"Asitikali a Tin ndi Nixon akubwera,
Ife potsiriza tiri tokha.
Chilimwe chino, ndikumva drummin '
Anayi amwalira ku O-hi-o . . .”
-"Ohio," Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (1970)
Purezidenti Richard Nixon adadzinyadira pakulondola kwake pazandale. Sanali wanzeru kuposa zomwe ananena zaka makumi asanu zapitazo mwezi uno kwa mlembi wake, asanalankhule mawu a White House omwe adalengeza za nkhondo ya US ku Cambodia. "Ndizotheka," Nixon adamuuza, "kuti masukulu aphulika kwambiri pambuyo polankhula izi."
Adachita mantha, popeza kukwera kosayembekezereka kwa Nixon pankhondo yomwe inali yosatchuka kale ku Vietnam kudayambitsa zochitika zambiri zomwe zidafika pachimake pachiwonetsero chachikulu kwambiri cha ophunzira m'mbiri ya US.
Mu May 1970, pafupifupi achichepere 4 miliyoni analoŵa nawo zionetsero zimene zinatsekereza makalasi mazana asanu ndi aŵiri a makoleji, mayunivesite, ndi masukulu apamwamba m’dziko lonselo. Ambiri adakakamizika kukhala otsekedwa kwa semester yonse yamasika.
Mkati mwa chipwirikiti chomwe sichinachitikepo pasukulupo, ophunzira pafupifupi 2,000 anamangidwa. Nyumba makumi atatu zitagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Reserve Officers 'Training Corps (ROTC) zidaphulitsidwa kapena kuwotchedwa, Alonda a National Guard omwe anali ndi zida zamphamvu adatumizidwa m'masukulu makumi awiri ndi chimodzi m'maboma khumi ndi asanu ndi limodzi.
Pa May 4, ku Kent State University ku Ohio, mamembala a Guard omwe angotsala pang'ono kugwira ntchito yapolisi pa chiwopsezo cha timu ya Teamster adawombera ndikupha ophunzira anayi ndikuvulaza asanu ndi anayi. Patatha masiku khumi, apolisi aku Mississippi State adawombera pachipinda chogona azimayi ku Jackson State University, kupha ophunzira ena awiri.
Nkhondo yodula kwambiri yaku America ku Southeast Asia idabweranso kunyumba ndi chiyambukiro chodabwitsa, ndikupanga zomwe Purezidenti pambuyo pake Commission on Campus Unrest yokonzedwa ndi Nixon (wotchedwa Scranton Commission) adatcha "vuto losayerekezeka" m'maphunziro apamwamba.
Kunyanyalako m'masukulu kukuwonetsa mphamvu zochitira pamodzi. Atabadwa pambuyo pa kutsekedwa, panali kuphulika kwa ntchito ndi mazana masauzande a ophunzira omwe sanachite nawo ntchito zotsutsana ndi nkhondo, zomwe zinayambitsa zivomezi zazikulu zandale m'dziko lonselo, kuphatikizapo kuthandiza kuchepetsa kulowererapo kwa asilikali ku Southeast Asia.
Monga Neil Sheehan akulemba mu Bodza Lowala Lowala, mbiri yake yopambana ya nkhondo ya Vietnam, "moto wotsutsa" womwe Nixon "adaukira" ku Cambodia unali waukulu kwambiri kotero kuti White House "sanachitire mwina koma kufulumizitsa kutuluka" kwa asilikali a US m'deralo. Tsoka ilo, kuyimitsidwa kwa kuchotsedwa kwa America kunapitilira zaka zisanu, pakati pa kukhetsa magazi kowonjezereka pakati pa a Vietnamese (omwe anafa pafupifupi 3 miliyoni wamba ndi asitikali onse).
Njira Yotsutsa
Otsutsa ena a m'sukulu anayamba kutsutsa ndondomeko ya US ku Vietnam pa nthawi yoyamba ya Nixon, Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson adachita kampeni mu 1964 ngati "woyimira mtendere" pampikisano wapurezidenti wotsutsana ndi Senator Barry Goldwater, waku Republican wokonda kumanja. Koma pazaka ziwiri zotsatira, Purezidenti Johnson adayambitsa gulu lalikulu lankhondo kuti aletse mnzake, Republic of Vietnam, kuti asagwetsedwe kum'mwera kwa dzikolo ndi zigawenga zotsogozedwa ndi chikominisi.
Kudzudzula Johnson anapeza mawu ake oyambirira komanso aulemu kwambiri mu "zophunzitsa" - zokambirana zapasukulu ndi maphunziro okhudza Vietnam. Koma nkhani zambiri posakhalitsa zinayamba kuchitapo kanthu. Mazana ndipo pamapeto pake masauzande ambiri a zionetsero zakomweko adakonzedwa - zotsutsana ndi usilikali komanso maphunziro apamwamba pasukulupo, kafukufuku wapayunivesite wothandizidwa ndi Pentagon, komanso kuyendera olemba anzawo ntchito kuchokera kwa opanga zida ngati Dow Chemical Company.
Kuukira kwa zigawenga mu February 1968 ndi kuchuluka kwa ophedwa aku US (omwe pamapeto pake adakwana zikwi makumi asanu ndi limodzi) adasokoneza chiyembekezo chilichonse chomwe Johnson anali nacho pakupambana pankhondo. Ngakhale pulezidenti atakana kuyitanitsa chisankho, otsutsa nkhondo adatsikirabe ku Washington, DC, akuwonjezeka. Mu 1967, anthu zikwi makumi asanu anaguba pa Pentagon. Zaka ziwiri pambuyo pake, zikwi mazana atatu adasonkhana motsutsa pafupi ndi White House.
Nixon adalowa m'malo mwa Johnson mu Januwale 1969, pambuyo poti woyimira demokalase Hubert Humphrey, wachiwiri kwa Purezidenti wa Johnson komanso wochirikiza nkhondoyo mokhulupirika, adagonjetsedwa pa mpikisano wamasiku atatu. Nixon adanena kuti ali ndi "ndondomeko yachinsinsi" yobweretsa mtendere ku Vietnam ndikuchotsa asilikali zikwi mazana asanu a US omwe akugwiritsidwabe ntchito kumeneko.
Atangovumbulutsidwa, dongosolo la Nixon linakhala "Vietnamization" - kusuntha katundu wankhondo kwa asitikali okhulupirika ku boma lothandizidwa ndi US ku Saigon, uku akuphulitsa mabomba ku Vietnam, Laos, ndi Cambodia. Pofika pa Epulo 30, 1970, dziko la United States linali kutumizanso asilikali apamtunda ku Cambodia.
Ophunzira a m'mabungwe osankhika omwe akhala akugwirizana ndi zotsutsana ndi nkhondo anali m'gulu la anthu oyamba kuchitapo kanthu. Ziwonetsero za zionetsero zidalengezedwa mwachangu ku Columbia, Princeton, Brandeis, ndi Yale, komwe ophunzira ambiri adavota kale kuti azinyanyala kalasi pothandizira Black Panther Party, yomwe idazengedwa mlandu ku New Haven.
Panthawiyi, chipwirikiti cha Lachisanu usiku kunja kwa mipiringidzo ya ophunzira mumzinda wa Kent, Ohio, chinatsatiridwa ndi kuwotchedwa kwa nyumba ya ROTC ya Kent State kumapeto kwa sabata. Bwanamkubwa wa Ohio a James Rhodes adalamula asitikali ankhondo a National Guard chikwi kuti atengere sukuluyi ndikuletsa misonkhano yamtundu uliwonse.
A Guard anabwera atanyamula zida zankhondo, mabomba a utsi okhetsa misozi, mfuti, ndi ma M1, mfuti yankhondo yotalikirapo komanso yothamanga kwambiri. Kuthamangitsa khamu la anthu ankhanza koma opanda zida pasukulupo pa Meyi 4, gulu limodzi lankhondo zakumapeto kwa sabata mwadzidzidzi linayendetsa magudumu ndikuthamangitsa, kupha ophunzira anayi.
Kubweretsa Nkhondo Kunyumba
Monga olemba mbiri Nancy Zaroulis ndi Gerald Sullivan adafotokozera zomwe zidachitika mu Ndani Anayankhula?:
Inali nthawi yomwe dzikolo lidathamangitsidwa kugwiritsa ntchito zida zankhondo paunyamata wake, mphindi yomwe ziwawa zonse, chidani, ndi mikangano yazaka khumi zapitazi zidapanikizidwa kukhala masekondi a 13 pomwe alonda a National Guards amantha, otopa, akuchita. mwina chifukwa cha mantha kapena kukhumudwitsidwa, anali atembenuzira onyoza awo ndi kubwezera.
Pambuyo pa fusillade iyi, akuluakulu a Guard adakonza zobisalira Kupha ku Kent State: Momwe Murder Idayendera Osalangidwa, ndi mtolankhani wofufuza IF Stone. Ngakhale a FBI pambuyo pake adapeza kuti kuwombera anthu ambiri kunali "kosafunikira."
Imfa ya Jeffrey Miller, Allison Krause, Sandy Scheuer, ndi Bill Schroeder inakhudza kwambiri ophunzira masauzande ambiri ku Kent State ndi kupitirira apo. Panthawiyi, ovulala pankhondo sanali ochokera kumadera osauka ku United States kapena alimi aku Vietnamese - onse omwe anali kufa mokulirapo kwa zaka zambiri. Komanso sanali Achiafirika Achimereka, monga ophunzira atatu ochita ziwonetsero omwe adawomberedwa ku South Carolina State University zaka ziwiri m'mbuyomo, kapena awiri omwe adaphedwa ndi asitikali aku Jackson State University pambuyo pa Meyi.
Ophunzira m'dera lakupha ku Kent State anali azungu komanso amapeza ndalama zapakatikati, osaloledwa. Ena anali atatsutsa mwamphamvu kukhalapo kwa Alonda, koma ambiri anali ongoyang'ana, akungoyang'ana pa udzu pakati pa makalasi. Cholinga chimodzi chinali ROTC cadet yemwe anali atangosiya kalasi ya sayansi ya usilikali asanatenge chipolopolo kumbuyo. Wophunzira wina amene anapulumuka anali wolumala kwa moyo wake wonse. (Kuti mudziwe zambiri za munthu woyamba, onani Kent State: Imfa ndi Kusagwirizana Kwazaka Zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi ndi Thomas M. Grace, katswiri wa mbiri yakale yemwenso anavulazidwa tsiku limenelo.)
M’zithunzi za m’nyuzipepala ndi pa TV, opulumuka othedwa nzeru a ku Kent State ankawoneka ngati ophunzira aku koleji kulikonse. Monga momwe wolinganiza za sitalakiti ku Middlebury College ku Vermont akukumbukira, zithunzizo “zinapangitsa lingaliro lachiwopsezo ndi mavuto omwe anthu ambiri anali asanakumanepo nawo.
Kuyitanira kotsatira kuti masukulu atsekedwe adachokera mbali zonse. Ophunzira ku MIT adatsata masukulu omwe ali pachiwonetsero cha National Strike Information Center yomwe ikugwira ntchito ku Brandeis pafupi. Posakhalitsa mndandandawo unali wautali mamita khumi. Ngakhale kuti poyamba zinkagwirizana ndi zionetsero za zigawenga, kunyanyala ntchito zambiri kunali kwamtendere komanso mwalamulo. Inali ndi misonkhano ya ophunzira yomwe imatenga mavoti omenyera ufulu, kenako misonkhano yambiri, zokamba ndi maphunziro, miliri ndi misonkhano yachikumbutso, komanso "kungokhalira kunyoza" zandale ndi nkhondo.
Kupambana Kwambiri
Kunyanyalaku kunabweretsa pamodzi ophunzira ambiri omwe sanamalize maphunziro awo, aphunzitsi, ndi oyang'anira - ngakhale panali kusagwirizana kwawo m'mbuyomu pakuchita ziwonetsero zapasukulu. Atsogoleri makumi atatu ndi anayi aku koleji ndi mayunivesite adatumiza kalata yotseguka kwa Nixon yoyitanitsa kuti nkhondoyo ithe mwachangu. Kunyanyalaku kudaphatikizanso ophunzira ochokera m'makoleji abizinesi ndi aboma komanso masukulu apamwamba aboma m'madera omwe ali ndi anthu ogwira ntchito. Pa Meyi 8, ku Philadelphia, ophunzira ochokera kumadera osiyanasiyana komanso madera osiyanasiyana adaguba kuchokera mbali zisanu kupita ku Independence Hall, komwe khamu la anthu 10 adasonkhana panja. Chiwerengero cha anthu omwe amapita kusukulu ya sekondale tsiku limenelo chinatsika kufika pa XNUMX peresenti, malinga ndi Philadelphia Inquirer.
Pulofesa wa Hamilton College Maurice Isserman, wolemba nawo America Yogawanika: Nkhondo Yachibadwidwe ya m'ma 1960, amakhulupirira kuti anali ophunzira odzichepetsa kwambiri, awo “omwe anali odana ndi nkhondo koma anatsekeredwa ndi zolankhula zakumapeto kwa zaka za m’ma 60s New Left” amene “anatulukira monga atsogoleli otsogola” pambuyo pa zipolowezo. Zowonadi, ambiri omwe adalembapo adachita chidwi ndi zolimbikitsa zotsutsana ndi nkhondo, zodandaulira, komanso kampeni yachisankho m'malo mochitapo kanthu mwachindunji.
Komabe Commission ya Scranton idawona kuyika ndale kwa maphunziro apamwamba ngati chigonjetso kwa ophunzira okonda kusintha. Malinga ndi lipoti lake lotsatira, “ophunzira sanamenye mayunivesite awo; anakwanitsa kupangitsa mayunivesite awo kuti achite zinthu zosemphana ndi mfundo za dziko.” Pofuna kupewa izi kuti zisadzachitikenso ndikupangitsa kuti moyo wakusukulu ukhale wabwinobwino, makomishoni adavomereza kuti "palibe chofunikira kwambiri kuposa kutha kwa nkhondo."
M’mafunsidwe a Boston Globe pa chaka chazaka makumi atatu cha kuwonjezereka kumeneku, Isserman anatsutsa kuti chinali “chotulukapo cha mikhalidwe yapadera imene, mosadabwitsa, inaputa mkwiyo wa mbadwo wa ophunzira omwe anazoloŵera kale kuchita zionetsero ndi zionetsero. N’zokayikitsa kuti tidzaonanso gulu ngati limeneli.”
Izi zinali zoona kwa zaka zingapo zotsatira, pamene nkhondo ya Vietnam inatha ndipo Nixon, atapambana zisankho, adakonza njira yake yotsutsa, kuchititsa manyazi pagulu, komanso kusiya ntchito mokakamizidwa mu 1974 chifukwa cha chipongwe cha Watergate.
Komabe pazaka makumi awiri zapitazi, ophunzira aku koleji ndi akusekondale atulukanso m'dziko lonselo, mowoneka bwino komanso wogwirizana. Mu Marichi 2003, adatulutsa masukulu 350 kutsutsa kuukira kwa US ku Iraq. Zaka khumi ndi zisanu pambuyo pake, pafupifupi ophunzira 1 miliyoni pasukulu za 3,000 adatuluka kukalowa nawo mlonda wamphindi khumi ndi zisanu ndi ziwiri womwe unakonzedwa poyankha kuwomberana kwakukulu pa Parkland High School ku Florida. Ndipo mwezi watha wa Seputembala, mazana masauzande a ophunzira adasiya sukulu kuti alowe nawo mipikisano ndi maguwa omwe adakonzedwa ngati gawo la Mgwirizano wapadziko Lonse wa Climate Strike.
Mayunivesite ndi masukulu apamwamba tsopano akukumana ndi kutsekedwa kwa masukulu awo, ngakhale amtundu wosiyana kwambiri. Koma mabungwewa akadzatsegulidwa, mikhalidwe idzafuna zofuna zatsopano zandale. Kubwerera ku chifuniro chachibadwa osakhala bwino mokwanira. Sukulu ikayambiranso, mbiri ya sitiraka yomwe inachitika mthunzi wa imfa utagwa m'masukulu zaka makumi asanu zapitazo, chifukwa cha Richard Nixon, zitha kukhala zofunikira kwambiri pazovuta za "ndondomeko yadziko" pansi pa a Donald Trump omwe ali ndi poizoni.
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