Gwero: Jacobin
Mโchaka cha 1970 anthu ambiri ankanyanyala ntchito. Zambiri, zowonedwa kunja, zinali zosafunikira; ena anagwedeza fuko. Ku Chicago, kumenyedwa kwa magalimoto - "kupandukira utsogoleri wa mgwirizano," atero a New York Times - idafalikira m'dziko lonselo, kuphatikiza ku Los Angeles ndi Cleveland, komwe ma pickets adamenyana ndi apolisi ndi alonda a dziko. The Times adanena kuti ku Cleveland,
Zigawenga zakhazikitsa njira yolondera yomwe ati ingathe kusonkhanitsa amuna 300 pasanathe ola limodzi kuti ayimitse katundu aliyense mโderali. Onyanyala ntchitowo akuloleza magalimoto onyamula zakudya, mankhwala osokoneza bongo komanso mowa kuti apitilize, koma akwiya kwambiri atapeza magalimoto onyamula katundu wina. Pakhala pali kuponya miyala, magalasi akutsogolo aphwanyidwa, matayala aphwanyidwa ndi kudulidwa mapaipi a mpweya.
The United Press adawerengera kuti anthu 500,000 sakugwira ntchito chifukwa cha sitirakayi.
Mumzinda wa New York, ogwira ntchito ku positi anayamba chaka ndi sitalaka ya dziko, zomwe zinali zosemphana ndi malamulo a boma. Ogwira ntchito zaudindo ndi amene anakonza sitalaka, ndipo palibe makalata amene anatumizidwa mโmizinda ikuluikulu ya mayiko. Kunyanyalako kunatenga masiku asanu ndi atatu ku New York, ngakhale kuti panali alonda 30,000 a dzikolo. Onse pamodzi, ogwira ntchito 200,000 adachita nawo sitiraka yaikulu kwambiri yomwe idachitikapo. New York, malinga ndi a Economist, unakhala โmzinda wa mikwingwirima.โ Ogwira ntchito patelefoni adakantha miyezi isanu ndi itatu. Ogwira ntchito mumzinda anatseka milatho yomwe inalumikiza madera a Manhattan ndi Manhattan, yomwe inatchedwa "drawbridge".
Ichi chinali chiyambi chabe. M'zaka khumi zotsatira - kapena "zaka makumi asanu ndi awiri zazitali," kuyambira 1965 mpaka 1981 - United States idakumana ndi ziwonetsero ngati ena ochepa. Mwapadera, sitiraka za zaka za m'ma 70 nthawi zambiri zinkatsogozedwa ndi antchito achichepere "osakhazikika" omwe madandaulo awo amapitilira mikangano ya mkate ndi batala yomwe idachitika zaka makumi angapo pambuyo pa nkhondo. Mikangano imeneyi inaphatikizapo sitiraka zonse: kunyalanyazidwa kopanda pake ndi kukhala pansi, kunyanyala madandaulo, kukana makontrakitala ndi zisankho zamabungwe zotsutsidwa, zomwe nthawi zambiri zimayambitsidwa ndi maudindo.
Kumenyedwako, komwe kunatengedwa pamodzi, kunali kusonyeza mayendedwe opanduka a mโnthaลตiyo. Kunyanyala kwa 1972 pa fakitale yayikulu ya General Motors ku Lordstown, Ohio, kunatsogozedwa ndi antchito atsitsi lalitali, osameta. Purezidenti wa komweko anali Gary Bryner, yemwe anali ndi zaka makumi awiri ndi zisanu ndi zinayi. Lordstown, analemba Studs Terkel, "anali Woodstock wa munthu wogwira ntchitoyo." Ed Sadlowski, wazaka makumi atatu ndi zinayi pomwe adatsutsa utsogoleri wa United Steelworkers ku District 31 (Chicago-Gary, mamembala 128,000), adalankhula kwa m'badwo:
Ndimaona kuti demokalase mkati mwa mgwirizano ndiye nkhani yofunika kwambiri. Ngati ogwira ntchito zitsulo adafunsidwa sakanavomereza ku International Executive Board yomwe imapatula anthu akuda, Latinos, ndi akazi. Ngati ogwira ntchito zachitsulo atafunsidwa amaumirira kuti ali ndi ufulu wovota pamapangano a mgwirizano monga momwe mabungwe ena amachitira. Iwo amaona kuti sakuyendetsa zinthu zawozawo ndipo sakuyimiridwa mโmaboma.
Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM) inapatsa magetsi antchito akuda, komanso Kumanzere. Chiyambi chake komanso cha gulu lakuda lomwe linatsatirapo linali m'gulu la ogwira ntchito omwe adalembedwa kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 60s: antchito achichepere akuda, nthawi zambiri omenyera nkhondo aku Vietnam, osalolera pang'ono oyang'anira tsankho.
A Paul Dietsch, mneneri wa Fraternal Association of Steel Haulers (FASH), ananena kuti onyamula zitsulo anali โBlack Panthers of the Working Class.โ Terkel anatcha kupanduka kwa ogwira ntchitowo kuti โkwatsala kwatsopanoโ. M'mafakitale opangira magalimoto, ogwira ntchito adakantha "kusintha momwe zinthu zimagwirira ntchito"; anthu ogwira ntchito m'migodi ya malasha anamenyera nkhondo kuti umphawi uthetsedwe ku Appalachia; antchito akuda ankafuna kupeza, kugwirizanitsa, ndi kufanana; oyendetsa galimoto anaitanitsa demokalase ya mgwirizano; Ogwira ntchito ku UPS adapandukira "kuchitidwa ngati makina"; antchito mamiliyoni ambiri ankafuna zinthu zabwino kwambiri pamoyo wawo. Ogwira ntchito zakuda, Latinos, akazi, ndi antchito achichepere adabweretsa mayendedwe awo kuntchito. Ndi chikhumbo chawo cha demokalase mโmabungwe awo, antchito anafuna kupanga mabungwe ameneลตa kukhala awoawo, akumakumbukira chifuno cha ophunzira cha kudzilamulira, kapena โdemokalase yogawana nawo.โ
Kumenyedwako, komwe kunatengedwa pamodzi, kunali kusonyeza mayendedwe opanduka a mโnthaลตiyo.
Ndiko kuti, anamenyera ulamuliro pa ntchito zawo. Ndipo, monga momwe zizindikiro zawo zimanenera kaลตirikaลตiri, iwo anamenyera โulemu,โ chokhumba chachikulu, ndithudi, cha kagulu ka ufulu wachibadwidwe wakumwera. Nthawi zambiri, adadzitcha "radicals;" anali otsutsa ndi olimba mtima olimbikitsa kuchitapo kanthu mwachindunji kuti asinthe dziko lawo. Chofunika kwambiri, adachita izi potsutsana ndi ulamuliro, ndipo adachita izi mumthunzi wa chiwonetsero chachikulu cha mkangano waukulu: Tet Offensive, Paris Spring, Black Panthers, Kent State, Jackson State, Attica.
โKachitidwe ka Strike Kupitilira Mosasokonezedwaโ
Izi, ndiye, sizinali gulu la ogwira ntchito la m'ma 1950 ndi m'ma 60, ngakhale kuti zaka makumi amenewo, nthawi zina pamakhala chipwirikiti kuntchito. Komabe, mu 1956, George Meany, pulezidenti wa AFL-CIO kwa zaka makumi awiri ndi zinayi (1955-79), akuyankhula ku msonkhano wa National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), adatsimikizira nthumwi zomwe zinasonkhana kumeneko:
Sindinayambe ndanyanyala ntchito mโmoyo wanga, sindinalamulirepo wina aliyense kuti anyalanyake ntchito, ndinalibe kanthu kochita ndi mzere wa picket. . . palibe kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa zomwe ndikuyimira ndi zomwe atsogoleri a NAM amayimira. Ndikuyimira dongosolo la phindu. Ndimakhulupirira mu dongosolo la phindu. Ndimakhulupirira mu dongosolo la mabizinesi aulere kwathunthu.
Mโmalo ena, Walter Reuther, pulezidenti wa United Automobile Workers (UAW), anadandaula kuti โantchito achichepere mazanamazana ameneลตa . . . Sakudziwa kumene anachokera. Sakudziwa kumene akupita.โ
Ogwira ntchito omwe adatuluka kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 60 adasinthidwa ndiukadaulo, kuchuluka kwa anthu, komanso kusintha kwa chikhalidwe. Patsogolo pake panali aphunzitsi, amene kumenyedwa kwawo kolusa kunasesa zigawo zazikulu ndi zazingโono, kumpoto ndi kumโmwera, ndi Kumadzulo, mu mzimu watsopano wa chipanduko. Sanali okha, koma wolemba mbiri David Montgomery analemba kuti, โaphunzitsi a pasukulu, ogwira ntchito mโchipatala ndi anthu otaya zinyalala akumatsekeredwa mโndende chifukwa chophwanya malamulo, ayamba chizolowezi. Ndipo aphunzitsiwo akusonyeza kuti kulamulira mwachisawawa nโkofala ndiponso nโkosaloledwa mโmaphunziro monga momwe zilili mโmafakitale.โ Kuchuluka kwawo kunali kotukuka chifukwa cha kukula kwakukulu kwa maphunziro apamwamba m'ma 60s. Iwo, ndi kuphulika kwa matupi a ana, anatsutsa Montgomery, akuimira maziko a "mgwirizano watsopano."
Ndi kufuna kwawo demokalase mโmabungwe awo, ogwira ntchito anafuna kupanga mabungwewa kukhala awoawo.
M'zaka za m'ma 1950 ndi m'ma 60 munali kunyalanyazidwa; zina, kuphatikizapo sitiraka ya 1959 ya ogwira ntchito zachitsulo, zinali zazikulu. Kunena zoona, kunyanyala ntchito kunali kochuluka, ndithudi malinga ndi miyezo ya masiku ano, komabe zimenezi zinali zochitika wamba; mizere ya picket nthawi zambiri imakhala chizindikiro. Antchito anapita kukasaka, kukonza nyumba, kapena kungokhala ndi tchuthi. Akuluakulu a bungweli adasiyidwa kuti athetse mikangano popanda zitseko zotsekedwa m'zipinda zodzaza utsi. Atsogoleri a mabungwe ogwira ntchito anali atakwatirana kwambiri kuti agwirizane ndi olemba ntchito mwanjira ina modus vivendi. Mabungwe, mabungwe a chipani chimodzi, nthawi zambiri amatsogozedwa ndi azibambo akale kapena olamulira osamveka, nthawi zina ndi achifwamba, pafupifupi onse omwe adamwalira (kupatulapo olemekezeka). Iwo ankalamulira moyo wamkati wa "makina," ndipo adayang'ana ku Democrats ndi National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) kuti athetsedwe. Dave Beck, mtsogoleri wa Teamsters, adalengeza kuti "Migwirizano ndi bizinesi yayikulu."
Atsogoleri awa adapereka mtendere kwa olemba ntchito, koposa zonse m'sitolo, ndipo pobwezera, ogwira ntchito amayembekeza (ndipo nthawi zambiri amapeza) malipiro okwera pang'onopang'ono, komanso kukulitsa mapindu - kusintha komwe angadalire. Momwemonso, olemba anzawo ntchito adapeza mtendere - nthawi zina kumaumirizidwa ndi mgwirizano womwewo, monga oyang'anira masitolo, omwe nthawi zambiri amasankhidwa, amakhala apolisi akumenyedwa - ndi lonjezo lakupanga kosalekeza munthawi yopindulitsa kwambiri.
Panthawi imodzimodziyo, kaya ubwino wa dongosololi unali wotani, izi zinali chabe kwa mamembala a bungwe, ogwira ntchito zaluso, ndi olowa nawo nkhondo za mafakitale za m'ma 30s. Ambiri mwa ogwira ntchito adachotsedwapo - amayi, anthu amtundu, ogwira ntchito m'mafamu, ndi ogwira ntchito. Zoonadi, dongosolo ili, lomwe nthaลตi zina limatchedwa โDongosolo Latsopano,โ silinagwire ntchito mokwanira; mgwirizano pakati pa ntchito ndi chuma nthawi zonse unali wapang'onopang'ono komanso wosakhalitsa; nthawi zonse zinkakomera olemba ntchito. Kuphatikiza apo, idakhazikitsidwa pakukula kwachuma kwanthawi yayitali pambuyo pa nkhondo - zaka za chitukuko cholimbikitsidwa ndi nkhondo ndi kupanga nkhondo - zomwe zidatha kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 60 zavuto la phindu komanso kuyankha kwa olemba anzawo ntchito. Nkhondo ya ku Vietnam, nayonso, idalimbikitsa kukula kwachuma, koma pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 60s, ndalama zake zidapangitsa kuti mitengo ikwere.
Ogwira ntchito omwe adatuluka kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 60 adasinthidwa ndiukadaulo, kuchuluka kwa anthu, komanso kusintha kwa chikhalidwe.
M'mikhalidwe yosinthika iyi, mgwirizano unadzetsa mikangano ndi kunyansidwa ndi olemba anzawo ntchito komwe kumawonetsedwa ndi kukana kwawo malipiro ndi zofuna zawo, kutsutsa mwamphamvu kulinganiza, ndipo, mwina koposa zonse, "pamalo ogulitsira" kuthamangitsa, komwe kumaimiridwa ndi mzere. liwiro m'mafakitale amsonkhano ndi oyang'anira a United Parcel ndi nthawi yawo ndikuyenda, mania yoyimitsa. Mu 1971, atapanikizidwa kwambiri ndi oyendetsa sitimayo, oyenda m'mphepete mwa nyanja ku West Coast anakana kugwedezeka kwa mbendera ndi sitiroko zomwe zidawopseza kutuluka kwa katundu ndi ogwira ntchito ku Vietnam. Richard Nixon, ponena kuti kumenyedwaku kunasokoneza nkhondo, adapempha lamulo loletsa kumenya nkhondo ya Taft-Hartley, ngakhale izi sizinalepheretse anthu am'mphepete mwa nyanja kuti achite chiwonongeko chotalika kwambiri m'mbiri ya US. Kunyanyalako, komwe kunakonzedwa motsutsa utsogoleri wa bungweli, kunali koyamba kuti anthu azichita kunyanyala mโmphepete mwa nyanja kuyambira mโchaka cha 1934.
Chiwerengero cha kumenyedwacho chinakhalabe chokwera m'zaka khumi zonse - chinali makumi zikwi zikwi ndipo chinangogwera kwambiri mu 1982. Kuwomberako kunapitirira mu nthawi "zabwino" ndi zoipa. Kuchuluka kwa sitiraka mu 1974 kudatsala pang'ono kufanana ndi 1970, komabe kunachitika mkati mwazovuta kwambiri kuyambira m'ma 1930, zomwe zikuwonetsa kuti kutukuka kwachuma pambuyo pa nkhondo kudatha. Mizere italiitali pamaofesi a ulova inakhala chizolowezi, monganso mmene kugaลตira chakudya kwaulere mโmafakitale. Kuphatikiza apo, kutsika kwachuma uku kudatsagana ndi kukwera kwa mitengo - chifukwa chake mawu akuti "stagflation" - ndipo ndikuwonjezera kukakamiza kwa ogwira ntchito kukana. Mu 1975, chuma chinakulanso, koma ntchito mamiliyoni ambiri zinatha. Kusakhazikika kunayambitsa kusatetezeka; Merle Haggard wa 1974 "Ngati Titha Kudutsa Decemberโ adakwera kwambiri pawailesi ya Akron, WSLR.
M'kuphulika ndi kuphulika, kayendetsedwe ka zigawengazo zinapitirira mosadodometsedwa, ngati mosayembekezereka. Ogwira ntchito m'migodi ya malasha anachitira chitsanzo ichi - kuthekera kwa ogwira ntchito kupambana kwambiri, komanso, tsoka, zofooka za mgwirizano wa ogwira ntchito. Pa November 12, 1974, kukambitsirana kunalephereka, ndipo ogwira ntchito mโmigodi okwana 120,000 anasiya ntchito zawo, akumalemekeza mwambo wawo โwopanda mgwirizano, wopanda ntchito.โ United Mine Workers (UMWA) idakhala msana wa anthu aku America; monga mgwirizano waukulu kwambiri, mu '30s, iwo anali bankrolled Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Nkhondo zake zazikulu zinali zodziwika bwino - Ludlow, Blair Mountain, Harlan County. M'zaka za m'ma 1960, komabe, chinali mthunzi wa momwe analiri kale. Mu 1950, panali anthu 416,000 ogwira ntchito mโmigodi; mu 1959, anthu 180,000 okha ndi amene anatsalira pa ntchito mโminda ya malasha. John L. Lewis, mtsogoleri wodziyimira pawokha wa mgwirizanowu kwa theka la zaka zana, anali, m'zaka za m'ma 50, adakambirana za ntchito za migodi, kuvomereza kukhala kosapeลตeka kwa makina a migodi pamene akulandira mopanda kanthu kwa ogwira ntchito ku migodi. Mu 1963, Tony Boyle, wosakhala wochokera ku Montana wosankhidwa ndi Lewis, adalandira utsogoleri wa mgwirizanowu.
Chotsatira chake chinali kusokonezeka kwa udindo ndi mafayilo akuyaka pansi pa dzanja lachitsulo la oyang'anira migodi. Kusakhutira kunali pafupi ndi chilengedwe chonse chifukwa cha kusapeลตeka kwapang'onopang'ono kwa matenda oopsa a m'mapapo akuda komanso chifukwa cha mantha odabwitsa a tsoka lililonse lomwe limachitika kawirikawiri mumgodi wa malasha. Mu Novembala 1968, anthu makumi asanu ndi awiri mphambu asanu ndi atatu anataya miyoyo yawo mu mgodi kuphulika kwa Consolidation Coal's No. 9 mgodi ku Farmington, West Virginia. Onse pamodzi, anthu XNUMX aku migodi ya malasha ankakhulupirira kuti anaphedwa mโmigodi mโzaka za mโma XNUMX.
Mu 1969, a Jock Yablonski, mkulu wa bungwe la bungwe ku Clarksville, Pennsylvania, anatsutsa Boyle koma analephera pa chisankho chomwe chinali ndi zachinyengo. Yablonski adasumira ku dipatimenti ya Labor. Poyankha, Boyle anamupha iye. Madzulo a Chaka Chatsopano, zigawenga zing'onozing'ono zitatu zomwe zinalembedwa ganyu mu bar ya Cleveland zinawombera ndikupha Yablonski, mkazi wake, ndi mwana wake wamkazi m'mabedi awo. The Miners for Democracy (MFD) inakhazikitsidwa pamaliro a Yablonskis. Mu 1972, khoti laling'ono la US ku Washington, DC, poyankha mbali ina paudindo wokwiya komanso fayilo, linalamula kuti chisankho chatsopano chichitike. Arnold Miller, wolumala wa ku West Virginia wolumala pang'ono, akuthamanga pa slate ya MFD, adagonjetsa Boyle - Boyle mwiniwake adzaimbidwa mlandu ndikulamula kuti aphedwe. Mu 1974, adalandira chilango cha moyo wake wonse.
MFD idadzizindikiritsa yokha ngati gulu la anthu ogwira ntchito m'migodi. Zinabweretsa pamodzi mikangano yotsutsana yotsutsana mkati mwa mgwirizanowu, kuwagwirizanitsa ndi cholinga osati kungogonjetsa Boyle komanso kusintha mgwirizanowu, kuchokera pamwamba mpaka pansi. Mu 1973, ku Pittsburgh, MFD inatsogolera msonkhano wake woyamba wa UMW. Ogwira ntchito m'migodi kumeneko analembanso malamulo a mgwirizanowu, kutsimikizira ufulu wa maudindo. Mumkhalidwe wachisangalalo, iwo anawonjezera ulamuliro wa chigawo ndi kukonzanso ndondomeko ya malipiro a mgwirizanowo mokomera zigawo ndi anthu akumeneko. Udindo ndi fayilo zidapambana ufulu wovomereza makontrakitala. Motero, anthu ogwira ntchito m'migodi amalimbikitsidwa kuti asinthe demokalase yokhazikika kukhala demokalase yeniyeni, ndipo ogwira ntchito ku migodi ya malasha anayamba ntchito yofuna kusintha maubale mu migodi. Chotulukapo chimodzi chinali sitalaka ya dziko lonse ya 1974 ndi 1978, limodzinso ndi miyandamiyanda ya zinyalala zolusa. MFD ingakhale chitsanzo kwa osintha ma radicals ndi osintha migwirizano - m'njira zambiri, akadali.
Mafakitale Asokonekera ndi Kutsika kwachuma
Kwina konse, kutsika kwachuma mu 1974 kunali kowopsa, koposa zonse zamagalimoto. Magwero a kugwa kwachuma anali makamaka mwadongosolo, ndipo mwanjira imeneyo idachedwa, koma zinthu zidaipitsidwa ndi OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) 1973 kuletsa mafuta, poyankha nkhondo ya Arab-Israel. Zotsatira zake, mtengo wamafuta unakwera ndi 300 peresenti.
Kutsika kwachuma kudapitilira mumakampani aku US. Ulova wa zomangamanga unafika pa 15 peresenti. Makampani opanga magalimoto adakhudzidwa kwambiri; kusowa ntchito m'dera la Detroit la zigawo zisanu ndi chimodzi kudakwera 20 peresenti. Zomera zidatsekedwa ku New Jersey ndi California, ku Cleveland ndi St. Kampani ya Ford Motor Company inatseka mafakitale ake 22 mwa 66 ku United States, ndipo 55 peresenti ya ogwira ntchito omwe amalipidwa pa ola limodzi ndi 155,000. Makampani sangabwererenso kwathunthu. Kutseka kunakhala kosatha. Pobwerera m'mbuyo, gulu la olemba anzawo ntchito linapempha kuti antchito awo akhululukidwe kwambiri. Chrysler adawopseza bankirapuse. Purezidenti wa UAW Douglas Fraser anayankha ndi mawu aulosi awa: โNdikukhulupirira kuti atsogoleri a mabungwe amalonda, kupatulapo ochepa, asankha kumenya nkhondo ya mbali imodzi lerolino mโdziko lino.โ Ndithudi, iwo anatero. Mu 1979, boma la federal linalowererapo kuti lipulumutse Chrysler, kutulutsa kampaniyo; kuloledwa, kuchotsedwa ntchito, ndi kutsekedwa kwa mafakitale kunatsatira.
Mitengo yamafuta idakwiyitsa kuyenda kwa "ndale" ku West Virginia; Anthu ogwira ntchito mโmigodi omwe akunyanyala ntchito apempha bwanamkubwa kuti abweze mtengo wamafuta amafuta podandaula kuti sangakwanitse kukwera mtengo wa ulendo wawo. Kenako, mosayembekezereka, oyendetsa magalimoto, - omwe anali odziyimira pawokha - adatuluka mugulu lodabwitsa lomwe limatsutsa mfundo zamphamvu za olamulira a Nixon. Oyendetsa magalimotowa anayamba kutseka misewu ikuluikulu ya mโdzikolo, kuchititsa kuti magalimoto ambiri asokonezeke komanso kusokoneza kagawidwe ka katundu ndi ntchito zina. Ndi mawailesi a CB (citizen's band) ndi "zogwira" kuti asadziwike, adapanga ma convoys ndikukonza zochepetsera komanso kutsekereza. Ma trailer masauzande ambiri adasokoneza ma turnpikes ku Ohio ndi Pennsylvania. Adatsamwitsa mumsewu wa New York-Washington, DC ku Delaware Bridge.
Mayendedwe a oyendetsa magalimoto anali chitsanzo chochititsa chidwi cha luso la ogwira ntchito ndi luso lawo lokonzekera ndi kumenyana.
Mafakitale, akukha magazi kale, anakhudzidwanso. Patangotha โโโโmaola ochepa, oyang'anira GM adakakamizika kutseka malo ake a Lordstown. Ku Toledo, ogwira ntchito m'mafakitale adasiya ntchito zawo kuti agwirizane ndi oyendetsa magalimoto pamasinthidwe a I-75 ndi Ohio Turnpike. Atatopa ndi mizere ya gasi, anthu otopa anaombera mโmanja. Kuyankha kwa akuluakulu, kuphatikizapo White House, kunali koopsa; Asilikali a boma, omwe ankadedwa ndi oyendetsa magalimoto, ankalowa mkati nthawi zonse akasonkhana. Ku Ohio, asilikali a National Guard anatumizidwa, ndipo magalimoto analamulidwa ndi kukokedwa. Chochititsa chidwi n'chakuti, zoyankhulana ndi oyendetsa magalimoto pafupi ndi Cleveland nthawi zonse zinatembenukira ku Kupha ku Kent State ndi alonda omwewa. Pamapeto pake, blockaders adalephera. Kusuntha kwawo, komabe, chinali chitsanzo chochititsa chidwi cha luso la ogwira ntchito komanso kuthekera kwawo kukonza ndi kumenya nkhondo - zotchinga zawo zinali zofanana mwanjira zina ndi kumenyedwa kwanthawi yayitali. Iwo ankalamulira malo awo antchito: misewu ikuluikulu.
Chaka chomwecho, mu Marichi, anthu anayi aku Service Employees International Union (SEIU) akumaloko, oimira chipatala, abusa, osamalira, ndi ogwira ntchito zachitukuko, anakana malipiro ochokera ku Board of Supervisors ya San Francisco ndipo anakantha. Iwo anaphatikizidwa ndi aphunzitsi, omwe amalemekeza mizere ya picket yomwe inakhazikitsidwa kusukulu. Oyendetsa magalimoto akuda a Municipal Railway ndi akuda adalowa nawo, monganso madalaivala apaulendo. Ogwira ntchito m'mafamu adalumikizana ndi aphunzitsi olowa m'malo kuti atseke mabasi asukulu. Bwanamkubwa Ronald Reagan adawopseza kuti atumiza asilikali a National Guard, koma kunyanyalako kunkafalikira. Kuthetsa koyambirira kokha kwa atsogoleri a SEIU kunalepheretsa kunyalanyazidwa kwakukulu. Mu August 1974, โKulikonse kumene mukupita,โ analemba motero mtolankhani wina, โmunthu akunyanyala ntchito: amakanika a ndege, oyendetsa mabasi, ogwira ntchito mโmigodi yamkuwa, ogwira ntchito zaukhondo, ozimitsa moto, ogwira ntchito mโzipatala, opaka utoto, osula zitsulo, ogwira ntchito patelefoni. American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) idavota kuti atseke dziko la Ohio. " Ogwira ntchito m'migodi, ndi utsogoleri wawo watsopano, adagonjetsa kwa masiku makumi awiri ndi asanu ndi atatu, ndikupambana phukusi lamtengo wapatali kuposa 40 peresenti. Maudindo ndi fayilo adavomereza izi, ngakhale zinali zochepa - pafupifupi theka adavota kuti asachoke.
Pofika chapakati pa 1975, ntchito inali itatsala pang'ono kutsika, ndipo zigawenga za ogwira ntchito zidakhalabe zamoyo, koposa zonse m'minda ya malasha. Mโchilimwe cha 1975, 1976, ndi 1977, mโdziko lonselo munali mikangano yoopsa. Yoyamba inali mu 1975, pamene ogwira ntchito mโmigodi okwana 80,000 anamenyera ufulu wonyanyala ntchito. Kenaka, mu 1976, 120,000 (pafupifupi antchito onse a Kumโmaลตa) anatuluka motsutsana ndi malamulo operekedwa kwa ogwira ntchito mโmigodi amene anali kunyalanyazidwa. Kukula kwa mgwirizano wa ogwira ntchito kumigodi kunali kotero kuti picket imodzi "yachilendo" ikhoza kutseka kusintha konse. Kunyanyalako kunapitirizabe mpaka mโchilimwe cha 1977, pamene anthu okwana 85,000 anakantha, poyembekezera sitalaka. Mu 1976, chiwerengero cha ziwonetsero zazikulu - 5,648 - pafupifupi zofanana ndi za 1970 - 5,716 - ngakhale chiwerengero cha omenyera sichinali chokwera kwambiri. M'zaka zapakati pa 1976 ndi 1979, panalinso mikwingwirima pafupifupi kulikonse - ndiko kuti, m'magawo onse komanso m'dziko lonselo. Aphunzitsiwo, atanyanyala ntchito, anasokoneza masukulu, akuluakulu a boma, ngakhalenso mabungwe a aphunzitsi, akunyanyala ntchito ndi kupambana.
Pofika chapakati pa ma 1970, malinga ndi kunena kwa wolemba mbiri Michael Honey, gulu lomenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe la kumโmwera linali litalowa mโmafakitale, kotero kuti โpambuyo pa zaka zambiri za kuyesayesa kosautsa . . . ogwira ntchito zakuda m'mafakitale ogwirizana adagwetsa zopinga zambiri za Jim Crow m'malo awo antchito ndi mabungwe. " Kuwonjezera apo, "Black Power" inali itasamukira kumpoto; m'makampani, idayimira njira yokakamiza olemba ntchito komanso mabungwe kuti azindikire ufulu ndi zofuna za ogwira ntchito akuda. Makampaniwa adalemba antchito atsopano, achinyamata, ndipo ambiri mwa ogwira ntchitowa anali ku Detroit.
Ambiri mwa olembedwa atsopanowa ankagwira ntchito zopanda luso, zomwe nthawi zambiri zimakhala zoopsa, zomwe zinkachititsa kuti pakhale chiwongoladzanja chochuluka komanso osowa ntchito zomwe makampani amagalimoto ankadziwika bwino.
Ambiri mwa osankhidwa atsopanowa adagwira ntchito zopanda luso, zomwe nthawi zambiri zimakhala zowopsa, akuchita ntchito zonyozeka, zosokoneza maganizo zomwe zinapangitsa kuti chiwongoladzanja chiwonjezeke komanso chiwongoladzanja chosowa ntchito. mafakitale anali odziwika bwino. Magwero a gulu la black caucus anali mumikhalidwe iyi. M'makampani oyendetsa magalimoto, gululi lidayamba chifukwa chomenyera ufulu wa anthu komanso kutukuka kwa gulu losintha mgwirizano wotsogozedwa ndi DRUM (Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement) pafakitale ya Chrysler's Dodge Main ku Detroit. Ogwira ntchito ena akuda adatsatira, ndikukhazikitsa mabungwe osintha mgwirizano ku Eldon Road (ELRUM), chomera cha Ford's River Rouge (FRUM); ku Chrysler's Jefferson Avenue Assembly plant (JARUM). Ogwira ntchito m'mafakitale ena adagwirizananso; ogwira ntchito m'chipatala adapanga HRUM, ogwira ntchito m'nyuzipepala NEWRU, United Parcel ogwira ntchito ku UPRUM, pamodzi kuti apange League of Revolutionary Black Workers.
Kupanduka kwa antchito akuda kunalimbikitsa ambiri, kuphatikizapo antchito oyera. Komabe, sizinadzetse mgwirizano umene ambiri ankayembekezera, ndithudi osati mโmakampani oyendetsa galimoto. Pamene oyendetsa galimoto akuda, akumenyana ndi liwiro-p, adachita ziwonetsero m'chilimwe cha 1973 ku Detroit ku Jefferson Assembly, Eldon Road, ndi Mack Avenue zomera, iwo sanali, makamaka, mothandizidwa ndi azungu, ochepa. ma radicals kupatulapo. Zotsatira zake, kwa antchito zikwi makumi ambiri, zinali zomvetsa chisoni. Mgwirizanowu womwe sunachitike, limodzi ndi kuwonongeka kwa magalimoto mu 1974, zidapangitsa kuti kutha kwa kayendetsedwe ka magalimoto, kusokoneza malingaliro a mibadwo iwiri ya anthu opitilira muyeso omwe adasungitsa chilichonse pa kupanduka kwagalimoto.
Makampani opanga zitsulo poyamba ankalamulira dziko la US, ndipo kukula kwake kunali kwakukulu. Mโchigawo cha Pittsburgh chokha, mphero zazikulu khumi ndi ziwiri zinali mโmphepete mwa mtsinje wa Monongahela. M'dziko lonseli, anthu masauzande mazana ambiri ankagwira ntchito yopangira zitsulo. Komabe, mโzaka za mโma 70, osula zitsulo anali kutaya ntchito; adayang'anizana ndi kusakhazikika komanso kuchepa kwa ndalama zomwe amapeza ndipo adawona kuchuluka kwamitengo yotseka. Makampani ndi mgwirizanowu adadzudzula mpikisano wakunja, koma chofunikiranso chinali kuchulukirachulukira mumakampani okalamba, otengera ndalama zambiri.
Makampani azitsulo adagwiritsa ntchito vutoli kuti agwirizanitse ntchito, kulimbikitsa "chilango," ndi kuonjezera zokolola, panthawi imodzimodziyo m'malo mwa zipangizo zakale ndi teknoloji yatsopano. Mu 1973, mgwirizanowu unagwirizana ndi Experimental Negotiating Agreement (ENA), lonjezo lopanda chiwopsezo cha dziko lonse, lomwe linasinthana ndi ufulu womenyana ndi dziko lonse kuti apeze mabonasi a ndalama, kusintha kwa mtengo wa moyo, ndi kukulitsa mwayi wotsutsana. Ogwira ntchito zachitsulo anakhalabe ndi ufulu wochita ziwonetsero pa nkhani za mโderalo, ndipo mu 1977, panali mavoti oposa zana limodzi, poyerekeza ndi asanu ndi awiri okha mu 1974. ' (USW) chachikulu, pomwe Sadlowski adagonjetsera yemwe anali woyang'anira chigawo.
Makampani azitsulo adagwiritsa ntchito vutoli kuti agwirizanitse ntchito, kulimbikitsa "chilango," ndi kuonjezera zokolola.
Zigawengazo zinafuna kuthetsa ENA ya 1973; iwo adafuna ufulu wovomereza makontrakitala ndipo adafuna kusankha utsogoleri watsopano wadziko kuti akweze udindo wawo. Mu 1975, ogwira ntchitowa ndi zigawenga zam'deralo mumgwirizanowu adapanga Steelworkers Fight Back, gulu lotsutsa dziko lonse. Chigamulocho chinapangidwa kuti ayendetse Sadlowski kwa pulezidenti wa USW ndi Fight Back monga bungwe la kampeni. Kampeni ya 1976-77 idakulitsa mzimu wokangana womwe umayang'ana kwambiri nkhani ngati ENA, kutsutsa kukwera kwa ngongole, komanso ufulu wovomereza mapangano. Mzimu uwu udakulitsidwa ndikuti Sadlowski mwiniwakeyo adalankhula momasuka pazambiri zamagulu monga Nkhondo yaku Vietnam komanso ufulu wachibadwidwe. Pamapeto pake, Sadlowski adataya, ngakhale adalandira mavoti 43 peresenti, kuphatikiza ambiri mwa anthu amderali, omwe ambiri anali zitsulo zoyambira.
Makampani, komabe, anali pafupi ndi kuchepa kwakukulu ndi kuyamba kwa gawo latsopano, lankhanza la deindustrialization; zinanenedweratu ndi ochepa, izo zinasunthira pakati pa siteji. Kupanga zitsulo zapakhomo kudatsika kwambiri pambuyo pa 1979, pomwe mabungwe azitsulo adachita zodziwikiratu. Ogwira ntchito zachitsulo okwanira 200,000 anachotsedwa ntchito. Kumayambiriro kwa 1980, ogwira ntchito zachitsulo ku Youngstown, Ohio, analanda likulu la chigawo cha US Steel molimba mtima koma mofunitsitsa kuti aletse kutseka mphero yawo. Zinkayembekezedwa kuti kukhala-mkati kukhoza kukhala moto woyambitsa gulu lotsutsa. Mโmalo mwake, kudodometsa kwa mazana a antchito ndi ochirikiza ophatikizidwamo, ilo linasiyidwa mwamsanga pa malamulo a maofesala a mabungwe amโderalo ndi alangizi awo.
Ufulu Wolinganiza
Kupambana kwakukulu kwa ogwira ntchito m'dongosolo la pambuyo pa nkhondo kunali kupeza ufulu wolinganiza ogwira ntchito m'boma, chigawo, ndi chitaganya, ndi gulu lotsatira la mamiliyoni a ogwira ntchitowa kukhala mabungwe ogwira ntchito. "Kukula kwa mabungwe aboma ku United States" m'zaka za m'ma 50 ndi m'ma 60, malinga ndi a Mark Maier, "kufanana ndi kukulirakulira kwa mabungwe aboma m'ma 1930s." Azimayi adalowa m'magawo a ntchito ndi mabungwe ogwira ntchito m'mamiliyoni; iwo anakhala msana wa kayendedwe ka aphunzitsi atsopano, makamaka a NEA, omwe tsopano asinthidwa kukhala mgwirizano. Mโzaka za mโma 1970, mabungwe ogwira ntchito mโboma anakula kuลตirikiza kanayi kuposa umembala wonse wa mabungwe, ndipo akazi anapanga gawo lalikulu kwambiri la mamembala atsopanowa.
The Coalition of Labor Union Women (CLUW), yomwe idakhazikitsidwa ku 1974 ku Chicago, idabadwa munthawi yachisangalalo chachikulu ndipo idakhala ndi gulu lothandizira amayi ogwira ntchito ndi zovuta zawo. Akazi a bungwe latsopanoli anagwirizana ndi ogwira ntchito muofesi, ogwira ntchito patelefoni, anamwino, ndi ogwira ntchito zachipatala, ogwira ntchito zobvala, ndi ogwira ntchito mโmafakitale. Azimayi zikwi zitatu a mabungwe ogwira ntchito adapezekapo pamsonkhano woyambitsa; pafupifupi gawo limodzi mwa magawo atatu aliwonse opezekapo akuti anali achinyamata okhwima maganizo. CLUW inkawoneka ngati galimoto yabwino yogwirizanitsa ufulu wa amayi ndi gulu la akazi ogwira ntchito, omwe amatha kuyankhula za kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa chiwerengero cha akazi ogwira ntchito, ambiri osakonzekera.
Mkati mwa zaka ziwiri, komabe, CLUW anali atafa kwenikweni, atanyozedwa ndi akazi a boma, iwo eni, monga momwe silili, nzika zamtundu wachiwiri m'migwirizano yawo. Komabe, kwa akazi ogwira ntchito, kulimbanako kunapitirira. Mu Seputembala 1976, ku Seattle, anamwino 2,500 adanyanyala, kunyalanya komwe kudatenga masiku makumi asanu ndi limodzi mphambu asanu, kunyanyala kwa anamwino kwanthawi yayitali kwambiri panthawiyo, kuwonetsa, malinga ndi New York Times, โgulu lankhondo latsopano la anamwino olembetsedwa pano ndi kwina kulikonse.โ Nkhani zake zinali za malipiro, antchito, ndi malo ogulitsira. Koma panalinso โnkhani yamaganizo,โ malinga ndi kunena kwa dokotala wina.
Kale, anamwino amatha kukalipiridwa ndipo malingaliro awo amanyalanyazidwa . . . Tsopano amatsutsa madokotala ndipo nthawi zina amalowetsa zigamulo zawo m'malo mwake . . . Iyi ndi nkhani ya parity yomwe yabweretsedwa ndi anamwino achichepere anzeru omwe angomaliza maphunziro awo posachedwapa ndipo adzutsidwa ndi gulu la amayi lomwe likupangitsa kuti zivutike kuthetsa sitirakayi.
Ogwira ntchito, ogwira ntchito m'maboma, ndi akazi ogwira ntchito amakhazikitsa maziko a mgwirizano wamagulu aboma ndi ogwira ntchito omwe tili nawo mpaka pano. Mabungwewa amaneneratu za tsogolo la ntchito zambiri, zomwe zikukula pakati pa kusintha kuchokera kumagulu ogwira ntchito m'mafakitale kupita kumagulu a anthu ndi ntchito. Iwo ankaimira chiwerengero chachikulu cha akazi ndi antchito amitundu.
Kusuntha kuwiri mu Teamsters kukuwonetsanso kuti kupandukaku kunapitilira. Mu 1976, a Frank Fitzsimmons, purezidenti wa Teamsters, adayitana kunyalanyazidwa, mdziko lonse, kwa oyendetsa magalimoto onyamula katundu mokakamizidwa ndi maudindo ndi mafayilo, kuphatikiza bungwe latsopano la Teamsters for a Decent Contract (TDC). M'mwezi wa Okutobala wotsatira, TDC idakhala Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU). Masika omwewo, a Teamsters adakantha UPS m'chigawo chapakati, nthawi ino akukakamizidwa ndi UPSurge, bungwe la UPS udindo ndi fayilo. Kukhazikika kwa zonyamula katundu kudakumana ndi kumenyedwa kwa nyama zakutchire ku Detroit. UPSurge idayankha kukhazikika kwa UPS ndikumenyedwa ndi nyama zakutchire m'mizinda isanu ndi itatu yaku Midwest.
Ogwira ntchito, ogwira ntchito m'maboma, ndi akazi ogwira ntchito amakhazikitsa maziko a mgwirizano wamagulu aboma ndi ogwira ntchito omwe tili nawo mpaka pano.
Mu Teamsters, yomwe panthawiyo inali mgwirizano waukulu kwambiri wa mafakitale mdziko muno, TDU idayamba kupanga gulu lachitukuko ndi mafayilo mkati mwa mgwirizano, mgwirizano wachinyengo, womwe nthawi zambiri umakhala ndi ubale wapamtima ndi gulu la anthu (zigawenga zomwe zimadula mgwirizano ndi Akuluakulu a bungwe, kumayiko ndi komweko, ndipo adafunafuna njira zochepetsera thumba la penshoni lomwe lapeza phindu lalikulu la mgwirizanowu). TDU inakula mofulumira mpaka kuyenda kwa zikwi; ntchito yake inali kusandutsa chigwirizano champhamvu kukhala chisonkhezero cha kusintha kopita patsogolo. Linayamba kugwira ntchito zokambilana za makontrakitala, kulimbikitsa mgwirizano ponyanyala ntchito ndi m'maboma, kuchirikiza kusintha kwa malamulo a boma, ndikuvumbula katangale ndi umbanda. Kupambana kwake kwakukulu kudachitika mu 1991 pomwe idathandizira kwambiri chipambano cha Ron Carey, mtsogoleri wa ogwira ntchito ku UPS, pampikisano wake wachipambano wa utsogoleri wa bungweli.
UPSurge, bungwe la ogwira ntchito ku UPS, lomwe linakhazikitsidwa ku Cleveland mu 1975, linali logwirizana ndi TDU koma linasiyana chifukwa linali lokonzekera kulimbana ndi kampaniyo. Cholinga chake choyamba chinali kukonzekera zokambirana zapakati pa mayiko a 1976. UPSurge idamangidwa pagulu la oyang'anira masitolo osakhazikika omwe ali ndi mizu pazaka zambiri za zigawenga. M'zaka za m'ma 60 ndi m'ma 70, panali mikangano yosalekeza - kumenyedwa, akuluakulu aboma komanso osavomerezeka, kuphatikiza, mu 1973, kugunda kwa amphaka a Pittsburgh ndi ma pickets omwe adatseka ntchito za UPS ku Western Pennsylvania ndi gawo lalikulu la Ohio.
Panthawiyi, UPS idakhala olemba anzawo ntchito akuluakulu a Teamsters, komanso kampani yayikulu kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi. Inadziwika bwino, ngakhale padziko lonse lapansi, chifukwa cha magalimoto abulauni, mayunifolomu ake ankhondo, ndi oyang'anira ake opezeka paliponse, okhala ndi zikwangwani ndi mawotchi oyimitsa. M'makampani omwe adakali olamulidwa ndi makampani ang'onoang'ono ndi apakatikati, UPS idakhala wopanga zatsopano - idakhazikika mu "Taylorism," mtundu wa kasamalidwe ka sayansi womwe udayang'anira chilichonse pantchito, ndikupanga, m'mawu a Harry Braverman, "kupatukana kwa ndondomeko ya ntchito kuchokera ku luso la ogwira ntchito. " UPS idayambitsa umisiri watsopano, kuwonjezera katundu wandege, ndikubweretsa ophunzira ndi antchito achichepere ngati osakhalitsa.
Mkangano wa ku UPS udawonetsa kuzama kwa chipwirikiti chambiri mdziko muno, nthawi ino mukampani yamphamvu, yadziko, yopindulitsa kwambiri.
"Msonkhano" wokhazikitsidwa wa UPSurge unachitikira ku Indianapolis pa January 31, 1976. Zinali zodabwitsa; 650 UPSurgers adasonkhana mu Holiday Inn kumadera akum'mawa kwa mzindawu. Msonkhanowo unali wabizinesi, gawo la ziwonetsero, gawo la chikondwerero - ndipo zinali zosayerekezeka m'mbiri ya UPS. Ogwira ntchito anachokera kutali monga ku Portland, Oregon, ndi Boston, Massachusetts, ngakhale kuti anali ochokera kumadera apakati. Zofuna khumi za mgwirizano zidasankhidwa; iwo anaika maganizo pa madera otsatirawa: osakhalitsa, miyezo ya maonekedwe; oyang'anira ntchito, zida zosatetezeka, masiku odwala, tchuthi, ndi mawailesi.
Mkangano wa ku UPS udawonetsa kuzama kwa chipwirikiti chambiri mdziko muno, nthawi ino mukampani yamphamvu, yadziko, yopindulitsa kwambiri. Komiti yotsogolera ya UPSurge inali, kwenikweni, gulu la oyang'anira masitolo, m'lingaliro lachikale; ndiye kuti, pafupifupi membala aliyense anali wogwira ntchito, wosankhidwa, wokumbukiridwa, mtsogoleri wapansi pa sitolo. Mu 1980, UPSurge adalumikizana ndi TDU, ndipo lero, ogwira ntchito ku UPS akuyimira gawo lalikulu kwambiri - kuphatikiza apo, amalamulira mgwirizano wa Teamsters womwewo. TDU, modabwitsa, yalimbana ndi mikuntho kwa zaka zopitilira makumi anayi. Ikupitilirabe kumveka ngati mawu a Teamsters apamwamba-ndi-mafayilo komanso mtundu wamayendedwe amtundu ndi mafayilo omwe timafunikirabe.
Mapeto a Zaka Zaka makumi asanu ndi awiri zazitali
Chakumapeto kwa zaka za mโma 1970, kunyanyala ntchito kunapitirizabe kukhala nkhani ya tsiku ndi tsiku. Chitsanzo cha kumenya bwino kwa United Farm Workers (UFW) ndikunyanyala mphesa ndi letesi m'zaka za m'ma 60 kunatsatiridwa ndi kumenyedwa ndi ogulitsa zovala ndi nsalu ku Farah Company ndi JP Stevens, komanso ku Coors Brewing. Kunyanyala kumeneku kunakhudza anthu ambiri omwe ankawatsatira ndi antchito ena, komanso anthu onse.
Mu September 1976, ogwira ntchito mโminda ya phwetekere kumpoto chakumโmawa kwa Ohio ndi ogwira ntchito mโzitini pafupi ndi Toledo anakantha ndi kulanda malo a Morgan Packing Company. Omenyera nkhondowo adamanga zotchinga, adatsekereza akuluakulu aboma, ndipo adapambana, kupambana kofunikira koyambirira kwa Komiti Yoyang'anira Ntchito Zamafamu (FLOC). FLOC idakhazikitsidwa ndi wophunzira wakale wakale Baldemar Velรกsquez.
Ku Seattle, akatswiri 17,000 a Boeing adagunda. Mโkunyanyala kowawa kwa anthu ogwira ntchito mโmigodi ku Stearns, Kentucky, ndi ogwira ntchito mโfakitale ku Elwood, Indiana, omenya anamenyedwa, kuwomberedwa, ndi kumangidwa. Chaka chomwecho, ozimitsa moto anakantha ku Memphis, kumenyedwa kwa amphaka, komanso ku Normal, Illinois, ndi Dayton, Ohio. Mu Seputembala 1978, mamembala 20,000 a American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) adasiya ntchito ku Philadelphia. Safeway idatsekedwa ku Northern California mkangano wowawa ndi Teamsters - mu Ogasiti, wowomberayo adaphedwa.
Mkangano womaliza wazaka khumi za zigawenga zamagulu ndi mafayilo zidabwera pakunyanyala kwa 1977-78 m'malo a malasha.
Ogwira ntchito za njanji, pokana kulowererapo kwa boma, adatembenuza mkangano wamasiku makumi asanu ndi atatu ndi a Norfolk Western kukhala chiwonongeko chapadziko lonse. Ndipo 15,000 ogwira ntchito zamapepala ndi mapepala adagwiritsa ntchito misala ndi ma pickets oyendayenda pafupi ndi Pacific Northwest. Mu 1979, ku Youngstown kunali kunyalanyazidwa kwa anthu onyamula zitsulo. Onyamula magalimoto ali ku Linwood, New Jersey, ndi Lordstown, Ohio, komanso ogwira ntchito ku positi ku Richmond, California. Ogwira ntchito za zida za nyukiliya adatuluka pafakitale ya Goodyear's Piketon, Ohio. Ogwira ntchito zachitsulo adalandira ulemu m'malo osungiramo zombo ku Newport News, kutsatira kunyalanyazidwa kwazaka ziwiri. Maphunzirowa adachitika ku Boston University ndi University of Cincinnati, komanso, aphunzitsi akusukulu. Panali ziwonetsero za aphunzitsi 199 mu 1979, zofanana ndi zomwe zidachitika kale mu 1975-76. Aphunzitsi amakantha ndalama zambiri, kuchepetsa kukula kwa kalasi, nthawi yowonjezera yokonzekera, ndipo, m'malo ena, chilango cha ophunzira. Pomaliza, panali sitiraka ya 1979 ya ogwira ntchito m'mafamu aku California.
Mkangano womaliza wazaka khumi za zigawenga zamagulu ndi mafayilo zidabwera pakunyanyala kwa 1977-78 m'malo a malasha. Kunyanyala kwa anthu ogwira ntchito m'migodi 160,000 kunatenga masiku a 110, kupitirirabe ngakhale lamulo la Taft-Hartley loperekedwa ndi Purezidenti Jimmy Carter. Kawiri, ogwira ntchito m'migodi adanyoza atsogoleri a UMW ndikukana mapangano ovomerezeka. Ogwira ntchitowo ankafuna zomwe ogwira ntchito m'migodi ankatcha "mgwirizano wazaka za m'ma 1930," wokhala ndi ufulu wothamangitsa anthu omwe akunyanyala ntchito, kuchotseratu ndalama zambiri, komanso zilango zomwe zimagwira ntchito. Otsutsawo adatsutsa mgwirizanowu womwe udayitanitsa sitalaka mumikhalidwe yoyipa kwambiri; panali miyezi yambirimbiri ya malasha pansi. Otsutsa adanenetsa kuti utsogoleri wa bungweli ulibe cholinga chopambana pa sitalakayi.
Komabe, ogwira ntchito m'migodi adachita, ndipo adalimbana ndi makampani - mabungwe onse amakampani akuluakulu amagetsi - kuti ayimitse magazi. Iwo anamenyananso ndi asilikali a boma, alonda a dziko ku Indiana, ndi zikwi za alonda a kampani ndi zigawenga. Anthu atatu ogwira ntchito mโmigodi anawomberedwa ndi kuphedwa pa mizere ya picket, mazana anamangidwa, ndipo masauzande amalipiritsidwa. Panali chifundo chofala kwa ogwira ntchito mโmigodi amene anali kunyalanyazidwa, kuphatikizapo misonkhano yachigwirizano, kusonkhanitsa zakudya, ndi makavani, koma palibe bungwe lina limene linachitapo kanthu powathandiza. Ogwira ntchito mโmigodi anamenyana okha; komabe, adagonjetsa makampani pazinthu zambiri. Njala yokha inawakakamiza kubwerera. Ngakhale pamenepo, 40 peresenti ya ovota adakana kukhazikikako, akukonda kumenyera nkhondo. Ogwira ntchito m'migodi adatopa mu 1978, koma sanagonjetse. Iwo sanali, komabe, okonzekera zomwe zinali kubwera - kuchotsedwa kwakukulu kwa migodi ya malasha kumadzulo.
Ndipo aphunzitsi, kachiwiri. Mโzaka za mโma 70, sitiraka ya aphunzitsi inayitanidwa ndi National Education Association (NEA). Mโchaka cha 1975-76 chokha, panali sitiraka 203. Mu January 1978, pamene aphunzitsi anakantha ku Canton, Ohio, masukulu, 400 anamangidwa, kuphatikizapo 230 mu swoop imodzi pa Timken High School.
Izi ndi zitsanzo ziwiri zokha m'mbiri yomwe ikuyenera kulembedwa. NEA inali kale bungwe lalikulu mu 1960s. M'mbiri yakale, linali bungwe la akatswiri; mosiyana ndi American Federation of Teachers (AFT), inalibe mgwirizano ndi gulu la ogwira ntchito. Koma mโma 1960, izi zinayamba kusintha. โMkati mwa NEA,โ analemba motero wolemba mbiri Marjorie Murphy, โkusintha kwa mkati kunasonyeza bwino lomwe kuti gulu lalikululi linali kudzikonza mwapangโonopangโono koma mosapeลตeka kukhala mgwirizano.โ M'zaka za m'ma 1970, NEA inakula pamtunda wa mamembala atsopano a 100,000 chaka chilichonse, kufika pa 2 miliyoni mu 1980. Bungwe la American Federation of Teachers (AFT) linakulanso, ngakhale kuti silinali lovuta kwambiri. AFT inakonzedwa monga bungwe la ogwira ntchito, ndipo mizu yake inali m'mizinda, pamwamba pa zonse ku New York City; idagwirizana ndi AFL-CIO. Umembala m'mabungwe awiriwa udapitilira mgwirizano wa Teamsters.
Mabungwe onsewa adayankha kusinthika kwazaka za m'ma 60 ndikumenyedwa komanso kukonza ma drive. NEA, komabe, idaposa mdani wake. Mโzaka masauzande ambiri za sitiraka za aphunzitsi mโzaka za mโma 70, mwina pafupifupi 80 peresenti ankatsogoleredwa ndi aphunzitsi a NEA; Kuonjezera apo, sitiraka za aphunzitsizi zimayimira gulu la anthu omwe amatsogoleredwa m'deralo. NEA inali yogawidwa kwambiri, ndithudi poyerekeza ndi mgwirizano wapamwamba wa AFT.
NEA inali ndi mwayi wina. M'zaka izi za ntchito zambiri za aphunzitsi, AFT idakhudzidwa ndi mikangano ya mafuko - cholowa, mwa mbali yake, ya kulimbana kwa tsankho ndi anthu akuda omwe adachita nawo ziwonetsero za aphunzitsi ku New York mu 1968. Panalinso mikangano ndi makolo akuda ku Youngstown ndi Newark, kumene omenyera ufulu wakuda adatsutsa mgwirizanowu, ngakhale atatsogoleredwa ndi aphunzitsi akuda. Mu Seputembala 1975, ku Boston, aphunzitsi 4,950, 90 peresenti ya ogwira nawo ntchito, adachitapo kanthu chifukwa cha kusamvana kwawo - kunyanyala kwawo kudasokonezanso pulogalamu yachisankho ya milungu iwiri yolamulidwa ndi khothi. AFT idalandila anti-affirmative-action Bakuke Chigamulocho, Khothi Lalikulu lomwe lidagamula motsutsana ndi kusankhana mitundu, komanso kutsutsa mfundo za NEA zomwe zimakhazikitsa magawo amitundu ndi jenda m'mabungwe ake olamulira.
NEA, mosasamala kanthu za chiyambi chake chodziletsa mโnthaลตi ya masukulu olekanitsidwa - inalinganiza maukwati amitundu iwiri ku South - inathandizira kuphatikizika ndi kuchitapo kanthu kotsimikizirika. Mu 1964, idalamula kuti onse omwe adagwirizana nawo aphatikizidwe, ngakhale mu 1974, bungwe la Louisiana lidali losiyana. Mu 1967, Elizabeth Koontz, mphunzitsi wa m'kalasi wa ku America wochokera ku North Carolina, anakhala pulezidenti woyamba wakuda wa NEA. Mu 1972, pamene ophunzira awiri akuda ku Southern University anawomberedwa ndi kuphedwa ndi apolisi, NEA inagwirizana ndi ophunzira ndi mabungwe akuda pofuna kufufuza kafukufuku. Bungwe la NEA ladzudzula chigamulo cha khothi chomwe sichingafune kuti akuluakulu asukulu akonzenso madera ophunzirira kuti azitha kusinthana ndi mitundu.
Pamene AFT ndi NEA anasiya zokambirana za mgwirizano mu 1974, zifukwa zinali zambiri, kuphatikizapo zosavuta za bungwe ndi mavuto aukadaulo, omaliza kwambiri mu NEA. Koma a Helen Wise, purezidenti wa NEA, adadzudzula mlandu woti aphunzitsi a NEA sanali ochita zamalonda, adati, "pali omasuka ambiri m'bungweli omwe amaganiza kuti AFL-CIO ndi yokonda kwambiri." Ananenanso kuti, "AFT, ikupereka milomo kuti achitepo kanthu pang'ono, idatsutsa njira yabwino yotsimikizira izi. Palibe kuyanjana pakati pa kudzipereka kwa NEA ndi malingaliro a AFT laissez-faire pankhaniyi. " Kuyambira koyambirira, NEA idathandizira mwachangu Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) ya amayi. Mu 1974, idapambana mlandu wa Khothi Lalikulu woletsa tchuthi chovomerezeka kwa aphunzitsi oyembekezera.
Kuphatikiza apo, pakukonza mwaukali, kuphatikiza kugwiritsa ntchito sitiraka, NEA, m'mawu a Murphy, idatenga "maudindo olimba mtima, opita patsogolo pazinthu zingapo zamagulu." AFT ndi AFL-CIO adathandizira kwambiri nkhondo ku Vietnam - mosakayikira amakhulupirira kuti antchito aku America adachitanso chimodzimodzi. Izi sizinali choncho ndi aphunzitsi, komabe, ndipo AFT inalipira mtengo. Pakati pa 1970 ndi 1980, NEA idakula ndi mamembala miliyoni. Ambiri mwa mamembala atsopanowa anali akazi, ndipo ambiri anali akuda ndi a Latino; masauzande a mamembala atsopanowa adapita ku yunivesite m'ma 1960. Panthaลตi imodzimodziyo, malinga ndi kunena kwa Murphy, โaphunzitsi anadandaula ponena za kuyangโanira, kuwonjezereka kwa maulamuliro, ntchito zosayenera, ndi kusoลตeka kwa ulamuliro pa kupereka zilolezo, maphunziro ndi ntchito.โ Mwa mikangano imeneyi munatuluka chomwe chinali posachedwapa kukhala mgwirizano waukulu kwambiri wa dziko - kusonyeza kuti, chifukwa cha mikhalidwe yoyenera ndi kufunitsitsa kuchitapo kanthu, mabungwe ogwira ntchito, ndipo koposa zonse mabungwe opita patsogolo, akhoza kukula ndi kupambana.
โZochitika Zachilendo Mwazokhaโ
Kodi tiwunike bwanji sitiraka komanso mayendedwe a ogwira ntchito m'zaka khumizi? Izi zapitirira malire a kafukufukuyu. Komabe, mayendedwe awa akuyenera kuzindikiridwa, ndikuzindikiridwa momwe analiri: zochitika zodabwitsa paokha, zoyenereradi malo olemekezeka pamikangano yomwe ili chizindikiro cha gulu lawo, mikangano m'mbiri yayitali, yolimba ya anthu wamba ndi kumenyera kwawo dziko labwino.
Mfundo zingapo zitha kufotokozedwa apa. Kuyenda kwa ogwira ntchito sikunali kopanda kupambana; M'kupita kwa zaka khumi, adapanga mgwirizano kuti ukhale wademokalase komanso wophatikizana, adatsutsa woyang'anira sitolo ndikupambana nkhondo zazikulu zachuma ndi chikhalidwe. Iwo anakulitsa munda wa zotheka. Anawulutsanso, ngati mwachidule, mbendera zong'ambika za ulamuliro wa ogwira ntchito. Kotero, mwachitsanzo, ogwira ntchito m'migodi ya malasha adagwirana ndi ena onse ogwira ntchito m'mafakitale, kwinaku akukankhira mmbuyo zokolola, zofunika ngati migodi iyenera kukhala yotetezeka. Mosapeลตeka, komabe, mabungwewo adawonetsabe mabungwe omwe adapanga. Gululo linakhalabe, makamaka, ochepa, osatha kupyola malire omwe amawaika pa iwo, kuphatikizapo kufalikira kwa ulamuliro parochialism. Kumapeto kwa zaka khumi, zomanga ndi utsogoleri wa migwirizano zidakhalabe bwino. Mosapeลตeka, ndiye, mayendedwe, nthawi zambiri ngakhale anali ndi zolinga zabwino komanso ndi ziyeneretso zofunika, sakanatha kuthana ndi kugawanika kwaufuko ndi jenda ku United States. Ogwira ntchito aku America sanagonjetse magawanowa, ndipo mgwirizano wamagulu unakhalabe wovuta - tsankho loyera lidalepheretsa kusakanikirana kwa kayendetsedwe ka ufulu wa anthu, gulu la Black Power, ndi gulu la ogwira ntchito.
Iwo anakulitsa munda wa zotheka. Anawulutsanso, ngati mwachidule, mbendera zong'ambika za ulamuliro wa ogwira ntchito.
Kumenyedwa ndi kusuntha kwa maudindo ndi mafayilo kudangokhala kumafakitale amodzi ndi mabungwe, ngakhale nthawi zambiri pamakhala mgwirizano wamphamvu, ndipo pomwe udindo ndi mafayilo zidasokoneza atsogoleri achichepere amderalo, mayendedwewo sanatulutse malo, palibe njira yolumikizirana. , ndiponso palibe atsogoleri odziwika a mayiko. Iwo anali olekanitsidwa mkati mwa mafakitale ndi migwirizano; iwo samakonda kutha kuchokera ku mafakitale ena kupita ku ena. Ndithudi, panali chifundo chofala kwa ogwira ntchito mโnkhondo, koma panalibe njira ya bungwe yosonyezera chithandizo choterocho. Izi mwina zinali zomvetsa chisoni zazaka khumi, poganizira zomwe ma 80s angabweretse.
Kuponderezana, ponse paลตiri kwa olemba anzawo ntchito ndi ku boma, kunatenga mbali yaikulu, ndipo ogwira ntchito onyanyala, makamaka pakalibe thandizo la mabungwe ovomerezeka, nthaลตi zambiri anali opanda chitetezo pamene akukumana ndi ziwawa. Olemba ntchito amangoganizira kwambiri za antchito opanda mgwirizano. Aliyense payekhapayekha, adagwiritsa ntchito njira zingapo zomwe zafala tsopano, kuphatikiza kulemba ntchito maloya ophwanya mgwirizano, kuyendetsa kampeni yopereka ziphaso, ndikusamukira kumadera omwe si a mgwirizano kumwera ndi kunja. Mlingo wachiwawa mโma 1970 sunafanane ndi wa 1919 kapena wa mโma 1930; Komabe, ogwira ntchito nthaลตi zonse ankakumana ndi alonda okhala ndi zida, apolisi, alonda a dziko, komanso ophwanya ntchito ndi zigawenga za mabungwe.
Gulu la anthu ogwira ntchito ku US, lomwe lidapulumuka zaka khumi zamphamvu ndi mabasiketi, komanso kusintha kwachuma komwe kudzakhala kwanthawi yayitali, kunakhalabe, kumapeto kwa zaka khumi izi, zomwe zitha kukhala zamphamvu. Zomwe zingawoneke tsopano monga kutopa kwa kupanduka kwa udindo sikunali kugonjetsedwa kwa kayendetsedwe ka ntchito. Izi zinafika, ndipo zinali zotsimikizika, osati mu 1974, osati mu 1978, koma mu 1981, pamene pulezidenti watsopano, Ronald Reagan, adathamangitsa oyang'anira magalimoto apamtunda ndikuwonetsa mgwirizano wawo, Professional Air Traffic Controllers (PATCO).
Oyang'anira maulendo apa ndege ankaimira antchito ochepa. Mkanganowu unali wophiphiritsa. Koma, mu nkhani iyi, zizindikiro zikuimira moyo ndi imfa kwa trade unionism mu United States. Lane Kirkland, pulezidenti wa AFL-CIO, adayankha zomwe akuluakulu a Reagan adatsutsana ndi mgwirizanowu pokonzekera "Solidarity Day" ku Washington, DC: September 19, 1981 kufunika kwapakati. Mazana a antchito adayankha, PATCO makamaka pakati pawo, akuguba mgwirizano ndi mgwirizano m'magulu akuluakulu ankhondo kudzera mu Capitol, mu chiwonetsero chodabwitsa cha mphamvu zamabungwe. Ziwonetserozi zidawonetsa kuthekera koyimitsa Reagan, kupulumutsa PATCO, ndikupulumutsa zomwe zidatsala zamphamvu ndi bungwe lazamalonda, zikadali zazikulu mu 1981.
Sizinayenera kuchitika. Tsiku la Solidarity linafika ndikupita. Thandizo la PATCO silinabwere; ndithudi, AFL-CIO inasokoneza mwachinsinsi kuthekera kulikonse kwa mgwirizano wothandiza, ndipo mgwirizano wa oyang'anira magalimoto a ndege unatayika. Pambuyo pake, panalibe kubwerera. Zitseko za kusefukira kwa zilolezo ndi kubwerera mwadongosolo zidatsegulidwa; umembala wa bungweli wagwa. Zaka za m'ma 1980 zinali zoopsa kwa gulu la ogwira ntchito. "Nkhuku zinafika kunyumba kudzagona." Nkhani ina yonse ndi yodziwika bwino.
ZNetwork imalandira ndalama kudzera mu kuwolowa manja kwa owerenga ake.
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