokhu manje kushintsha ngokushesha. Njengoba isazi sezomnotho esingumFulentshi uJacques Sapir sisanda phawula, “uhlelo nokuhlela kubuyele emfashinini,” ngenxa yokungqubuzana kwangaphakathi nangaphandle kohlelo lwemakethe yonxiwankulu.18 Manje sekuyacaca ukuthi, ngaphandle kokubuyiselwa kokuhlela kanye nokulawulwa kwesimo semvelo somnotho esimweni sokuwohloka/ukuqoqwa kwemali enkulu, akukho nokwenzeka kokubhekana ngokuphumelelayo nesimo esiphuthumayo samanje seplanethi nokuqinisekisa ukuqhubeka komphakathi onezimboni kanye ukusinda kwesibalo sabantu.
I-Marx, i-Engels, kanye ne-Ecological Planning
U-Marx no-Engels babehlale bemanqikanqika ukunikeza lokho u-Marx akubiza ngokuthi “amaresiphi… Njengoba u-Engels akubeka, “ukucabangela indlela umphakathi wesikhathi esizayo ongahlela ngayo ukwabiwa kokudla nezindawo zokuhlala kuholela ngokuqondile utopia. "19 Noma kunjalo, babecacile kuzo zonke izincwadi zabo ukuthi ukuhlelwa kabusha kokukhiqiza ngaphansi komphakathi wabakhiqizi abahlobene kuzobandakanya umsebenzi wokubambisana ohlelwe ngokuvumelana nohlelo olufanayo.
In Izimiso zobuKhomanisi, u-Engels wabhala ukuthi emphakathini wesikhathi esizayo, "zonke ... amagatsha okukhiqiza" "azosetshenziswa umphakathi uwonke, okungukuthi, nge-akhawunti evamile, ngokohlelo olufanayo, ngokubamba iqhaza kwawo wonke amalungu omphakathi." Indlela efanayo yamukelwa uMarx no-Engels ku Manifesto wamaKhomanisi, lapho beveza khona isidingo “sokwandiswa kwamafekthri nezinsimbi zokukhiqiza ezingaphansi koMbuso; ukulethwa kokulinywa kwezindawo ezilahliwe, kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwenhlabathi ngokuvamile ngokuvumelana nohlelo olufanayo.”20 Lapha inkinga yokuqeda uqhekeko phakathi kwedolobha nezwe ngokuhlakazeka kwabantu ngokulinganayo ezweni lonke, ukuze kungabe kusagxilwa emadolobheni amakhulu ezimboni ahlukanisa abantu basemadolobheni nabasemaphandleni, yayiwumgogodla wombono wabo wokuhlangana okuvamile. uhlelo.
Ukuhlaziya okuningi kukaMarx ku Grundrisse yagxila esidingweni “somnotho wesikhathi, [o] ngokuvumelana nokwabiwa okuhleliwe kwesikhathi sokusebenza phakathi kwamagatsha ahlukahlukene” ezimboni, kwakha “umthetho wokuqala wezomnotho osekelwe ekukhiqizeni komphakathi.”21 Njengoba abhalela u-Engels ngo-January 8, 1868: “Alukho uhlobo lomphakathi olungavimbela isikhathi sokusebenza esitholakala emphakathini ekulawuleni ukukhiqizwa ngandlela thize. Nokho, isikhathi eside, njengoba lo mthethonqubo ufezwa hhayi ngokulawula okuqondile nokuqaphela komphakathi ngesikhathi sawo sokusebenza—okungenzeka ngobunikazi obuvamile—kodwa ngokuhamba kwamanani entengo yempahla, izinto zilokhu zinjengoba usuzichaze ngokufanele. phakathi Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher”—ebhekisela encwadini ka-Engels ethi “Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy” ka-1843.22 Lo msebenzi wokuqala we-Engels wawuthakaselwa kakhulu uMarx. Encwadini yakhe ka-1843 ethi “Ukufingqwa Kwencwadi ethi ‘Outlines’ ka-Engels,” uMarx wagcizelela “ukwehlukana phakathi kwezwe nomuntu,” futhi kanjalo, ukuhlukaniswa kwemvelo, njengesisekelo sangaphandle sokukhiqizwa konxiwankulu.
In Capital, u-Marx waphikisana ngokuphathelene nokuhlela ukuthi ingxenye yomkhiqizo womphakathi ohloselwe ukukhiqizwa kabusha kwezindlela zokukhiqiza iqoqwe ngokufanelekile kuyilapho enye ingxenye, enikelwe ekusetshenzisweni, ihlukaniselwa abathengi ngabanye. Ukuthi umphakathi othile ufeza kanjani lokhu kwahlukana okubaluleke kakhulu kuyisihluthulelo sayo yonke indlela yokukhiqiza futhi kukhombisa intuthuko yomlando womphakathi ngokwawo. Ngaphansi kobusoshiyali, isikhathi sabasebenzi sasiyohlukaniswa “ngokuhambisana nohlelo oluqondile lwezenhlalakahle” “eligcina isilinganiso esifanele phakathi kwemisebenzi eyahlukene yezabasebenzi kanye nezidingo ezihlukahlukene zezinhlangano” zabasebenzi. Lokhu kwakungenzeka kuphela lapho “ubudlelwano obungokoqobo bempilo yansuku zonke phakathi komuntu nomuntu, nomuntu nemvelo ngokuvamile ziziveza…ngesimo esinengqondo” njengomphumela wentuthuko yomlando, okwenza kube nokwenzeka “ukukhiqizwa ngokuhlotshaniswa ngokukhululekile [ngabanye]… ukulawula okunengqondo nokuhleliwe.”23 Njengoba uMarx echaza ephendula i-Paris Commune, “izinhlangano ezisebenzisanayo” emphakathini wesikhathi esizayo “zizolawula ukukhiqizwa kwezwe ngohlelo olufanayo.”24 Iqiniso lokuthi ukuhlela okunjalo kwaba kokubili Ezomnotho inkinga kanye ne ezemvelo eyodwa yayicacile kuwo wonke umsebenzi wakhe.
“Inkululeko kulo mkhakha,” umphakathi ophakeme, uMarx wabhala emqulwini wesithathu we Capital, “ingaquka lokhu kuphela, ukuthi indoda ehlalisana nabanye abantu, abakhiqizi abahlobene nabo, babusa ukugaywa kwemvelo komuntu ngemvelo ngendlela enengqondo, okuletha ngaphansi kolawulo lwabo bonke… isimo sabo sobuntu.”25 Irekhodi elingokomlando lokucekelwa phansi kwemvelo okubangelwa abantu ngezindlela ezinjengokugawulwa kwamahlathi kanye nokugwaduleka, okufakwe ku-Marx, “ukuthambekela kobusoshiyali” okungazi lutho kusukela kubonisiwe. isidingo sokulawulwa komphakathi.26
Nokho, kwakungu-Engels e I-Anti-Dühring owabeka ngokusobala isidingo sokuhlela maqondana nezimo zemvelo. Kwa-Engels, kwakuyizinto zangaphandle ezingezinhle zokukhiqizwa konxiwankulu, okuhlotshaniswa nokwehlukana phakathi kwedolobha nezwe, inkinga yezindlu yaphakade, kanye nokucekelwa phansi kokubili kwemvelo kanye nezimo zenhlalo yokuphila kwesigaba sabasebenzi, okubize ngokusobala okukhulu. -ukuhlela ngokwezinga. Wathi izimboni zanamuhla ngokwazo zidinga “amanzi ahlanzekile uma kuqhathaniswa,” ngokuphambene nalokho okwakukhona “edolobhaneni lasefektri” “eshintsha wonke amanzi abe umquba onukayo.”27 Ukwelula amatimu akhona kukho kokubili Isimo Sesigaba Sokusebenza eNgilandi futhi Manifesto wamaKhomanisi, wathi:
Ukuqedwa kokuphikisana phakathi kwedolobha nezwe akunakwenzeka nje. Sekuyisidingo esiqondile sokukhiqizwa kwezimboni uqobo, njengoba nje sekuyisidingo sokukhiqiza ezolimo, futhi, ngaphandle kwalokho, kwezempilo yomphakathi. Ubuthi obukhona komoya, amanzi nomhlaba kungaqedwa kuphela ngokuhlangana kwedolobha nezwe; futhi ukuhlangana okunjalo kuphela okuzoshintsha isimo soquqaba olububulayo emadolobheni, futhi kwenze indle yabo isetshenziselwe ukukhiqiza izitshalo esikhundleni sokukhiqiza izifo… Ngakho-ke ukuqedwa kokuhlukaniswa kwedolobha nezwe akukona okuphuphile. …ngokuba kuncike ekusatshalalisweni okulinganayo kwemboni yesimanje ezweni lonke.28
Ukuhlela umkhiqizo ngokuhlangene “ngohlelo lomphakathi,” u-Engels waphikisa, “kuzoqeda…ukuzithoba kwabantu ezindleleni zabo zokukhiqiza” isici sokukhiqizwa kwempahla yonxiwankulu.29 Ngaphansi kwe-socialism, vele “kusazodingeka ngomphakathi ukwazi ukuthi into ngayinye esetshenziswayo idinga umsebenzi ongakanani ekukhiqizeni kwayo.” Kuzodingeka-ke “ihlele uhlelo lwayo lokukhiqiza ngokuhambisana nezindlela zayo zokukhiqiza, okuhlanganisa, ikakhulukazi, amandla ayo okusebenza. Imiphumela ewusizo yemibhalo ehlukahlukene esetshenziswayo uma iqhathaniswa nenye kanye nenani labasebenzi abadingekayo ekukhiqizweni kwazo, ekugcineni izonquma uhlelo.”30 Kodwa ngale kokusetshenziswa okunengqondo nokongayo kwabasebenzi embonini, ukuhlela kuyodingeka ukuze kunqotshwe ukukhathala komhlabathi ezweni kanye nokungcoliswa kwedolobha okuhlobene. U-Engels wabhala: “Umphakathi kuphela owenza kube nokwenzeka ukuba amandla awo akhiqizayo ahlangane ngokuvumelana komunye nomunye ngesisekelo sohlelo olulodwa olukhulu,” kubhala u-Engels, “ongavumela imboni isatshalaliswe ezweni lonke ngendlela evumelana kangcono neyakhe. ukuthuthukiswa, kanye nokugcinwa nokuthuthukiswa kwezinye izici zokukhiqiza."31
In the Dialectics of Nature, u-Engels wayekhathazeke ngokukhethekile ngokwehluleka komnotho wezombangazwe wakudala njengokuthi “isayensi yezenhlalo yonxiwankulu” ukulandisa “ngezenzo zomuntu emikhakheni yokukhiqiza nokuhwebelana” ebezingahlosiwe, ezingaphandle kwemakethe, nezikude. Isimilo esingahleliwe somnotho wonxiwankulu sandise izinhlekelele zemvelo. "Yini ekhathalele abatshali beSpain eCuba," wabhala,
owashisa amahlathi emithambekeni yezintaba futhi wathola emlotheni umanyolo owanele one ukukhiqizwa kwezihlahla zekhofi ezinenzuzo enkulu—ababekukhathalela ngokuthi imvula enamandla yasezindaweni ezishisayo kamuva yakhukhula ingxenye engaphezulu yenhlabathi engavikelekile, ishiya idwala elingenalutho! Maqondana nemvelo, mayelana nomphakathi, indlela yamanje yokukhiqiza igxile kuphela mayelana nomphumela osheshayo, obambekayo kakhulu; bese kuthi ukumangala kuvezwe ukuthi imiphumela ekude kakhulu yezenzo eziqondiswe kulesi siphetho ihluke kakhulu, ihluke kakhulu ngohlamvu.32
Ukuze kuthuthukiswe izithakazelo zomphakathi wesintu uwonke, ngakho-ke kwakudingekile ukuba kwenziwe “isenzo esihleliwe” nokulawula ukukhiqizwa ngokuvumelana nesayensi, kucatshangelwa indawo ezungezile yasemhlabeni, okungukuthi, ngokuvumelana nemithetho yemvelo.33
U-Marx no-Engels babona i-socialism njengokwandisa amandla okukhiqiza ngobuningi kanye nomqondo wekhwalithi, futhi u-Engels waze wabhekisela kuyo. I-Anti-Dühring ukuthi ukufika kobusoshiyali bekuyoletha kanjani “intuthuko esheshayo njalo yamandla okukhiqiza kanye… nokwanda okungenamkhawulo komkhiqizo ngokwawo.” Nokho, umongo ababebhala kuwo wawungewona “umnotho womhlaba ogcwele” wanamuhla, kodwa wawusewukuqala kwentuthuko yezimboni. Enkathini yokuthuthukiswa kwezimboni, kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalombili kwaze kwaba uSuku Lomhlaba lokuqala ngo-1970, amandla okukhiqiza ezimbonini zomhlaba anda ngobukhulu izikhathi ezingaba izikhathi ezingu-1,730, okwakuyobonakala sengathi “ukwanda okungenamkhawulo” ngokombono wekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalolunye. .” Nokho, namuhla iphakamisa indaba “yokuduka” kwemvelo.34
Ngakho, imiphumela yesikhathi eside yemvelo yokukhiqiza egcizelelwa abakwa-Engels iye yavela kakhulu esikhathini sethu. Lokhu kufanekiselwa i-Anthropocene Epoch ehlongozwayo ku-Geologic Time Scale, eqala cishe ngo-1950, emele ukuvela komphakathi owenziwe ngezimboni njengento eyinhloko ekushintsheni kweSistimu Yomhlaba. Kulo mbono, okungenzeka okuphawuleka kakhulu ngenkulumo ka-Engels mayelana nokuthuthukiswa kwamandla okukhiqiza ngaphansi kwesocialism ukuthi yalandelwa ngokushesha—esigabeni esifanayo nesalandela—ngombono wokuthi inhloso ye-socialism yayingekona ukwanda ukukhiqiza ngokwayo, kodwa kunalokho “intuthuko ekhululekile” yabantu, eyayidinga ubuhlobo obunengqondo nobuhleliwe “kuwo wonke umkhakha wezimo zokuphila ezizungezile umuntu.”35
Ngakho-ke, uMarx kanye no-Engels babheka ukuhlela njengento ebalulekile enhlanganweni yezenhlalakahle/umphakathi wamakhomanisi, ukuwukhulula ekubuseni ukuhwebelana ngempahla, futhi uthembele “ohlelweni oluvamile.” Noma kunjalo, azinakubonwa njengokubona ngeso lengqondo uhlobo lokuhlela okumaphakathi ngaphansi komnotho womyalo, njengoba lokhu kwakuzovela ngasekupheleni kwawo-1920 kanye nama-30s eSoviet Union. Kunalokho, baphikisana ngokuthi ukuhlela okwenziwa ngabakhiqizi abaqondile kuzoba yintando yeningi maqondana nokukhiqiza uqobo.36 Lonke uhlelo lwesocialism, njengoba uMarx akubeka, “luqala ngokuzibusa kwemiphakathi” emphakathini lapho “izisebenzi zokubambisana” “ziyothuthukiswa zifinyelele ezingeni likazwelonke, futhi ngenxa yalokho…37 Inhlangano enengqondo yomsebenzi wabantu njengabasebenzi bomphakathi noma ngokubambisana, ngaphezu kwalokho, bekungeke kwenzeke ngaphandle kwesistimu yokuhlela. “Yonke imisebenzi yezenhlalo noma yomphakathi ngezinga elikhulu idinga, ngezinga elikhulu noma elincane, isiphathimandla esiqondisayo, ukuze kuqiniswe ukubambisana okuvumelanayo kwemisebenzi yabantu ngabanye, kanye nokwenza imisebenzi ejwayelekile enomsuka wayo ingqikithi yezinto eziphilayo ezikhiqizayo,” njengohlelo lwe ukukhiqizwa kabusha kwe-social metabolic. Ngakho-ke ukukhiqiza kudinga isiqondiso, ukubona kusengaphambili, nokuphatha, ngomqondo “womqhubi” we-orchestra. Umbono ka-Marx womnotho ohleliwe, njengoba uMichael A. Lebowitz agcizelela, wawungowabanye “abadidiyeli abahlobene” ababezobusa ngokunengqondo ukumetabolism phakathi kobuntu nemvelo.38
Njengoba uMarx ebhala ku Imibono Yenani Le-surplus, ngesidingo sikanocapitalist, futhi kanjalo a okungaphelele, indlela yokusebenza nemvelo,
Ukulindela yekusasa—ukulindela kwangempela—kwenzeka ekukhiqizeni ingcebo kuphela ngokuphathelene nesisebenzi nomhlaba. Ikusasa lingalindelwe ngempela futhi lonakaliswe kuzo zombili izimo ngokuzikhandla ngokweqile kanye nokukhathala ngaphambi kwesikhathi, kanye nokuphazamiseka kwebhalansi phakathi kwezindleko nemali engenayo. Emkhiqizweni wonxiwankulu lokhu kwenzeka kubo bobabili isisebenzi kanye nomhlaba.… Okusetshenziswayo lapha kukhona δίναμις [igama lesiGreki elisho amandla, ngomqondo ka-Aristotle wamandla ayimbangela] kanye nesikhathi sokuphila sale δίναμις sifinyezwa ngenxa yokusheshisa. izindleko.39
I-capitalism, ngokusho kwabasunguli bezinto ezibonakalayo zomlando, yakhuthaza inkulumo-ze engeyinhle, ehlanekezelwe yokuxhashazwa, ukudliwa, kanye nokukhathala/ukuqothula, “incithakalo evamile yezigaba eziphikisanayo.” Ngakho-ke, okwakudingeka “kwakuwukusungulwa kabusha okuguquguqukayo komphakathi uwonke.”40
Lesi sisho esibi sokuxhashazwa, ukudliwa komhlaba, kanye nokukhathala/ukuqothula okuchaza ubunxiwankulu kwathathwa ngokusobala ngabakwa-Engels ngokombono “wokuziphindiselela” kwemvelo, inkulumo engokomfanekiso uJean-Paul Sartre encwadini yakhe. I-Critique of Dialectical Reason kwakuwukuguqulelwa emqondweni “we-counter-finality.”41 Abantu, ngokuhlangana kwabo okusekelwe ekilasini, baba ngabamelenephysis (anti-imvelo). Lokhu kungabonakala ekucekeleni phansi kwamahlathi kanye nezikhukhula ezalandela (u-Sartre ubecabanga ngokukhiqizwa kwabalimi baseShayina okuchazwe encwadini kaRené Grousset ka-1942. I-Histoire de la Chine), lapho abantu bebukela phansi ubukhona babo siqu kanye nokunqoba kwabo okwakucatshangwa ukuthi banqoba imvelo, okuholela emiphumeleni eyinhlekelele. “Imvelo,” kubhala uSartre, “iba ukunganakwa komuntu ngokwezinga lapho umuntu enziwa ukuba amelane nakho.physis” futhi kanjalo “i-antipraxis. "42 Okuwukuphela kwempendulo enkingeni yokuhlukaniswa kwemvelo kuka-Sartre, ngokukaMarx no-Engels, kwakuwukushintsha ubudlelwano bomphakathi bokukhiqiza obuqhubezela isintu phambili enhlekeleleni enkulu. Lokhu kwakudinga a inguquko yomhlaba ngendlela ye-praxis entsha ye-socialist yentuthuko yomuntu esimeme lapho ukuphila ngokwako kwakungasabekwa njengesitha sesintu: ukuhlangana kabusha kwemvelo nomphakathi.
Isiko "lokunciphisa ubukhomanisi" ngaphakathi kweMarxism libuyela kuWilliam Morris, owaphikisa ngokuthi iBrithani yayingakwazi ukwenza ngaphansi kwengxenye yamalahle eyayiwasebenzisa.43 Kodwa kungase futhi kubonakale njengokuhlobene nalokho uPaul Burkett akubiza ngokuthi “umbono ophelele” kaMarx wentuthuko yomuntu. Lapha, ukuqoqwa kwezimali kwakuzosuswa yintuthuko ekuthuthukisweni komuntu okusezingeni futhi kunikezelwe ekukhiqizeni inani elisetshenziswayo (kunokuba inani lokushintshaniswa) kanye nokugcwaliseka kwezidingo zabo bonke abantu, ukusuka ezidingweni eziyisisekelo kuze kufike lapho. izidingo zabantu nezenhlalakahle ezithuthuke kakhulu, ngokuvumelana nendawo ezungezile iyonke.44
Ukusebenza Kokuhlela Okumaphakathi
Lapho ethatha izintambo zoMbuso ngo-October 1917, “amaBolshevik,” njengoba isazi sezomnotho esingumlandeli kaMarx uPaul Baran saphawula, “ayengenanhloso yokumisa ngokushesha ubudlela-ndawonye (nokuhlelwa kwezomnotho okuphelele) ezweni lawo elilambile nelicekelwe phansi.”45 Ekuqaleni babenombono wokulawulwa okuqinile kanye nokulawulwa kwemakethe yonxiwankulu ngaphansi kukahulumeni oqondiswe ngabasebenzi kanye nokufakwa kukahulumeni kwamabhizinisi abalulekile, okuhlanganisa uguquko olude nolunensayo oluya emnothweni wezenhlalakahle ngokugcwele. Eqinisweni, awukho umbono obambekayo wokuhlela okumaphakathi noma umnotho womyalo owawukhona ngaleso sikhathi.46 “Igama elithi 'ukuhlela,'” kubhala u-Alec Nove Umlando Wezomnotho we-USSR,
yayinencazelo ehluke kakhulu [eSoviet Union] ngo-1923-6 kuleyo eyayithola kamuva. Alukho uhlelo olusetshenzwe ngokugcwele lokukhiqiza nokwabiwa, akukho “umnotho womyalo.” Ochwepheshe baseGosplan…basebenze ngokuyisimangaliso, bezabalaza nezibalo ezinganele ukuze bakhe “ibhalansi yomnotho kazwelonke” wokuqala emlandweni, ukuze kuhlinzekwe uhlobo oluthile lwesisekelo sokuhlelwa kokukhula… Iphuzu liwukuthi lokho okwavela lezi zibalo kwakungezona izinhlelo ngomqondo wemiyalelo yokwenza, kodwa “izibalo zokulawula,” ingxenye ethile eyayiyisibikezelo futhi ngokwengxenye ingumhlahlandlela wezinqumo zamasu okutshalwa kwezimali, isisekelo sokuxoxa nokunquma izinto eziza kuqala.47
UbuKhomanisi beMpi, obaqala phakathi no-1918, izinyanga eziyisishiyagalombili ngemva kweNguquko ka-Okthoba, bekuwumzamo omkhulu wokubhekana nezinxushunxushu nomonakalo owabangelwa iMpi Yombango YaseRussia, kuhlanganise nokuhlasela kwezwe yiwo wonke amandla ombuso amakhulu ayesekela. wamabutho “Amhlophe”. UbuKhomanisi beMpi bebungahlangene nokuhlela, kodwa bumayelana nokuthengiswa kwempahla ezweni lonke, ukukhiqizwa kwempi, ukuvinjelwa kohwebo oluzimele, ukuqedwa kancane kwamanani entengo, izabelo zamahhala, kanye nokufunwa ngenkani kwempahla kanye nensalela.48 Umbuso wamaSoviet wamavukelambuso wanqoba iMpi Yombango, wehlula amabutho aMhlophe futhi waphoqa amandla ombuso ukuba aphume ezweni. Kodwa umnotho wawonakele futhi ithimba labasebenzi bezimboni ezincane, elaliwumgogodla wenguquko, lawohloka, laba nengxenye kuphela yezisebenzi zezimboni ngo-1920 njengango-1914.49 Ngo-1921, ebhekene nokuwohloka komnotho, indlala, kanye nokuvukela kwamatilosi ase-Kronstadt, u-VI Lenin wahlela ukuhlehla okunesu, eqala kabusha ukuhweba ezimakethe kuNqubomgomo Entsha Yezomnotho (NEP). Kusukela ngo-1920, uLenin waphinde wathatha isinyathelo sakhe sokwethula uhlelo lokufakwa kukagesi phakathi neminyaka eyishumi kuya kweyishumi nanhlanu yayo yonke iRussia, ukwakha iziteshi zikagesi kanye nengqalasizinda ehlobene kuzo zonke izifunda ezinkulu zezimboni. Lokhu kwakuzoba impumelelo enkulu kakhulu mayelana nokuthuthukiswa komnotho ekuqaleni kwawo-1920.50
I-NEP yabonwa njengenkathi yenguquko embuthweni obheke kwi-socialism. ULenin wayibiza ngokuthi “i-state capitalism.” Umbuso waseSoviet wagcina ukulawula izinga eliphezulu lomnotho, okuhlanganisa izimboni ezinzima, ezezimali, nohwebo lwangaphandle. Ekuqanjweni kokuqala kukaLenin, i-NEP yayiwumfelandawonye olinganiselwe onemali enkulu ngenhloso yokuguqula ukukhiqizwa ngokuhambisana nohlobo lwayo oluthuthuke kakhulu lwe-monopoly capitalism, kodwa ngaphansi kokulawulwa kobusoshiyali, kanye nendawo yokuhlala nabalimi. “Isifunda saseSoviet,” kubhala uTamás Krausz Ukwakha kabusha uLenin, "inikeze impatho ekhethekile ekuhleleni imali enkulu kanye nempahla kahulumeni egxile ezimakethe esikhundleni sendawo yangasese ewumshoshaphansi, umnotho onesiphithiphithi ongalawuleki wonxiwankulu abancane." U-Lenin wasebenzisa umqondo wobunxiwankulu bombuso ukuze angabhekiseli kuphela kumkhakha kahulumeni emnothweni oxubile, kodwa futhi nasekusungulweni komphakathi okuqondile emgudwini obheke kwi-socialism, eyakha umongo we-NEP.51
Kungesikhathi se-NEP lapho kwaqala khona izinga lokuhlelwa kwentuthuko emnothweni. I-Supreme Council of the National Economy yasungulwa kusukela ngo-1917. Nokho, kwakungaphansi kwe-NEP lapho i-Gosplan yasungulwa khona njengekhomishana yokuhlela yombuso eyinhloko. I-Gosplan ithuthukise uhlelo lokuqala lwebhalansi yomnotho kazwelonke, ihlinzeka ngezibalo zokulawula ukuze ziqondise izinqumo zokutshalwa kwezimali ezineziqondiso ezinomkhawulo emikhakheni yamasu embalwa elawulwa umbuso. Indlela esafufusa yamathebula okufakwayo okufakwayo yethulwa ngo-1923-24, igqugquzelwa nguFrançois Quesnay's. Ithebula le-economique kanye nezikimu zokukhiqiza zikaMarx ku Capital.52
Ngo-1925, i-NEP yayisiphumelele ukubuyisela umnotho wangaphambi kwempi futhi ukukhiqizwa kwezimboni ngaphandle kwezolimo kwase kuqala ukukhuphuka. U-Lenin wayeke waveza ngo-1922 ukuthi i-NEP ingase idinge ukuhlala isikhathi eside, ngeminyaka engamashumi amabili nanhlanu “njengengenathemba kakhulu.”53 Kodwa ngokufa kwakhe ngo-1924 kanye nempumelelo ye-NEP ekubuyiseleni umnotho, kwavela Impikiswano Enkulu mayelana noguquko lwezenhlalakahle kanye nokuhlela. Ithiyori ye-Classic Marxist yayisekelwe ezinguqukweni ezenzeka kuqala emazweni athuthukile aseNtshonalanga Yurophu. Uguquko lwaseRussia ekuqaleni lwalucatshangwa njengolubangela uguquko olubanzi lwabasebenzi baseYurophu, nokho, olungazange lwenzeke. I-Russia yazithola iyizwe elingathuthukisiwe, ngokuyinhloko elimpofu, elisesimeni sokuhlukaniswa kwezombusazwe nezomnotho futhi libhekene nosongo oluqhubekayo lokuhlasela kombuso.
Bonke ababambiqhaza abakhulu ku-Great Debate bavumelana ngesidingo sokudlulela emnothweni ohleliwe wezenhlalakahle, kodwa kwavela ukungaboni ngaso linye mayelana nesimo kanye nesimo soshintsho, kanye nezinga abalimi okufanele baphucwe ngalo umhlaba wabo. Amanye amaBolshevik ahamba phambili, njengo-Nikolai Bukharin, aphikisana ngokuthi yini ngaleso sikhathi okwakuwumugqa ovelele, egcizelela indlela yokukhula ehamba kancane, elinganiselayo esekelwe ekuqhubekeni kwe-NEP njengenkathi yezinguquko. Ngokuphambene, labo abafana nosomnotho u-EA Preobrazhensky, ohlonzwe "nabaphikisa kwesokunxele," bathande ukushintshwa okushesha kakhulu emnothweni ohleliwe phakathi nendawo kanye nokudliwa kwabalimi ngenqubo yokuqongelela ama-socialist primitive.54 Izibalo ezinkulu zazo zombili washiya ukuphikiswa, kuhlanganise no-Preobrazhensky noLeon Trotsky, nokuthi yini uJoseph Stalin ayezoyiveza njenge ukuphikiswa okufanele, ehlotshaniswa noBukharin (uStalin ayehambisana naye phakathi neNkhulumo-mpikiswano Enkulu), bonke ekugcineni baqedwa ngokulandelana, kwashiya uStalin engumyalo ngokuphelele.55
Ngokuphakama kukaStalin emandleni ngo-1928, kwathathwa izifundo ezisheshayo zokuthuthuka kwezimboni ngokuhambisana neziphakamiso ezathuthukiswa yiqembu eliphikisayo lesokunxele, uStalin ngokwakhe ayeqale waphikisana nalo. Umgomo waba owokwakha “Ubuhlali Ezweni Elilodwa” uma kubhekwa isikhundla esizimele se-USSR. Lokhu, nokho, kwathatha isimo sokunqwabelana kwakudala kobudlela-ndawonye okunonya, kanye nomnotho ophansi phezulu, wokubusa kwezikhulu, okwaqala ngohlelo lokuqala lweminyaka emihlanu ngo-1929. Ngo-1925-26, ngaphansi kwe-NEP, umkhakha wombuso wakha amaphesenti angama-46. kwezomnotho; ngo-1932, lokhu kwase kukhuphukele kumaphesenti angama-91.56
Inhlekelele yokuhlela kweSoviet yayisesimweni esibucayi somlando okwavela kuzo, okwaholela kulokho isazi-mlando esidumile sase-USSR, uMoses Lewin, akubiza ngokuthi “ukunyamalala kokuhlela ohlelweni.”57 Umphumela wezimboni ngo-1928-29 ngaphansi kwe-NEP wawukhule ngesilinganiso samaphesenti angama-20. Nokho lokho akuzange kubhekwe njengokwanele. U-Bukharin ukhulume ngokumelene nezinhlelo ezakhiwa "ama-madmen" afuna izinga lokukhula komnotho waminyaka yonke eliphindwe kabili kunelethwe yi-NEP. Ngakho-ke inqubo yokuhlela yacatshangelwa kusukela kweyokuqala ngezisekelo ezingelona iqiniso. Kwavela uhlelo lokuhlela okumaphakathi olwathatha uhlobo oluthile lwe-a umyalo womnotho, ngayo yonke imiyalelo yokwabiwa kwabasebenzi nezinsiza, okokufaka ekukhiqizeni, okuhlosiwe okucacisiwe, nokunye okunqunywa ngokomthetho kusukela phezulu. Lokhu kwahlanganiswa nokuqhubekisela phambili uhlamvu oluyisisekelo lwenqubo yemisebenzi yonxiwankulu ngokufakwa kwamasu okuphatha isayensi ye-Taylorist, kuqedwe ukuthi kungenzeka kube khona izinhlobo eziya phezulu zenhlangano noma zokulawula abasebenzi, njengoba kwakucatshangwa ekuqaleni kumaSoviet abasebenzi.
Iziqondiso ezibekwe ohlelweni lweminyaka emihlanu yokuqala zazingaphezu kwamandla azo zonke ukuthi zifezeke, nomphumela wokuthi uhlelo lwahlehliswa ngokuyimpumelelo cishe kusukela ekuqaleni. Uhlelo lomyalo olwavela lwalulawulwa ngokusemthethweni, kuyilapho ukuhlela okunengqondo kwakungekho ubufakazi. Ngaleso sikhathi, "i-supertempo" yezimboni isho ukudliwa kwempahla yabalimi abaningi kanye nokuqoqwa ngempoqo, okuthinta izigidi. Njengoba uLewin abhala, “Isenzo sikaStalin sokuphikisa abantu besiwukuhlasela koquqaba oludumile. Kwakudinga ukuphoqelelwa ngezinga elikhulu kangangokuthi izwe lonke kwadingeka liguqulwe libe umshini omkhulu, ocindezelayo.” Ngaphansi kwezimo ezinjalo, ukuqoqwa kwabantu ngonya kwakungenakugwenywa.58
Noma kunjalo, nakho konke ukushiyeka kwayo kanye nobuqaba, umnotho ongahluzeki, ongenangqondo, wokugunyazwa ovela eSoviet Union waba yimpumelelo enkulu emiphumeleni yawo yentuthuko. Ikwazile ukubeka phambili ukutshalwa kwezimali embonini esindayo ngendlela engakaze ibonwe ngaphambili. Isilinganiso sonyaka sokukhula kwezinga lomkhiqizo wezimboni weminyaka ka-1930-40 ngokomthetho ‘sasingu-16.5 wamaphesenti,’ okwathi, ngokwamazwi kaLewin, “sasiyisibalo esihlaba umxhwele (futhi sasingathandeki kangako ngisho noma ukuhlola okuncane kosomnotho baseNtshonalanga kukhethwa). ”59 ISoviet Union yagxumela kwezezimboni, futhi yandisa ezokuthutha kanye nokukhiqizwa kukagesi, nakuba ezolimo zisalele emuva. Okunye ukuthuthuka okukhulu kwenzeke kwezemfundo kanye nokufudukela emadolobheni.60 Amabhizinisi amakhulu angaba yizinkulungwane eziyisishiyagalombili, akhiwa phakathi kuka-1928 no-1941.61
Ngo-1928, iSoviet Union yayiseyizwe elingathuthukile. NgeMpi Yezwe Yesibili kwase kuvele amandla ezimboni ezinkulu. Akukho kungabaza ubuqiniso obuqinile bukaStalin lapho ethi, ngo-1931, “Sisemva ngeminyaka engama-50–100 emazweni asethuthukile. Kufanele sidabule leli banga eminyakeni eyishumi. Sizokwenza lokho noma sizocindezelwa.”62 Izibalo zakhe zazilungile. Ngesikhathi saseJalimane Wehrmacht yahlasela iRussia eminyakeni eyishumi kamuva, ngo-1941, inamabutho e-Axis angaphezu kwezigidi ezintathu, ehlelwe ngokwezigaba zezikhali, futhi etshalwe endaweni eyi-1,800-mile front, amabutho ahlaselayo azithola ebhekene namandla amakhulu ezimboni kanye nezempi ngokungafani neRussia ayenayo. ayebhekane neMpi Yezwe Yokuqala. Amabutho aseSoviet enza ukumelana okungavamile okudlula kude noma yini u-Adolf Hitler nabeluleki bakhe ababeyicabange. Umlando wezwe lanamuhla wawuzovula lelo qiniso, okuholela ekunqotshweni kweJalimane lobuNazi.63
Kodwa-ke, ubuthakathaka bomnotho waseSoviet, kanye nokukhiqizwa kwawo okuphethwe futhi okuhleliwe, kwakuzokhathaza uhlelo ngemva kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili. Nakuba ukugcinwa kwamazinga okukhula ahlaba umxhwele futhi, ngemva kukaStalinist, ikakhulukazi ekuqaleni kukaLeonid Brezhnev, ekwazi ukunikeza kokubili izibhamu nebhotela esimweni seMpi Yomshoshaphansi—lapho yayibhekene khona nozakwabo omkhulu kakhulu nonolaka kakhulu E-United States—ubuthakathaka besimiso samaSoviet baba sobala ngokwengeziwe.64 Umnotho ohleliwe ohleliwe uholele ekuhlanganisweni kwamandla kanye nokuvela kwesigaba esisha esibusayo sabaphathi abaphethe, noma nachal'niki, ephuma ku nomenklatura uhlelo (olusebenzisa amandla phezu kwabaqokiwe bezinga eliphezulu kwiQembu), olwalunesisindo ohlelweni, luvimbela izinguquko ezidingekayo.65 Naphezu kwentuthuko yawo yokuqala ekuhlaziyeni okokufakayo, umnotho wamaSoviet awuzange uhlanganise izindlela ze-cybernetics kanye namathuba okuhlela okuhle kakhulu okuvele ngoguquko olusha lwekhompiyutha emashumini eminyaka ngemva kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili, naphezu kokunyakaza okuthile ngale ndlela.66 Ukugcizelelwa ngokweqile kwemiklamo emisha yokutshalwa kwezimali kuholele ekunganakeni kokutshalwa kwezimali esikhundleni, nomphumela wokuthi ukukhiqizwa kwenziwa ngemishini engasasebenzi okwaholela ekumisweni okuningi komsebenzi.67 Ukwenziwa kwemisebenzi yabasebenzi, okuhambisana nokuqashwa ngokugcwele kanye nezinye iziqinisekiso, kwehlisa amathuba okuphoqwa kwezomnotho ohlelweni uma kuqhathaniswa ne-capitalism, okuholela ezinkingeni zokugqugquzela abasebenzi.68
Uhlelo lweSoviet lokuphathwa kwebhizinisi, njengoba uChe Guevara aqaphela ngokujulile, lwalusekelwe ku-capitalism yangaphambi kokubusa kombuso wezwe, hhayi i-monopoly capitalism, futhi ngaleyo ndlela incike kakhulu ekuthengiseni ama-interfirm esikhundleni se-intrafirm transactions. Lokhu kwakusho ukuthi amabhizinisi athembele emananini angaphandle, okube nomphumela oxakayo wokuthi ubudlelwano bezimakethe bunciphisa ukuhlelwa ezingeni lebhizinisi ngezindlela ezingazange zenzeke kulokho uGalbraith ayekubiza ngokuthi “uhlelo lokuhlela” lwezinkampani ezizimele eNtshonalanga. Ngaso leso sikhathi, ukukhiqizwa kwefekthri kwahlelwa ngokuhambisana nemodeli yakudala ye-Ford Motors lapho isigaba ngasinye noma i-syndicate yenza zonke izingxenye, ngokuphambene nohlelo lokukhiqiza lonxiwankulu oluthuthuke kakhulu olunabahlinzeki abaningi, olwavimbela ukuhluleka.69 Okubaluleke kakhulu, umnotho we-Soviet command wawuthembele kusukela ekuqaleni ekuthuthukisweni okubanzi, esikhundleni sokujulile, ngokuhlelwa okuphoqelekile kwezisebenzi nezinsiza, ngokuphambene nokutshalwa kokusebenza kahle okuguquguqukayo.70 Ngakho-ke, lapho abasebenzi nezinsiza sekuqala ukushoda, kunokuba zibe ziningi, umnotho wantengantenga, okwadala ukushoda okukhulu.71
Noma kunjalo, nangaleso sikhathi umnotho waqhubeka ukhula, nakuba kancane kancane, kwaze kwaba nezinxushunxushu zenkathi ye-Gorbachev—ngenkathi futhi inikeza izinsiza zezenhlalakahle ezibanzi kubantu, ezazinomona ngokombono weningi lomhlaba, uma kuntuleka ukusetshenziswa kwabantu abaningi. nezimpahla zikanokusho.72 Ekugcineni, bekuyisiqondiso esithathwe ingxenye ephezulu yesigaba senhlalo esihlotshaniswa ne nomenklatura uhlelo, olwalufisa ukuphila okunethezeka njengezindawo eziphezulu eNtshonalanga, okwakuzovala isiphetho sesimiso saseSoviet.73
Njengoba uHarry Magdoff noFred Magdoff bachaza ku "Ukusondela kwiSocialism,” “Ukushiyeka komnotho waseSoviet, okwabonakala kungekudala ngemva kokusimama kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili, kwakungewona umphumela wokwehluleka ukuhlela okumaphakathi, kodwa indlela ukuhlela okwakwenziwa ngayo. Ukuhlela okumaphakathi ngesikhathi sokuthula akudingi ukulawulwa yiziphathimandla ezimaphakathi kuyo yonke imininingwane yokukhiqiza. Akukhona nje kuphela ukuthi ukubusa kanye nokungabikho kwentando yeningi akuzona izithako ezidingekayo zokuhlela okumaphakathi, akuzuzisi ukuhlela okuhle. ” Okuxakayo ukuthi kwakuwumlingiswa wesigaba sohlelo lweSoviet kanye nenkohlakalo edlangile okwaholela ekubhujisweni kwayo.74
Isikhathi somnotho saseShayina, esilandela iNguquko yango-1949, sasifushane kakhulu, sahlala kusukela ngo-1953-78. Yethula uhlelo lwayo lokuqala lweminyaka emihlanu olusekelwe kumodeli yaseSoviet ngo-1953, nesigaba sayo sokuhlela sihlala kuze kube yilapho isungula "izinguquko zemakethe" ngemva kwekhulu leminyaka. Phakathi nesikhathi sokuhlela esimaphakathi, lapho kufanele futhi ibhekane nosongo lwase-US futhi ngaleyo ndlela yaphoqeleka ukuthi iguqule izinsiza ezinkulu ezidingekayo ekuvikelweni kwezwe, i-People's Republic of China yazuza impumelelo ebabazekayo, yasungula isizinda sezimboni nezenhlalo ukuze kube okuhlaba umxhwele nakakhulu. ukuthuthukiswa komnotho okwakuzolandela lapho kuvulwe umnotho waseShayina kanye nokuhlanganiswa kwawo okulawulwayo nomnotho womhlaba.
Akungabazeki ukuthi irekhodi lomnotho wamaShayina ngesikhathi sawo sokuqala sokuhlela lalingashintshile. Ukuhlela okumaphakathi, njengoba kwaqalwa eShayina kwakunobuthakathaka obuningi obufanayo nobebunabo eSoviet Union, okuholele ekungalinganini kanye nesimo esifanayo “sokunyamalala kokuhlela ohlelweni.” Noma kunjalo, kwafezwa okukhulu. Ezolimo zafakwa esisekelweni esisha ngamaqoqo kanye nempahla yomphakathi.75 “Bambalwa abantu abaziyo,” kubhala uFred Magdoff esethulweni sakhe sencwadi kaDongping Han Uguquko Lwezamasiko Olungaziwa: Impilo Noshintsho Esigodini SaseShayina,
ngokuvakashela eShayina ehlobo lika-1974, ngesikhathi seNguquko Yezamasiko, okwenziwa ithimba lezazi zezolimo namahlathi zaseMelika. Bahamba izindawo eziningi futhi bamangazwa yilokho abakubona, njengoba kuchazwe esihlokweni sephephabhuku New York Times (Septhemba 24, 1974). Leli thimba lakhiwe ososayensi abayishumi “ababeyizibukeli zezitshalo ezinokuhlangenwe nakho okubanzi e-Asia.” Njengoba owawina uMklomelo KaNobel uNorman Borlaug akubeka— “Kwadingeka ubheke kanzima ukuze uthole insimu embi. Konke kwakuluhlaza futhi kukuhle yonke indawo esasihamba kuyo. Ngaba nomuzwa wokuthi intuthuko yayiphawuleka kakhulu kunalokho engangikulindele.” Inhloko yethimba, u-Sterling Wortman, iphini likamongameli we-Rockefeller Foundation uchaze isilimo serayisi ngokuthi “…isilinganiso sokuqala ngempela. Kwakukhona inkundla ngemva kwenkundla eyayikahle njenganoma yini oyibonayo.” Baphinde bahlabeka umxhwele ngokwanda kwamazinga amakhono abalimi emiphakathini. UWortman uthe “Bonke bakhushulelwa ezingeni lamakhono abantu abangcono kakhulu. Bonke babelana ngezinto ezitholakalayo.” Incazelo eningiliziwe yokuphawula kwabo ngezolimo eShayina yanyatheliswa kujenali ehlonishwayo Isayensi ngo-1975 nguDkt. Sprague. Inqubekelaphambili enkulu kwezolimo yaseShayina emva kweNguquko Yezamasiko yenziwa yaba nokwenzeka yintuthuko yangaleso sikhathi. Ngisho nokwenyuka kokusetshenziswa kukamanyolo okwenzeka ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yawo-1970 nasekuqaleni kwawo-1980 kwenziwa izimboni ezaqanjwa yiChina ngo-1973.76
Ukukhula kwamandla ezimboni e-China ngaphansi kuka-Mao Zedong "kwakushesha kakhulu" uma kuqhathaniswa cishe nawo wonke amanye amazwe asathuthuka.77 Ukufunda nokubhala kanye nesilinganiso sobude besikhathi sokuphila kwaguqulwa ngokuphelele, kwabeka iShayina ezingeni lamazwe anemali engenayo emaphakathi ngokwemibandela yokuthuthukiswa komuntu ngasekupheleni kwawo-1970, naphezu kweholo layo lisaphansi kakhulu ngomuntu ngamunye. “Umthelela wensalela wokuhlela” kwaba ukwanda okukhulu “kwezinga lenqubekelaphambili yobuchwepheshe.” Njengoba uChris Bramall abhala emsebenzini wakhe omkhulu we-1993, Ekudumiseni Ukuhlela Kwezomnotho kwe-Maoist, “Uma umuntu ekholelwa ukuthi amakhono ayinkomba engcono yentuthuko yezomnotho kunokuceba, kokubili iShayina neSichuan [Isifundazwe] zase zithuthuke kakhulu ngesikhathi sokushona kukaMao. Ukuthi iBhange Lomhlaba likhetha ukugcizelela kakhulu ukuceba kuyisinqumo esivamile.”78
Ngemuva kuka-1978 i-China yasuka ngokushesha emnothweni ohleliwe omaphakathi yaya ohlelweni lwezomnotho oluxubile olufana ne-NEP kaLenin. Kungabonakala ngokwesakhiwo, ngokwemigomo kaMarxist, njengoba u-Samir Amin aphawula, “njengonxiwankulu bombuso” ngaphansi kobuholi beQembu LamaKhomanisi LaseShayina (yize amagama athi “imakethe yezenhlalakahle” ngisho “nesocialism yombuso” abuye asetshenziswa).79 Lokhu kwakusho ukuthi kube noshintsho olukhulu ezimakethe, kuyilapho umkhakha wezwe usalokhu umkhulu, ubusa izindawo eziphakeme zomnotho futhi uqondisa lonke uhlelo, ngaphansi “kokuhlalisana kwabantu okunezici zaseShayina.” I-GDP yaseShayina ikhule izikhathi ezingamashumi amathathu phakathi kuka-1978 no-2015, yadlula kude zonke ezinye “izimangaliso zomnotho” zomlando mayelana nokuthuthuka kwezimboni.80
Umhlaba, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni zasemakhaya, ingxenye enkulu yahlala ngaphansi kobunikazi bombuso/ngokuhlangene. Njengamanje iChina inezinkampani zikahulumeni ezibalelwa ku-150,000 50,000, ezibalelwa ku-30 40 ezingaphansi kukahulumeni omkhulu, kanti ezinye zikahulumeni wasekhaya. Amabhizinisi kahulumeni enza cishe amaphesenti angama-44 e-GDP isiyonke (cishe amaphesenti angama-XNUMX e-GDP okungezona ezokulima) kanye namaphesenti angama-XNUMX ezimpahla zikazwelonke.81 Lezi zinkampani zilawulwa ngokuqinile uhulumeni (nabaphathi abajwayelekile bezinkampani zikahulumeni abaqokwe Umnyango Wenhlangano Ephakathi Yenhlangano). Zihlanganiswe nezimakethe kodwa zithola ukwesekwa noxhaso lukahulumeni futhi kulindeleke ukuthi zifeze izinjongo zikahulumeni ngale kokwandisa inzuzo kuyilapho zihlinzeka ngemali enqwabelene yezomnotho kuhulumeni, efinyelela kumaphesenti angama-30 enzuzo yazo. Ngesikhathi sodlame lwe-COVID-19 iQembu lanikeza amafemu ombuso indima ebalulekile.82
I-China iyaqhubeka nokwethula izinhlelo zeminyaka emihlanu lapho ukulawula kwayo umkhakha wombuso kuyisizinda sayo esikhulu sokuhola umnotho wonke.83 Ngo-2002, bekunamabhizinisi kahulumeni waseShayina ayisithupha ku-Global Fortune 500. Ngonyaka wezi-2012, lokhu kwase kukhuphuke kwafinyelela kumashumi ayisithupha nanhlanu. Kuqashelwa ngokusobala Iqembu LamaKhomanisi LaseShayina ukuthi imakethe ingamandla angenanhliziyo futhi angenangqondo, adinga ukuthi umbuso ubambe iqhaza eliqondile ekuqondiseni umnotho. Lokhu kuthathe uhlobo lwalokho okwaziwa ngokuthi “ukulawulwa kombuso (owaziwa nangokuthi umthetho ohleliwe)” kanye nomgomo “wokukhiqiza ngokubambisana” kombuso nemakethe.84
Njengoba u-Yi Wen, isazi sezomnotho kanye nesekela likamongameli we-Federal Reserve Board yase-St. Louis ephawulile, “i-China yacindezela cishe iminyaka eyi-150 kuya kwengama-200 (noma ngisho nangaphezulu) yezinguquko zezomnotho eNgilandi ngo-1700-1900 kanye ne-United States ngo. 1760-1920 naseJapane ngo-1850-1960 zaba isizukulwane esisodwa.”85 Isici esibalulekile somnotho waseShayina, esigcina umkhakha wezwe oholayo, futhi ngenxa yalokho amandla amakhulu ombuso okulawula umnotho—futhi, empeleni, ukuhlela amashifu ekwabiweni kwemisebenzi nezinsiza—kuwukungavikeleki okukhulu kakhulu. ezinkingeni zezomnotho, ezivame ukuphelela eziphazameni zendawo ekukhiqizeni.86 Noma kunjalo, ukungqubuzana okumaphakathi "kokuhlalisana okunezici zesiShayina" kutholakala ezingeni lokungalingani manje osekucishe kwafinyelela ezingxenyeni zase-US, nasekuxhashazweni ngokwedlulele kwabasebenzi abavela kwamanye amazwe abavela ezindaweni zasemaphandleni abaqashwe ekukhiqizweni kwamanye amazwe kwamanye amazwe. Lezi seziphenduke izindawo ezikhathazayo kakhulu.87
Ukushabalala kweSoviet Union kanye nokuvulwa kweChina emnothweni womhlaba kwamukelwa emhlabeni wonke emazweni aseNtshonalanga—ikakhulukazi ngaphakathi kwezomnotho we-orthodox njengomnyombo wombono wohlelo—njengokunikeza ubufakazi obuqand’ ikhanda bokuthi ukuhlelwa kwezomnotho kwakungaphumeleli futhi kwakungeke kuphumelele. qala. I-Socialism yahlonzwa ngokuphelele ngokuhlela, okwathiwa, kwaholela ekuhlulekeni okungenakugwenywa. Okwakugqame kulokhu “kwakuwukucabanga ukuthi umkhuba wamaSoviet wembula isimo esibalulekile somnotho ohleliwe ophakathi nendawo.”88
Kodwa-ke, ukulahla okunjalo okugcwele kokuhlela okumaphakathi kuzo zonke izinhlobo nezimo, okuhlukanisiwe nokuhlaziywa okuphathekayo, kwakungekho sisekelo sangempela sethiyori, futhi kwakuphikiswa ngokoqobo. Umnotho wobunxiwankulu wona ngokwawo wawuvame ukuphendukela ezinhlelweni ezimaphakathi zesikhathi sempi. Phakathi neMpi Yezwe Yesibili, i-United States, isibonelo, yasungula uhlelo olubanzi lokuhlela kuzwelonke, olwaluqhutshwa i-War Production Board nezinye izinhlaka, olwashintsha izinsiza nokukhiqiza kuyilapho lifaka ukulinganisa nokulawula amanani. Ukukhiqizwa kwezimoto zabantu, okuwumkhakha wezimboni oyinhloko wezwe, kwaguqulwa ngokushesha kwaba ukukhiqizwa kwezikhali, amathangi, nezindiza. Kwakunesidingo esikhulu sokukhiqiza imikhumbi yempi nemikhumbi yabahwebi. Izimpahla zempi zazingadingeki e-United States kuphela kodwa nakubasekeli bayo.89 Lokhu kwafuna nokwandiswa okukhulu kanye namashifu amakhulu ezisebenzini, njengoba izigidi zamadoda zazidonseleka enkonzweni yezempi. Ukuqashwa okukhokhelwayo kwabesifazane kwakhula ngamaphesenti angama-57 phakathi nempi; ngo-1943, abesifazane bakha amaphesenti angu-65 abantu abasebenza embonini yezindiza.90 Konke lokhu kwakudinga ukuhlela okumaphakathi, okuhlanganisa ama-ejensi ahlelayo, iziqondiso zombuso, nokulawulwa kwezimali kanye nezezimali. Ucwaningo lukahulumeni kwezesayensi nobuchwepheshe lwathuthukiswa, okudume kakhulu ku-Manhattan Project. Imali enqwabelene yezomnotho ekhiqizwe umphakathi iqondiswe kabusha kakhulu ukuze kube lula ukukhiqizwa kwempi, kanti imboni kwadingeka ididiyelwe ukuze kwandiswe impahla ethile yezempi ngesikhathi esifanele nangesikhathi esifanele.91 Ukuhlela okumaphakathi, njengoba uMichał Kalecki akuchaza, “kuhlanganisa umthamo wokukhiqiza, isikhwama samaholo, amaphrojekthi amakhulu okutshalwa kwezimali, kanye nokulawula amanani kanye nokusatshalaliswa kwezinto eziyisisekelo.” Ukuhlelwa kwesikhathi sempi sase-US kufanela le ncazelo ngokwezinga elikhulu, okubonisa ukuthi umnotho oxubile ubungahambisani kuzo zonke izimo nokuhlela okumaphakathi.92
Ngaphandle kokuhlela kwezenhlalo nezomnotho, izinjongo ze-socialism okuhloswe ngazo ukulingana okukhulu kanye nokusimama kwemvelo akunakwenzeka ukufeza. Okuhlangenwe nakho okunengqondo nomlando kubonisa ukuthi ngaphandle kwesistimu yokuhlela yohlobo oluthile olusebenza emazingeni ahlukahlukene, ukusuka endaweni yokusebenza kuya endaweni yendawo kuye kuzwelonke, ayikho indlela ecatshangwayo yokubhekana ngokuphumelelayo nesimo esiphuthumayo seplanethi yethu noma yokuqinisekisa “ukuphila okuhle kubo bonke abantu.”93 Lokhu ngeke kufezeke emphakathini othi “Qoqa, qongelela! Lowo nguMose nabaprofethi!”94 Ukuhlela, nokho, kudinga ukuba kube ngentando yeningi ukuze kuzuzwe imiphumela emihle emphakathini. "Akukho lutho ekuhleleni okuphakathi" ngokwakho, uFred noHarry Magdoff baphawula kwethi "Approaching Socialism,"
lokho kudinga umyalo kanye nokuvala zonke izici zokuhlela kuziphathimandla ezimaphakathi. Lokho kwenzeka ngenxa yethonya lezintshisekelo ezikhethekile ze-bureaucratic namandla amakhulu ombuso. Ukuhlelela abantu kumele kubandakanye abantu. Izinhlelo zezifunda, amadolobhakazi, namadolobhana zidinga ukubandakanyeka okusebenzayo kwabantu bendawo, izimboni, nezitolo emikhandlwini yabasebenzi neyomphakathi. Uhlelo lulonke—ikakhulukazi ukunquma ukusatshalaliswa kwezinsiza phakathi kwezimpahla ezisetshenziswayo kanye nokutshalwa kwezimali—ludinga ukuba abantu babambe iqhaza. Futhi ngenxa yalokho, abantu kufanele babe namaqiniso, indlela ecacile yokwazisa ukucabanga kwabo, futhi babe nesandla ezinqumweni eziyisisekelo.95
Umnotho ohleliwe obumbene, onezici eziningi, ongahlanganisa amazinga amaningi futhi uhilele "intando yeningi yenqubo yonke," awufuni kuqedwe izimakethe zabathengi noma inkululeko yabasebenzi yokusebenza lapho bethanda khona (futhi ngaleyo ndlela kube nemakethe yezabasebenzi ngalo mqondo) .96 Nokho, idinga ukulawula phezu kokutshalwa kwezimali ezimpahleni ezinkulu nasezezimali, kanjalo nokulawulwa komphakathi okuvumela ukuqoqwa kwensalela yezomnotho ngezindlela ezizuzisa inani labantu lilonke (kuhlanganise nezizukulwane ezizayo), ukuqinisekisa izimo zokulingana, izisekelo eziyisisekelo. yentuthuko yomuntu kubo bonke abantu, kanye nokuvikelwa kwemvelo.
Endabeni yakhe ethi “In Defense of Socialist Planning” ngo-1986, u-Ernest Mandel waveza ukuthi inzuzo enkulu yokuhlela umnotho ukuthi izinqumo zokwabiwa kwezinsiza kanye nezabasebenzi ziyenziwa. ex ante bese ilungiswa ngokuzama nangephutha, kunokuba iposi ex ngokusebenzisa amandla okulamula emakethe yezimpahla (kanye “nokulinganisa kwayo ngesikhwama”). Ngakho ukuhlela kuvumela ukuba izinqumo zenziwe ngokuqondile ngesisekelo salokho uMarx akubiza ngokuthi “isigaba sabefundisi… Lokhu akudingi ukuthi zonke izinqumo zenziwe yi-centralized bureaucracy; ihambisana nentando yeningi yabantu esekelwe phezu “ukwenza izikhungo yobukhosi obuthandwayo.” Imingcele eyisisekelo yokukhiqiza izosungulwa abakhiqizi abahlobene emphakathini ohlelwe ngomgomo wokubambisana. Umphakathi onjalo “unga khula empucukweni esikhundleni sokudliwa nje.”97
Izifunda zeSocialist kanye neMvelo
Kunombono owasakazwa kabanzi, owacishe wamukelwa emhlabeni wonke ngemva kokushabalala kweSoviet Union, wokuthi umlando wamaSoviet ngezemvelo wawumubi kakhulu kunowaseNtshonalanga, nokuthi lokhu kwakubangelwa yinhlalakahle kanye nokuhlela okumaphakathi.98 Kuyiqiniso ukuthi irekhodi le-USSR ngezemvelo lalidabukisa ngezindlela eziningi. Umuntu kufanele acabange kuphela ngeChernobyl noLwandle i-Aral. Ngesikhathi sikaStalin, izazi eziningi zemvelo zaseSoviet zahlanzwa, kwaba nemiphumela emikhulu ekuthuthukisweni kweSoviet. Nokho, umbono ovelele usula impumelelo yezemvelo yaseSoviet, ebonakala emabhandeni ayo aluhlaza ezungeze amadolobha, adumile. zapovedniki (izindawo zokulondoloza imvelo zesayensi), imikhankaso yayo emikhulu yokutshalwa kabusha kwamahlathi/yokutshalwa kwamahlathi, indima yayo ehamba phambili ekukhuthazeni izivumelwano zezemvelo emazweni omhlaba, kanye nezinhlangano zayo ezinamandla zezemvelo, ezafaka ingcindezi kuhulumeni. I-All-Russian Society for the Preservation of Nature, eholwa kakhulu ngososayensi, yayinamalungu ayizigidi ezingamashumi amathathu nesikhombisa ngo-1987, okuyenza ibe yinhlangano enkulu kunazo zonke emhlabeni jikelele elwela ukulondolozwa kwemvelo.99
Njengoba iSoviet Union ithuthuka futhi ithuthuka ngenkathi ibhekene nesidingo samazinga aphezulu okusetshenziswa kwezempi kunikezwe usongo lweMpi Yomshoshaphansi evela emazweni aseNtshonalanga, ngokwemvelo yahlangana namazinga aseNtshonalanga okucekelwa phansi kwemvelo. Njengamazwe aseNtshonalanga, ekugcineni lasabela, nakuba lalingenakho ukuphikisana, emigudwini yalo yezemvelo. Ukuvikelwa kwemvelo nokongiwa kwahlanganiswa, uma kungenanele, ohlelweni lwayo lokuhlela lulonke. ISoviet Union yayinohlelo olubanzi kakhulu lwemithetho yezemvelo, nokho, eyayingaphoqelelwa ngokufanelekile. Kwakungososayensi baseSoviet, ngokushesha balandelwa ososayensi base-US, abaqala ukuhlaba umkhosi ngokufudumala kwembulunga yonke.100 Imizamo emikhulu yenziwa futhi endaweni yokongiwa kwenhlabathi.101 Ngeminyaka yawo-1980, umqondo “wempucuko yezemvelo” waqala ukuvela eSoviet Union futhi wawuzokwamukelwa maduzane eShayina, lapho usuphenduke ingxenye ewumgogodla wokuhlela konke, njengoba kubonakala ezinhlelweni zaseShayina zeminyaka emihlanu.102 Osomnotho abahamba phambili baseSoviet, abafana no-PG Oldak, baphikisene ngenguquko enkulu yokubalwa kwemali engenayo kazwelonke yaseSoviet ukuze kuhlanganiswe izinyathelo eziqondile zokucekelwa phansi kwemvelo. “'Okwengeziwe,'” ephikisa, “akukaze kube 'ngcono.'103
Irekhodi lezemvelo leSoviet Union maqondana nokunukubezeka, nakuba lingagculisi neze, lalivame ukuthandeka uma liqhathaniswa nelase-United States, elinabantu abacishe balingane. Ukukhishwa kwe-Soviet Union nge-per capita sulfur dioxide, i-nitrous oxide, i-particle, kanye nokukhishwa kwe-carbon dioxide konke kwakungaphansi kakhulu kwalokho kwase-United States, kuyilapho ukukhishwa kwayo kwe-carbon dioxide ngomuntu ngamunye kwehle ngempela eminyakeni yayo yokugcina. I-per capita footprint yemvelo yeSoviet Union, isilinganiso esibanzi kakhulu somthelela kwezemvelo, yayiphansi kakhulu kunaleyo yase-United States, njengoba igebe lalikhula ngeminyaka yawo-1980, njengoba i-US per capita footprint yezemvelo iqhubeka nokukhula ngenkathi eye-United States. I-USSR iphelile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lokhu kwakuyiqiniso nakuba i-United States yakwazi “ukukhipha izingozi zemvelo kwamanye amazwe amaningi.” I-United States yayicebe kakhulu futhi ithuthuke kakhulu kwezobuchwepheshe, kodwa futhi yenza umonakalo omkhulu emvelweni yomhlaba.104
Nakuba ukuhlela kweSoviet kanye nalokho kweminye imiphakathi yangemva kwenguquko kwakuqondiswe ekukhuleni komnotho, ukulingisa ubunxiwankulu ngokwezinga elithile kulokhu, ugqozi olungaphakathi, olusekelwe ekilasini lokuqongelela imali ayisona isici sesakhiwo somphakathi ohleliwe. Ngenxa yalesi sizathu, u-Paul M. Sweezy waphikisa ngo-1989 ukuthi umnotho ohleliwe okhona empeleni unikeza abantu ithuba elingcono kakhulu mayelana nezinguquko ezisheshayo ekukhiqizeni nasekusetshenzisweni okudingekayo ukubhekana nenkinga yemvelo yomhlaba wonke.105
ICuba, nakuba iyizwe elimpofu elibhekene nokuvinjwa kwezomnotho okungapheli okuvela e-United States, sekuyisikhathi eside yaziwa njengezwe elinemvelo kakhulu eMhlabeni, ngokusho kweWorld Wildlife Federation. Umbiko Weplanethi Ephilayo. I-Cuba ikwazile ukukhombisa ukuthi izwe lingalinganiswa kakhulu ekuthuthukisweni komuntu kuyilapho libe nomkhondo ophansi wemvelo. Lokhu kungenxa yokubeka kwayo intuthuko yabantu emphakathini wonkana, okuhlanganisa nezimo zemvelo, phambili ekuhleleni kwayo.106
I-People's Republic of China, ngakolunye uhlangothi, yenze igxathu elikhulu ekuqondeni “kwempucuko yezemvelo”—nakuba izama ukukhuphula imali engenayo yomuntu ngamunye ibe ngaphezu kwaleli zinga lamanje, okwamanje elingaphansi kwengxenye eyodwa kwezinhlanu I-United States (ngokwemibandela yokushintshisana ngezimakethe), edinga amanani aphezulu okukhula komnotho.107 Lokhu kuhambisane nokho ukuqhubeka, uma kuncipha, ukuthembela ezitshalweni ezibaswa ngamalahle njengomthombo wazo omkhulu wamandla. Noma kunjalo, iShayina iqhubekele phambili ngobuchwepheshe obuqhubekayo, lapho ingumholi womhlaba; ekunciphiseni ngokushesha ukungcola; kanye namazinga omhlaba okutshalwa kabusha kwamahlathi/ukutshalwa kwamahlathi.108
Esimeni samanje sezemvelo, iShayina neCuba—kanye neminye iminotho exubene, eqondiswe wumbuso, ehlelwe kancane, njengeVenezuela, nemizamo yayo, ngokusebenzisa iBolivarian Revolution, ukwakha izwe elihlangene kanye nempumelelo yaso emangalisayo ekuvikelekeni kokudla kanye nentuthuko. ubukhosi bokudla-kunikeza ithemba lokuthuthuka kwezemvelo esimweni esiphuthumayo seplanethi yamanje, esishodayo njengamanje emhlabeni wonxiwankulu ocebile.109
Ukuhlela Ukuthuthukiswa Kwabantu Esimeme
Ukukhula okuhleliwe okuhleliwe noma ukuqothuka kanye nokushintshela ekuthuthukisweni komuntu okusimeme manje akunakugwenywa emazweni acebe kakhulu, lapho umuntu ngamunye emilonyeni yawo yezemvelo engakwazi ukusimamisa ngokweplanethi, uma impucuko ehleliwe izosinda. Isilinganiso kanye nesikhathi soguquko oludingekayo lwe-ecological-energy, njengoba kugcizelelwe emibikweni yesayensi yokuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu neminye imingcele yamaplanethi, kukhombisa ukuthi ukuze kugwenywe inhlekelele uguquko oluyinguquko lwalo lonke uhlelo lokukhiqiza nokusebenzisa kumele lwenziwe ngaphansi komgomo othi “ Ngcono Kancane Kancane Kodwa Kangcono.”110 Ngakho-ke, amazwe angonxiwankulu/ama-imperialist, ayingxenye enkulu yenkinga, kumele afune “indlela ephumelelayo yokwehla,” egxile enanini lokusetshenziswa kunokushintsha inani.111 Lokhu kudinga ukuya emazingeni aphansi kakhulu okusetshenziswa kwamandla kanye nokudonsela ekulinganeni kwamasheya omhlaba ngomuntu ngamunye kuyilapho ngesikhathi esifanayo kunqanyulwa ukukhishwa kwekhabhoni.
Ngaso leso sikhathi, amazwe ampofu kakhulu anezinyawo eziphansi zemvelo kufanele avunyelwe ukuthi athuthuke ngenqubo evamile ehlanganisa ukusikwa ekusetshenzisweni kwamandla nezinto zokwakha emazweni acebile kanye Kuhlangana ukusetshenziswa komuntu ngamunye ngokwezinto ezibonakalayo emhlabeni uwonke.112 Ukwehliswa komnotho ocebile kuzodinga ukushintshwa okukhulu kwezobuchwepheshe obuzinzile, okuhlanganisa amandla elanga nawomoya. Kodwa abukho ubuchwepheshe obukhona ngabodwana obungasondela noma yikuphi ekuxazululeni inkinga yesimo sezulu emugqeni wesikhathi odingekayo, ingasaphathwa eyokubhekana nezimo eziphuthumayo zeplanethi lilonke, kuyilapho kuvumela ukuqhubeka kokunqwabelana okungenamkhawulo nokusatshalaliswa kabi okudingwa ubunxiwankulu.113
Ngakho-ke okudingekile kuleli qophelo emlandweni wesintu uguquko oluguquguqukayo ebudlelwaneni bomphakathi obulawula ukukhiqizwa, ukusetshenziswa nokusabalalisa. Lokhu kusho ukugudluka okumangalisayo ohlelweni lwemali engowodwa, ukuxhashazwa, ukudliwa komhlaba, imfucuza, kanye nomfutho ongapheli wokuqongelela.114 Esikhundleni salo, isintu esiguquguqukayo esizinze kubantu abasebenzayo—i-proletariat yezemvelo esafufusayo—kuzodingeka sifune ukwakheka okusha komphakathi okuhlinzekela izidingo eziyisisekelo zabo bonke abantu, kulandelwe izidingo zomphakathi, okuhlanganisa nezidingo zentuthuko zabo bonke abantu. .115 Lokhu kuzokwenzeka ngokuthuthuka kwekhwalithi emsebenzini, ukugcizelelwa emsebenzini owusizo nokunakekela, kanye nokwabelana ngengcebo eningi emphakathini, yona uqobo umkhiqizo wezisebenzi. Ubuhlobo obuqhubekayo nomhlaba buyimfuneko ephelele ngaphandle kwayo okungeke kube khona ikusasa lomuntu. Konke lokhu kudinga ukuphambana nomqondo wokuqoqwa konxiwankulu esikhathini samanje. Ukuhlela umnotho kuyodingeka kwenziwe kabusha, hhayi ukukhula komnotho noma impi kwamanye amazwe, kodwa ukuze kwakhiwe isethi entsha yezinto eziza kuqala emphakathini okuhloswe ngazo ukuchuma kwabantu kanye nokusimama komphakathi kwe-metabolic kanye nomhlaba.
"Umbono we-socialist we-United States," uHarry Magdoff wabhala ngo-1995, uzodinga ukuncipha kokusetshenziswa kwamandla, ukukhiqizwa kwezimoto zomphakathi, kanye noxhaso lukahulumeni lwezinkampani ezicekela phansi imvelo. “Indlela yokuphila elula ingadingeka emazweni acebile ukuze kulondolozwe umhlaba njengendawo yokuphila komuntu.” Ukuze kufinyelelwe lokhu, “ukukhula kuyodingeka kuncishiswe noma kulawulwe.” Kungabaluleka ohlelweni olunjalo ukugxila ezidingweni eziyisisekelo, njengezindlu ezanele nezihloniphekile zabo bonke. Imali esetshenziswa ezimpini eqondiswe ku-imperialism kuzofanele iphele futhi nemingcele yabokufika kuyodingeka iqedwe. Konke lokhu kudinga ukuhlela kwezenhlalo nezomnotho. Akukho nokukodwa kwakho okungafezwa ngokuthembela ngokuyinhloko ohlelweni lwamanani emakethe, olukhuthaza ngokungaguquki ukungalingani, ukucekelwa phansi kwemvelo, impi, nokukhishwa inyumbazane.116 Njengoba isazi sezokuhlalisana kwabantu saseBrithani u-Anthony Giddens sabhala Ipolitiki Yokuguquguquka Kwesimo Sezulu, “ukuhlela kohlobo oluthile akunakugwenywa” ngenxa yezinkinga zamanje zamaplanethi.117
E-United States nakwamanye amazwe acebile, izindlela sezivele zikhona okwamanje zokuguqulwa okukhulu kangaka, okuseqophelweni eliphezulu komphakathi ngokuhambisana nezinto ezibalulekile emphakathini kanye nezidingo zesigaba sabasebenzi abacindezelwe, kuyilapho sisuka ku-imperialism kanye nokucindezelwa komhlaba wonke " olusizi emhlabeni.” Lokhu kungabonakala kalula ngokukhomba isabelomali sezempi esinama-trillion-dollar manje, esingahlehliswa kabusha ukuze kwenziwe lezo zinguquko kwingqalasizinda yamandla edingekayo ukuze umuntu aphile. Kodwa kungabonakala futhi emazingeni akhulayo okudliwa kwensalela kubakhiqizi abaqondile. Ucwaningo olwenziwa yi-RAND Corporation lulinganisela ukuthi ama- $ 47 trillion (ngamadola ka-2018) athathelwa phansi amaphesenti angama-90 abantu base-US phakathi kuka-1980 no-2018, kubalwa ngokusekelwe kulokho abebengakuthola ukube imali engenayo ibikhule ngokulinganayo emnothweni ngalesi sikhathi. Lokhu kudlula lonke inani lamanje lesitoko sezindlu sase-US, okwathi ngoJanuwari 2022 sasingamadola ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingama-43.118 Isisekelo sale nsalela yenhlalo enkulukazi kunemisebenzi yomphakathi, okudingeka yabiwe ngokwesisekelo somnotho kanye nemvelo, futhi ingasasekelwe ekuqongeleleni kwangasese.119
Ngisho nokuhlolwa okungenangqondo kokulahlwa okubanzi nokuxhashazwa ohlelweni kuphakamisa lokho uMorris akubize ngenkinga yokuthi “Umsebenzi owusizo Ukuqhathanisa Ukukhandleka Okungenamsebenzi.”120 Inani elikhulu lemali enqwabelene yezomnotho elivela emisebenzini yezenhlalakahle-elilinganiswa hhayi nje ngenzuzo, inzalo, kanye nerenti, kodwa futhi nokumosha, ukusabalalisa okungalungile, kanye nokungabi nangqondo okuyisisekelo kwesistimu - kakade isiphindwe kaningi kunalokho okudingekayo ukuze kwenziwe izinguquko ezinkulu ezidingekayo ukwakha umphakathi wokuthuthukiswa komuntu esimeme. I-capitalism ngokwayo ebeka ukushoda kanye nenani labantu ukuze kuphoqe abasebenzi ukuthi badele izimpilo zabo namanje ngenxa yesimiso sokuxhaphaza, manje esisongela inkinga yokuhlala kweplanethi yabo bonke abantu kanye nezinye izinhlobo zokuphila ezingenakubalwa.
Amasu amaningi okuwohloka komnotho, ngisho nalawo amenyezelwe yizazi zemvelo, ahlehla embonweni obusayo, ancamele ukungayiphakamisi indaba yokuhlela, ngisho nalapho kubhekene nesimo esiphuthumayo seplanethi. Ngempela, kunokuthambekela kokuhlehla ezinyathelweni ezisobala ezifana nokufakwa kwezinkampani zamandla kuzwelonke kanye nokwehliswa kokukhishwa kwegesi okuyimpoqo ezinkampanini. Amathiyori wokwehla kwezomnotho esikhundleni salokho ngokuvamile aphakamisa imenyu "yezinye izindlela zenqubomgomo," njengesitayela sase-Keynesian Green New Deal, imali engenayo eyisisekelo yomhlaba wonke, ukuguqulwa kwentela yemvelo, isonto elifushanisiwe lomsebenzi, ukukhuphuka okuzenzakalelayo, nokunye, okungekho okungqubuzana ngqo uhlelo, noma ukusondela ekubhekaneni nobukhulu benkinga, kulokho okucatshangwa njengezinguquko ezingaguquki.121
Iziphakamiso zokuqashwa okuncishiswe kakhulu, hhayi nje amahora amafushane okusebenza, asekelwa ezinhlelweni eziningi zokuwohloka kwemali ngenzuzo eyisisekelo eqinisekisiwe, zifuna ukulungisa imingcele ye-capitalism, kunokuba iyedlule, ngendlela ezodala uhlobo lwezimo ze-dystopian ezichazwe ku- Inoveli kaKurt Vonnegut, Upiyano Womdlali.122 Njengoba u-Leo Huberman no-Sweezy babhala lapho umbono wemali eyisisekelo eqinisekisiwe uqala ukuntanta ngawo-1960, “isiphetho sethu singaba nje ukuthi umqondo wemali engenayo eqinisekisiwe akuwona umgomo omkhulu woguquko ababhali be-'The Triple Revolution' ngokusobala. kholwa ukuthi kunjalo. Uma kusetshenziswa ngaphansi kwesimiso sethu samanje, kungaba, njengenkolo, umbono wabantu abathambekele ekuqiniseni isimo samanje. Futhi ngaphansi kwesistimu ye-socialist ... kungaba kungenasidingo futhi kungenza umonakalo omkhulu kunokuhle. "123
Abanye osonhlalakahle abangakhuli, ababhekane nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, baye banqotshwa ubugqi be-fetishism, bephakamisa izindlela eziyingozi ze-geoengineering ezingahlanganisa ngokungenakugwenywa inkinga yemvelo yeplanethi iyonke.124 Akungabazeki ukuthi abaningi ngakwesobunxele babona sonke isixazululo namuhla njengoba sihlanganisa i-Green New Deal ezokwandisa imisebenzi eluhlaza kanye nobuchwepheshe obuluhlaza, okuholela ekukhuleni okuluhlaza embuthanweni obonakala ulungile. Kodwa njengoba lokhu ngokuvamile kuhloselwe umnotho wokukhula kwe-Keynesian futhi kuvikelwe kuleyo mibandela, ukucabanga ngemuva kwakho kuyangabazeka.125 Isiphakamiso esiqinile, esihambisana kakhulu nokuwohloka, kungaba i-People's Green New Deal eqondiswe ku-socialism kanye nokuhlelwa kwemvelo kwentando yeningi.126
Ngaphansi kwenhloko-dolobha yezimali ezizimele namuhla, yonke imikhakha yomsebenzi onakekelayo, ezemfundo, ezobuciko, nokunye ithintwa yilokho okwaziwa ngokuthi “isifo esibizwa nge-Baumol cost disease,” esiqanjwe ngoWilliam J. Baumol, owethula lo mbono ngo. Incwadi yakhe ka-1966, Ubuciko Bemidlalo: Ingqinamba Yezomnotho.127 Lokhu kusebenza lapho amaholo enyukile futhi ukukhiqiza kunganyuki. Ngakho, njengoba Forbes ngaphandle kokubhuqa uthi: “Umphumela we-quartet [yezintambo] edlala i-Beethoven awuzange ukhule kusukela ekhulwini le-19 leminyaka,” nakuba iholo labo liye lenyuka. Isifo sezindleko ze-Baumol sibonakala sisebenza ikakhulukazi kulezo zindawo zokusebenza lapho imibono yokwanda kwenani lokukhiqiza ngokuvamile ingasho lutho. Nokho, umuntu ukukala kanjani ukukhiqiza komhlengikazi owelapha iziguli? Impela hhayi ngenani leziguli umhlengikazi ngamunye, kungakhathaliseki inani lokunakekelwa ngamunye akutholayo kanye nemiphumela yazo. Umphumela wezinhloso ezigxile enzuzweni emnothweni onezimali kakhulu wanamuhla uwukutshalwa kwezimali okuncane kanye nokufakwa kwezikhungo zamaholo aphansi kuleyo mikhakha ephawulwe njengengaphansi kwesifo esibizwa nge-Baumol cost disease, ngenxa nje yokuthi ayihambisani ngqo nokuqoqwa kwezimali.
Ngokuphambene, emphakathini we-ecosocialist, lapho ukuqongelela imali kungeyona inhloso eyinhloko, ngokuvamile kungaba yilezo zindawo ezidinga abasebenzi abaningi emkhakheni onakekelayo, imfundo, ubuciko, nobudlelwano bezinto eziphilayo emhlabeni ezingabhekwa njengezibaluleke kakhulu futhi. yakhelwe ezinhlelweni zomphakathi.128 Emnothweni ohloselwe ukusimama, abasebenzi ngokwabo bangase bathathelwe indawo yamandla ezinto ezimbiwa phansi, njengasekulimaleni okuncane, okuphilayo, okusimeme, okusebenza ngempumelelo ngokwemibandela yemvelo.129
Ukubhala ku Umnotho Wezombangazwe Wokukhula ngo-1957, uBaran waphikisa ngokuthi insalela yezomnotho ehleliwe kungase kuncishiswe ngamabomu ekuhlelweni kobusoshiyali, uma kuqhathaniswa nalokho okwakungenzeka ngaleso sikhathi, ukuze kuqinisekiswe “ukongiwa kwemithombo yabantu neyemvelo.” Lapha bekungeke kugcizelelwe nje ekukhuleni komnotho, kodwa ekuhlangabezaneni nezidingo zomphakathi, okuhlanganisa nokuncipha kwezindleko zemvelo; isibonelo, ngokukhetha ukusika "izimayini zamalahle."130 Konke lokhu, empeleni, kwakusho ukubeka phambili intuthuko yabantu esimeme kunezinhlobo ezilimazayo zokukhula komnotho. Namuhla ukuqedwa kwezinto zokubasa ezimbiwa phansi, ngisho noma lokhu kusho ukuncishiswa kwensalela yezomnotho eyenziwa umphakathi, sekuyisidingo esiphelele emhlabeni wonke, obhekene nalokho uNoam Chomsky akubize ngokuthi “ukuphela kwesintu esihleliwe.”131 Ngokwamazwi ka-Engels no-Marx, kuyadingeka ukuthi kukhululwe “i-valve yokuphepha eminyene” esitimeleni sonxiwankulu “umjaho oya encithakalweni.” Ukukhetha kungenye ye i-socialism noma i-exterminism, “incithakalo noma inguquko.” 132
amanothi
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