Inkcazo echazayo malunga nemigangatho ephindwe kabini ye-impiriyalizim yase-US yathethwa ngusekela-nobhala we-Clinton ngexesha likaClinton uStuart Eizenstat, owathi kwiminyaka elishumi eyadlulayo wayengumqhubi wamabango embuyekezo ngokuchasene nemibutho exhasa amaNazi, encedisa abamangali ukuba bafumane i-8 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kwiibhanki zaseYurophu kunye nemibutho ethe yakrazula. Iimali zamaxhoba eHolocaust okanye abaxhamli beminyaka yee-1930 ekusebenzeni kwamakhoboka (amaYuda nabangengomaYuda).
Kodwa kuthekani ngembuyekezo yengeniso yocalucalulo? Njengesithethi esiphambili sikaNovemba ka-2002 se-"USA Engage" yemibutho engama-650 yezizwe ngezizwe eququzelelwe ukulwa umthetho we-Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA), u-Eizenstat walumkisa ngelithi amatsha ntliziyo embuyekezo aseMzantsi Afrika "angenza uluvo loluntu kwaye avelise inkxaso yezopolitiko," kwaye " ukufumana impumelelo ethile nangona kukho ubuthathaka obusemthethweni."
Kwiinyanga ezintandathu kamva, kwisemina yeYunivesithi yase-Columbia, u-Eizenstat waphawula ukuba "Amaxhoba achasene nocalucalulo avela eMzantsi Afrika aye amangalela iinkampani ezininzi zase-US kwiinkundla zase-US ngezityholo zazo - kwaye ndiyagxininisa - ukuthatha inxaxheba ekuququzeleleni ucalucalulo." (Watshayelela oku ngengcaciso yobuqu emva kocalucalulo ngenzondelelo yakhe yokuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo, eneentloni ekhumbula amava eminyaka yee-1950 kwidolophu yakowabo eAtlanta: โNdandingakulungelanga ukwahlukana nendibano ndize ndinike ixhegokazi elintsundu isihlalo sam kwindawo yabamhlophe. yebhasi yaseAtlanta.)
Namhlanje, ingqungquthela ithi amaxhoba ocalucalulo kufuneka kwaye aphulukane nesimangalo esiya kuchotshelwa kwiNkundla yeSithili saseNew York ngoLwesibini, umhla we-8 kuJulayi. Kuya kubakho unjingalwazi uDennis Brutus, imbongi netshantliziyo elineminyaka engama-83 ubudala nothe wachitha ixesha eRobben. Isiqithi noNelson Mandela, phambi kokukhabela uMzantsi Afrika kwiMidlalo yeOlimpiki ka-1968. UBrutus ngummangali ophambili, phakathi kwamawakawaka abantu abamnyama baseMzantsi Afrika abamangalela amashumi amathathu eenkampani ngokufumana inzuzo "kulwaphulo-mthetho oluchasene noluntu", njengoko iZizwe eziManyeneyo zalubiza ucalucalulo.
I-ATCA, eyawiswa ngo-1789, ithi, ngokulula, "Iinkundla zesithili ziya kuba negunya lokuqala laso nasiphi na isenzo soluntu somntu wasemzini ngenxa yenkohlakalo kuphela, eyenziwa ngokuphulwa komthetho wezizwe okanye isivumelwano saseUnited States." I-ATCA yayisetyenziselwa ukufumana isibambiso esisemthethweni kwi-piracy, kwaye kwinkqubo yokukholisa amagunya obukoloniyali kwakukhuselekile ukurhweba ne-US.
Kodwa kuphela kumashumi amabini eminyaka edluleyo apho umthetho uye waziwa ngokubanzi. Bekhuthazwa ngabahlali baseBurma besilwa i-Unocal, ityala elathi ngo-2003 lamelana nomngeni nguBush Administration, amatsha ntliziyo afana noBrutus, isifundiswa saseKapa uLungisile Ntsebeza, iKhulumani Support Group yamaxhoba ocalucalulo kunye neJubilee SA basebenzisa i-ATCA ukumangalela abaphangi banamhlanje: inkitha yamazwe ngamazwe. Iinkampani ezisebenza eMzantsi Afrika phambi kuka-1994 nangona kukho izimemo zokohlwaywa kunye nokuchithwa kotyalo-mali.
Kodwa izinto zabanzima xa umongameli woMzantsi Afrika uThabo Mbeki wayecelwe lulawulo lukaBush ukuba achase uBrutus kunye namanye amatsha ntliziyo ngo 2003. Enkosi kumanyano olumandla lwama-imperial-subimperial phakathi kwePitoli neWashington (kunye norhulumente waseBritane nowaseJamani) egameni lika. Iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe, uJaji John Sprizzo ekuqaleni wagqiba ityala egameni labamangalelwa ekupheleni kuka-2004. Waqiqa ngelithi i-ATCA iphikisana nomgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle wase-US kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho wasekhaya wase-SA, kwaye ngokwenene yenze njengoko le migaqo-nkqubo ithatha inzuzo yenkampani njengento yokuqala yokuqala.
Kodwa ngo-Okthobha ophelileyo, abamangali baphumelele isibheno kwaye ngoMeyi, xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-US bekulindeleke ukuba ekugqibeleni ibulale isimangalo, egameni lamaqumrhu, abane babagwebi bafumanisa ukungqubana komdla kwiipotfoliyo zabo zotyalo-mali. Ngenxa yokuba babenezabelo kwiinkampani ezimangalelweyo, ityala labuyela eSprizzo, apho ummangali uCharles Abrahams wathi "luloyiso olukhulu lwentshukumo yamalungelo oluntu ngokubanzi."
Ngokuchaseneyo noko, ummeli waseWashington weBhunga leNtengiso laMazwe ngaMazwe lorhulumente woMzantsi Afrika, uSimon Barber, wakukhaba ngawo omane ukuphumelela kwabamangalelwa kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, ecaphula isityholo sikaMbeki sokuba ulongamo loMzantsi Afrika lwaphulwa. Kuyo nayiphi na imeko, "Inzame ihlala ixakile."
UNicole Fritz, umalathisi weSouthern African Litigation Centre, akavumelani noko esithi: โIinkampani ezazingengobenzi bokunyhashwa kwamalungelo abantu kodwa ezazibandakanyeke koko kunyhashwa kwawo ngenxa yeenkqubano zazo noorhulumente abacinezelayo ngoku zisenokuba netyala ngokwasemthethweni ngezenzo zazo.โ
Ukungahoyi ukuthathwa kwengeniso kwixesha elizayo kulawulo lobuzwilakhe olufana neBurma okanye iZimbabwe yeyona njongo iphambili. Embindini ka-2008, kanye njengokuba izikhulu zeZanu(PF) zikaRobert Mugabe zenze ukubulala ngokwaneleyo kunye nentuthumbo ukuqinisekisa ukuba "unyulwe kwakhona", enkosi ngokuyinxenye kubudlelwane obungapheliyo bukaMbeki, i-AngloPlats yabhengeza i-US$400 yezigidi zotyalo-mali kwimigodi yeplatinam yaseZimbabwe enengeniso.
Nanjengoko u-Abrahams exoxa, โIsiseko esibambekayo sesi simangalo kukuba iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe zamazwe ngamazwe zancedisa zaze zaxhasa urhulumente wocalucalulo ngokubonelela ngezixhobo nembumbulu, ubuchwephesha bomkhosi, ezothutho kunye nepetroli apho urhulumente nemikhosi yakhe babekwazi ukwenza olona lwaphulo-mthetho lubi. ngokuchasene noninzi lwabantu baseMzantsi Afrika." (Umsebenzi onjalo wequmrhu, ku-Eizenstat, "wayetyholwa" - akucacanga - ukuququzelela ucalucalulo.)
Iinkampani ezimangalelwa ngabamangali baka-Abrahams ziquka iReinmetall Group, ngokunikezela ngezixhobo nembumbulu kurhulumente wocalucalulo; I-British Petroleum (i-BP), i-Shell, i-Chevron Texaco, i-Exxon Mobil, i-Fluor Corporation kunye ne-Total Fina-Elf, ngokubonelela ngamafutha kwimikhosi exhobileyo; Ford, Daimler-Chrysler kunye neGeneral Motors, ngokubonelela ngezothutho kwimikhosi exhobileyo; kunye neFujitsu kunye ne-IBM ngokubonelela urhulumente ngobuchwephesha bomkhosi obufuneka kakhulu. Iibhanki ezixhasa ucalucalulo ngemali ziquka iBarclays, iCitibank, iCommerzbank, iCredit Suisse, iDeutsche, iDresdner, iJP Morgan Chase kunye ne-UBS.
Nangona uMbeki wayengummeli wamazwe angaphandle owayegxothiwe kwi-African National Congress phambi kuka-1994 kwaye wayefuna ukuba iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe zihlukane noMzantsi Afrika, kwiminyaka elandelayo uye waphuhlisa iamnesia.
Ngo-2001, kwiNkomfa yeHlabathi yeZizwe eziManyeneyo eChasene noCalucalulo (WCAR) apha eThekwini, wavavanya igatya elicetyisiweyo lokuba "i-US kufuneka ithathe uxanduva kwaye ihlawule imbuyekezo kuRhwebo lwamakhoboka e-Trans-Atlantic." Ngaphandle kwenkxaso yembuyekezo eyenziwa yiNigeria kunye namanye amazwe ase-Afrika, uMbeki wala ukuvumela oku ukuba kukhankanywe kuxwebhu lokugqibela, endaweni yoko efuna uncedo olungakumbi lwabaxhasi.
Ngo-Epreli ka-2003, uMbeki wavumelana noBush ukuba โakwamkelekanga kwaphela ukuba imiba engundoqo kwikamva lelizwe lethu kufuneka igwetywe kwiinkundla zangaphandle ezingathwali xanduva ngentlalontle yelizwe lethu, kunye nokuqwalaselwa kwembono. equlethwe kumgaqo-siseko wethu wokukhuthaza uxolelwaniso lwesizwe."
Uvakalise โumnqweno wokubandakanya bonke abemi boMzantsi Afrika, kubandakanywa abemi bomthonyama, kwintsebenziswano nentsebenziswano ngokuzithandelaโ โ kodwa wasilela ukucinga ngamalinge amaninzi alolu hlobo eReparations Task Force kunye nowayesakuba nguArchbishop wamaTshetshi waseKapa uNjongonkulu Ndungane, kwiminyaka ephambi amatyala.
Umphathiswa wezorhwebo woMzantsi Afrika u-Alec Erwin emva koko wagxininisa ukuba iPitoli "yayichasa, kwaye iyayidelela isimangalo" ngamatsha ntliziyo. Naziphi na izinto ezifunyanisiweyo ezichasene neenkampani "aziyi kunikwa mbeko" eMzantsi Afrika.
NgoJulayi ka-2003, umphathiswa wezobulungisa eMzantsi Afrika uPenuell Maduna wabhalela iinkundla ukuba eli tyala liza kutyhafisa "utyalo-mali lwangaphandle olufuneka kakhulu kwaye lilibazise ukufezekiswa kweenjongo zikarhulumente. Ngokwenene, ukumangalelwa kunokuba nefuthe lokudodobalisa uqoqosho loMzantsi Afrika njengoko utyalo-mali lungelulo kuphela umqhubi wokukhula, kodwa kwanentswela-ngqesho."
Njengomhlobo wenkundla egameni labamangali (ekunye no-Archbishop Desmond Tutu), owafumana ibhaso leNobel uJoseph Stiglitz waphendula wathi izimvo ezinjalo โazinasiseko,โ kuba, โabo bancedisayo ekuxhaseni loo nkqubo, nabathe bafakโ isandla ekunyhashweni kwamalungelo abantu; kufuneka baphendule."
Ileta kaMaduna eya kwinkundla yase-US yacela ukuba izimangalo zichithwe, "ngokuthobela amalungelo awongamileyo amazwe angaphandle okuwisa umthetho, ukugweba kunye nokusombulula imiba yasekhaya ngaphandle kokuphazamiseka kwangaphandle." (UMbeki noMaduna abazange benze nzame zokuseka i-ATCA yoMzantsi Afrika.)
Kodwa ngo-Agasti ka-2003, kumsitho wokuvula weNkomfa enkulu yoLungiselelo, uBerend Schuitema weJubilee SA wanikela ingxelo yokuba uMaduna wenze isivumo esingaqhelekanga: โIsizathu sokuba enze inkcaso kukuba wacelwa uluvo malunga nesimangalo sikaColin Powell. .Wanika uPowell impendulo yakhe ebhaliweyo, emva koko uPowell wathi makafake esi sindululo kwiJaji yeNkundla yaseNew York. Ukhala phantsi. Usihlalo weJubilee SA uGiyose wabonisa ukungaphumeleli kwengxoxo yolongamo."
Kwisithuba nje seenyanga ezimbalwa, iziphumo ezibi zokungenelela kukaMaduna kubulungisa bamazwe ngamazwe zaba mbi ngakumbi, kwityala elibandakanya abafazi abangamaxhoba enkohlakalo yaseJapan ngexesha leMfazwe yeHlabathi yesiBini. Abalishumi elinesihlanu "abathuthuzeli abafazi" baseKorea, eChina, kwiiPhilippines naseTaiwan bamangalela iTokyo e-US besebenzisa i-ATCA. NgoJuni 2005, iNkundla Yezibheno yase-US kwiSithili saseColombia yasikhaba eso simangalo, icaphula ingxelo efungelweyo kaMaduna.
Ngeli xesha ekhaya, urhulumente woMzantsi Afrika ebebhatala nje i-$3500 kwiintsapho ezingama-19 000 amalungu azo abulawa ngexesha localucalulo okanye angcungcuthekiswa, ethathwa njengemali encinci.
IJubilee emva koko yathatha ithuba lokuqubisana ne-Barclays kwiphulo elikhulu labemi, ngethuba lomxhasi-mali waseLondon ngo-2005 wokuthatha ibhanki yesibini ngobukhulu eMzantsi Afrika, i-ABSA. Umphathiswa wezobulungisa eMzantsi Afrika uBrigitte Mabandla (owathatha indawo kaMaduna ngo-2004) waphendula ngomyalezo kaOktobha 2005 wabahlobo benkundla egameni lebhanki, nto leyo eyabangela uqhanqalazo yiJubilee.
Ikhokelwe nguBrutus, uJubilee uye wakhetha iibhanki zamazwe ngamazwe ezisibhozo eziseSandton: โEzi bhanki zanikezela ngeebhiliyoni zeerandi mboleko kuRhulumente wocalu-calulo, zaphinda zathethana ngamatyala akhe zaze zayivumela ukuba ichithe nangakumbi emkhosini wayo, kwaye, kwimeko leyo. yaseBarclays, yanika imali ngqo kuMkhosi wezoKhuselo woMzantsi Afrika ngo-1976.
Imfuno yeJubilee yayilula: "Zonke ezi bhanki kufuneka zixolise ngokupheleleyo kubantu baseMzantsi Afrika ngenkxaso abayinike urhulumente wocalucalulo, kwaye bahlawule imbuyekezo kwabo bathe babandezeleka ngenxa yezenzo zabo." I-Mobilization for Global Justice esekwe eWashington kunye nemanyano yabasebenzi baseSwitzerland bajoyine abaqhankqalazi beJubilee kuqhanqalazo lomanyano.
Ukusuka eSandton ukuya eWashington, iCitibank bekujoliswe kuyo, kuba njengoko iKomiti yeZizwe eziManyeneyo echasene nocalucalulo yaphawula ngo-1979, "iCitigroup iboleke phantse i-1/5 ye-5 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kunye neye yaxhasa ucalucalulo". EBerne nase Zurich, iCredit Suisse kunye ne-UBS zazingundaba-mlonyeni woqhanqalazo kuba ukusukela kwiminyaka yoo-1980 zathatha indawo yeebhanki zase-US nezaseBritane njengowona baxhasi bezimali bocalucalulo.
Ngokuqinisekileyo, ungquzulwano lukhona phakathi kwabamangali okwenza kube nzima ukuphumelela iintliziyo neengqondo zoluntu ngokubanzi. Iseti yokuqala yamatyala afakwe ligqwetha laseNew York elingahlonelwayo (elisebenza kwiHolocaust settlement), u-Ed Fagan, owaxabana noNtsebeza.
Emva koko, phakathi kweKhulumani Support Group kunye neJubilee, kuye kwavela ukungavisisani kubango lobunini betyala kunye nomkhombandlela weqhinga. Kwaye phakathi kwabasebenzi baseJubilee ababesakuba ngabasebenzi baseRhawutini kwelinye icala, kwaye kwelinye, amalungu ebhodi kunye nezahluko zamaphondo aliqela, kwaqhambuka ingxabano eyathi yaphazamisa umbutho okwethutyana.
Nangona kunjalo, uBrutus ukholelwa ukuba abamangali banokutsiba uMbeki ukuba abhenele kuluhlu olutyebileyo lobuzwe base-Afrika kunalowo oxhomekeke kwisibheno solongamo. Umbutho woManyano lwamaAfrika wenze ityala lokuhlawulela imbuyekezo kwi-1993 ye-Abuja Proclamation ngokuchasene nobukhoboka, ikoloniyalizim, neo-colonialism, umonakalo osuka kuyo "ongeyonto yakudala, kodwa ubonakaliswa kabuhlungu kubomi obonakalisiweyo bamaAfrika anamhlanje avela eHarlem. ukuya eHarare, kuqoqosho olonakeleyo lwehlabathi elimnyama ukusuka eGuinea ukuya eGuyana, ukusuka eSomalia ukuya eSurinam.
"Ityala lokuziphatha lixhomekeke kubantu baseAfrika", i-Abuja Proclamation ivakalisa, ifuna "intlawulo epheleleyo yemali ngokudluliselwa kwemali kunye nokucinywa kwetyala."
Ukongeza, ityala laseMntla leekholoji kuMzantsi kufuneka linyuswe, ngokwahlukileyo kwizindululo zomgaqo-nkqubo othandabuzekayo wokutshintsha kwemozulu kwiiprojekthi ze "Clean Development Mechanism" njengezithuthi zenkxaso-mali yokunciphisa igesi yobushushu behlabathi leSithathu.
Ke umceli mngeni wabaphembeleli kukungaqhankqalazi nje kuphela kunye nokuthumela i-ATCA, kwaye kwinkqubo - njengoloyiko lwe-Eizenstat - ukuphumelela iintliziyo neengqondo ezininzi. Kukwakuhlanganisa amanye amahlakani kwilizwekazi lonke lase-Afrika nakwiHlabathi lesiThathu ukuze iimfuno zembuyekezo zandiswe. Kule nkqubo, la makhonkco onxibelelano namanye amanqina aya kuqinisekisa ukuba umzabalazo uba sisigxeko esibanzi, esinzulu sokungabikho kobulungisa kwezoqoqosho, kwiingcambu zayo, kwinjongo yenzuzo.
UPatrick Bond ukhokela iZiko loLuntu loLuntu kwiYunivesithi yaKwaZulu-Natal: http://www.ukzn.ac.za/ccs