Umthombo: New Statesman
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I-Tech capitalism imemezela ukunikeza ukuxhumana emhlabeni onesizungu. NgokukaNick Bilton, umbhali we Ukuqamba i-Twitter (2013), impumelelo yale nkundla yeza ngo-2006, lapho omunye wabasunguli bayo, uNoah Glass, ebona ukuthi ubuchwepheshe “bungasusa” isizungu – ngesikhathi senhlekelele, lapho umshado uphela noma kuzamazama umhlaba, kuyohlale kukhona ozokhuluma naye. ku. Ukuqeda ukuba wedwa, “nokwakha umphakathi womhlaba wonke”, njengoba u-Mark Zuckerberg we-Facebook esho, kusengumbono ophelele wemboni yezokuxhumana.
Abantu bazoncika ku-inthanethi emphakathini ngisho nangaphandle kwe-Lockdowns. Kepha cishe akekho owenze imali eningi ngalo bhubhane njengabanikazi bamasheya ezobuchwepheshe. Yabelana ngamavelu e-Amazon, Apple, Facebook, Alphabet/Google kanye neMicrosoft anda ngo-2020, ashayela i-Wall Street boom ngesikhathi sezinkinga ezimbi kakhulu emlandweni wonxiwankulu.
Kodwa ngaphandle kwabaphathi bezobuchwepheshe ngokwabo, bambalwa abajabule ngendlela imithombo yezokuxhumana esebenza ngayo. Amapulatifomu ahlala ashintsha imithetho yawo kanye nesakhiwo ngaphandle kokuziphendulela kubasebenzisi. “Izinkombandlela zomphakathi” ezishoyo ukuthi yikuphi okuqukethwe okuvunyelwe ezinkundleni zabo azisebenzi ekulweni nobuxhwanguxhwangu, ukunyathela nokucwasa, kodwa azikaze zinikeze inkulumo “yenkululeko” ngokugcwele. Indlela amapulatifomu asebenzisa ngayo amandla awo phezu kwedatha ekhiqizwe umsebenzisi imbozwe imfihlo.
Imiphakathi abayiholayo ayibonakali ijabulile, noma: izifundo eziningi zixhumanise isikhathi sesikrini nobungozi obukhulayo bokudangala. Kusukela ngo-2016 amafemu ezinkundla zokuxhumana abekwe icala lokuthuthukisa ama-fascist subcultures, agcina evumele ukuqubuka kodlame okufana nesiphithiphithi sase-US Capitol ekuqaleni kwalo nyaka. Okuyingozi nakakhulu, i-Facebook, njengoba yaphoqeleka ukuba ivume ku-2018, yayisetshenziselwa ukugqugquzela ukubulawa kwabantu baseMyanmar ngokumelene namaRohingya kusukela ngo-2016 kuya ku-2017. Ukuze uthole umhlaba "wokuxhumana", i-intanethi iyindawo eyedwa, ephikisanayo futhi eguquguqukayo.
Lokhu kugula kwaqala ukuvela ngeminyaka yawo-1990, kulokho uRichard Barbrook no-Andy Cameron abakuhlonze “njengemodeli yaseCalifornian” yokuhlinzekwa kwe-inthanethi - okungukuthi, eyodwa ecishe yathengiswa ngokuphelele futhi yahoxiswa. Lokhu kwaba lapho imiphakathi eku-inthanethi yaguqulwa yaba izinsiza ezithengisekayo, njengoba indima yokukhangisa - eyaziswa ukusebenzelana nabasebenzisi - ikhuthaza izinsizakalo ze-inthanethi ukuze zikhohlise abasebenzisi. Okuphakelayo kwenkundla yezokuxhumana kuye kwavunyelaniswa nge-algorithmically ukuze kuholele abantu ekuhlanganyeleni okunamandla kakhulu. Lapho uhlelo lwalusenza singajabuli kangako, kwasiphoqa nakakhulu ukuthi sibambe iqhaza. Lena bekuyindlela eya enzuzweni.
Emashumini amathathu eminyaka ngemuva kokuthi u-Tim Berners-Lee ethule iWebhu emhlabeni, siyaphoqeleka ukuthi sibuze: ingabe i-inthanethi ibingahluka? Ngokwemibandela yezohwebo, kunzima ukucabanga ukuthi yini engangena esikhundleni sezinkundla ezixhaswe ngokukhangisa. Kukhona okubhaliselwe kanye namamodeli asekelwe enkokhelweni, njenge-Substack kanye ne-OnlyFans. Kodwa “imiphakathi” yabo iyizithameli ezikhokhayo ezincane kunokuba ababambiqhaza. I-Substack kubikwa ukuthi ifinyelele ababhalisile abayingxenye yesigidi kanye nama-OnlyFans abasebenzisi abangaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-120, kodwa i-Facebook inezigidigidi ezingu-2.89. Lokhu ngokwengxenye kungenxa “yomphumela wenethiwekhi”. Ukuba wusizo kwenkundla efana ne-Twitter noma i-Facebook kuncike ekutheni bangaki abantu abayisebenzisayo. Lapho beba nabasebenzisi abaningi, kulapho bengathola khona ukuxhumana okwengeziwe abangakunikeza umsebenzisi ngamunye. Amapulatifomu akhokhisa izinkokhelo angahle akhawulele inani labasebenzisi futhi anciphise inani lesevisi.
Nokho umlando wobuchwepheshe be-inthanethi ukhombisa ukuthi sekunesikhathi eside zikhona ezinye izindlela ezingasetshenziswa esikhundleni sethu samanje sedijithali.
I-Well iphendule ukukhathazeka kwendabuko kwesokunxele - mayelana nekhompyutha kanye nobudlelwane bayo namandla ezempi - emakhanda abo. Ngesikhathi seMpi Yomshoshaphansi, i-computing kanye ne-cybernetics yavela endaweni efanayo yezempi-yezimboni eyayikhiqize amabhomu enuzi. Umqondo wokuthi izinkundla zokuxhumana zazingamawebhu olwazi, kamuva abizwa ngokuthi “umphakathi wolwazi”, wawuyisikhali sempi esakhiwa ezindaweni zokucwaninga ezixhaswe nguhulumeni njengeRadiation Laboratory e-MIT.
Kodwa ngokusho kukaFred Turner ku Ukusuka ku-Counterculture kuya kuCyberculture (2006), ngokwamukela lobu buchwepheshe obusha bezokuxhumana i-Well yenza izifiso zabakhi bomphakathi “zifanelane nempumelelo yezobuchwepheshe yaseMelika evamile”. Impumelelo yoMthombo ekuhlinzekeni abasebenzisi ngobungane, ukwesekwa kwezimo eziphuthumayo kanye nemiphakathi yabathanda ukuzilibazisa kanye nengxoxo yezepolitiki ingene enganekwaneni.
Ngokumangazayo, nokho, ingxenye yalokho okwenze uMthombo waphumelela kangaka yilokho okuwenza wehluke ku-inthanethi namuhla. Ikhuthaze abasebenzisi ukuthi bahlanganise ingxoxo eku-inthanethi nama-"fleshmeets" - ukuhlangana mathupha. Lokhu akufani ne-inthanethi manje, lapho ingxoxo eku-inthanethi ithatha indawo enkulu yokuhlangana.
"Ukwehluleka" kwe-inthanethi yesimanje kwesinye isikhathi kusolwa amanani e-hippy asekhona ku-Well nasemiphakathini yabaduni e-US West Coast ngeminyaka yawo-1980. Usosayensi wekhompyutha u-Moshe Vardi uthi inkolelo yama-hippy ekwabelaneni, umqondo wokuthi "ulwazi lufuna ukukhululeka", akugcinanga nje ngokudala ulwazi olujwayelekile kodwa futhi yakhiqiza "inhlekelele ye-commons" lapho abasebenzisi ngabanye bexhaphaza izinsiza zomphakathi ukuze bazenzele ngokwabo. izinjongo. Omunye usosayensi odumile wamakhompiyutha, u-Jaron Lanier, ngokufanayo uthi umbono “wolwazi lwamahhala” ushiye amafemu ezobuchwepheshe enokuncane ukukhetha ngokwezimali kodwa ukuxhasa amabhizinisi azo ngokukhangisa.
Lokhu kugxeka kweqa izisekelo zama-hippie ze-inthanethi kanye ne-Well uqobo. UStewart Brand wayezuza imali eshisiwe esebenza njengomhleli wenkomfa ezinkampanini ezifana noShell, Volvo kanye ne-AT&T ngemuva nje kokuthi ethule uMthombo; umsunguli wakhe u-Larry Brilliant wayengusozigidi eziningi futhi enenkampani eyenza izinhlelo ze-computer conferencing. Umbono wabo “wokuhwebelana ngenethiwekhi”, abawethula ku-World Economic Forum ngo-1996, wenza amanani enkululeko e-counterculture ahambisane nenkululeko yophiko lwesokudla lwabaninimasheya nabaphathi bezobuchwepheshe. Ngokucabangela i-inthanethi njenge-agora ye-electronic, indawo yemakethe lapho abantu bengakhuluma ngokukhululekile ngaphandle kokucwaninga, bathembisa ukuthi ubuchwepheshe bunikeza uhlobo lokuzikhethela. Umuntu angazama ubunikazi, ubulili kanye nezindlela zokuphila endaweni yamahhala ebonakalayo. Kodwa kungaba ukuzinqumela ngokwemibandela yemakethe yamahhala, enomthethonqubo kahulumeni omncane.
Kubo bonke abaduni nabashisekeli bezobuchwepheshe ababenikeze umsebenzi wamahhala nokusungulwa oGwini LwaseNtshonalanga ngeminyaka yawo-1980, imali nengqalasizinda ye-inthanethi yasekuqaleni kwavela ezweni lase-US befuna izindlela zokuthuthukisa ukubusa kwezempi kanye nezimboni. Yonke into kusukela kubuchwepheshe bokushintsha amaphakethe - okusiza ukudlulisa idatha kuwo wonke amanethiwekhi - kuya ku-iPhone kudlule ezigabeni zokuthuthukiswa komkhakha womphakathi kanye nokutshalwa kwezimali kwangasese.
Kodwa kwakungekho lutho olungagwemeki mayelana nemiphakathi eku-inthanethi eshuthelwe izinjongo zentengiso. Lokhu kwenzeka ngenxa yezinqumo ezenziwa eWashington, DC, eziqala ngegagasi lokwehliswa kwemithetho yezokuxhumana ngeminyaka yawo-1980. Ngawo-1990s, abaphathi bakaClinton babe sebebuyisela emuva imikhawulo ekusetshenzisweni kwe-inthanethi kwezohwebo, futhi badlulisela izinto ezintsha ezithuthukiswe umkhakha womphakathi ezinkampanini ezizimele. Lokhu bekuyingxenye yohlelo olubanzi lwezepolitiki lwe-New Democrats kaBill Clinton, olwaluvuna ukuthengiswa kwangasese okubanzi.
Umhlomuli omkhulu wale Web 1.0 kwaba i-America Online (AOL), okwakungowokuqala ukuhlola ngokuthengisa imiphakathi eku-inthanethi. Lokhu ikwenze ngokusebenzisa umsebenzi wamahhala wamavolontiya angaphezu kuka-10,000 ukwenza amabhodi ayo emiyalezo aguqule inzuzo. Kodwa kwakuyi-Google, futhi kamuva i-Facebook ne-Twitter, eyasungula imodeli yokukhangisa esekelwe ekukhipheni idatha kubasebenzisi. Imboni yezenhlalakahle, lapho impilo yezenhlalakahle iguqulwa ibe yinzuzo, yazalwa.
Ingabe iphupho lomphakathi le-inthanethi laba sengozini kusukela ekuqaleni? Kuyasitshela ukuthi umbono womphakathi waku-inthanethi wachazwa ngolimi “lwe-electronic frontier” kanye “ne-virtual homesteading”. Lena i-inthanethi njenge-settler-colonialism - amaphupho atholakala phakathi kwamaQuaker akuqala abalekela Ezweni Elisha, noma amahippie akha imiphakathi yasemaphandleni ngeminyaka yawo-1960, leyo utopias ingakhiwa ngokugwema imizabalazo engcolile yomphakathi. Eqinisweni, akukho ukuphunyuka: baletha imihlaba yakudala kanye nabo.
Ngeminyaka yawo-1970, kudala ngaphambi kokusungulwa kweSilicon Valley, izwe laseFrance lalisungule uhlelo lwaso lwe-inthanethi lukazwelonke: i-inthanethi ngaphambi kwe-inthanethi. Yayibizwa ngokuthi I-Medium interactif par numérisation d'information téléphonique (I-Minitel). Ngemuva kwakho konke, ngaphandle kokushiya i-Nato ngo-1966, umbuso waseFrance wawulindele "ukwenziwa kwamakhompyutha emphakathini" futhi waqala ucwaningo olunzulu ngenguqulo yawo yamanethiwekhi okuxhumana ayehlolwa amasosha ase-US.
I-Minitel yavela kulolu cwaningo ngo-1981. Bekuyinsizakalo ye-videotex ephethwe ngumkhakha womphakathi, elethwa ngebhokisi elincane, elicikizekile, elinsundu elinekhibhodi ephumayo ukuze iveze isikrini. Abasebenzisi bangathola itheminali mahhala kwabaphathi bendawo futhi bakhokhe imali encane yokusebenzisa ukuze bafinyelele amakhasi aku-inthanethi ombhalo nezithombe. Bekuyinkundla evulekile, eqinisekiswe umkhakha womphakathi. Noma ubani angasetha okulingana newebhusayithi, isevisi, inqobo nje uma ebhalisele ukwenza kanjalo. Abasebenzisi bangathenga, baxoxe, babhukhe amathikithi ekhonsathi, badlale imidlalo, bahlole ama-akhawunti abo asebhange futhi - bafanekisela “i-smart home” - basebenzise ama-thermostat alawulwa kude kanye nezinto zikagesi. Kube yimpumelelo enkulu. Maphakathi nawo-1990 kwase kunamatheminali eMinitel ayizigidi eziyi-6.5 asetshenziswayo.
Nakuba yathuthukiswa ukusiza ukwenza umnotho waseFrance ube ngowesimanje, kwaba ngeMinitel lapho kwavela khona i-cyber-utopianism entsha kwesokunxele. Ngo-1986 izinhlangano zenhlangano yezenhlalakahle zakha isevisi yazo ye-Minitel: 36-15 Alter. Ihlanganise izinhlangano ezingu-25 ezimele abalimi, abafundi abamelene nokucwasa, iziguli zengqondo nabanye, abakhokhe imali yobulungu futhi baphatha okuqukethwe ngokuhlanganyela. Ngawo lowo nyaka, ababhikishi babafundi basebenzisa isevisi yewebhu ehlinzekwa ngakwesokunxele nsuku zonke ukukhululwa ukuhlela imibhikisho ephikisana nezinguquko zikangqongqoshe wezemfundo u-Alain Devaquet ohlelweni lwenyuvesi, nokuphoqa ukuthi esule esikhundleni. Ngemva kweminyaka emibili, abahlengikazi ababetelekile basebenzisa iMinitel ukuze ixhumanise umsebenzi wabo wezimboni ngokumelene namaholo aphansi kanye nokushoda kwabasebenzi. Isazi sokusebenza kwengqondo kanye nesazi sefilosofi uFélix Guattari uncome indlela abahlengikazi abasebenzisa ngayo i-Minitel "yokuxhumana okuguquguqukayo", futhi babheke phambili "inkathi yangemuva kwemidiya". Abantu ngeke besathembela kwabezindaba, “nesici sabo sokusikisela”.
I-Minitel yayingeyona i-utopia ye-leftist, kodwa imakethe yamahhala egcinwe nguhulumeni. Futhi ngenxa yokuthi ingqalasizinda yayo ayizange idayiswe, futhi yayingekho indlela yokuzuza ngokuchofoza, ayizange iholele kumodeli yokulutheka nokunyathela ebonisa imboni yezenhlalo namuhla.
Ithathela empumelelweni yokuqala ye-Minitel, enye indlela yombono waseCalifornian yaziveza isikhashana ekuqaleni kwawo-1990. I-France Télécom (eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Orange namuhla), kwakuyinsiza yezokuxhumana ephethwe umphakathi. Ngethemba lokuzithokozisa nge-West Coast tech scene, yaqasha u-John Coate, omunye wabasunguli be-Well, ukuthi athuthukise insizakalo entsha ye-inthanethi.
Ukuphela kweMpi Yomshoshaphansi, kanye nokudlondlobala kwe-US emhlabeni wonke, kwasheshisa ukwenziwa kwangasese kwezimboni neminotho. Esikhundleni sokuhlanganisa insizakalo ye-inthanethi yomkhakha womphakathi nesakhiwo somphakathi esikhula kahle ogwini oluseNtshonalanga, i-France Télécom ivele yathuthukisa enye insizakalo yobunikazi yabacebile ebizwa nge-“101 Online”, eqhathaniswa nezinkonzo ezazihlinzekwa yi-CompuServe kanye ne-AOL. . Yaphaphatheka.
Wenza kanjalo uMinitel. Ukuntuleka kokutshalwa kwezimali okwanele kwakusho ukuthi yayisalela emuva kwezobuchwepheshe futhi yayingekho esimweni sokuncintisana ne-World Wide Web lapho ivela ngo-1991. Uhulumeni wayeka ukunikeza amatheminali mahhala, kuyilapho i-European Commission yancoma ukuthi amazwe e-EU amukele lokho okwakukhona. empeleni imodeli yaseCalifornian "yemakethe yamahhala" yokuhlinzekwa kwe-inthanethi. Ngokushesha, amatheminali akwaMinitel aphelelwa yisikhathi ngenxa yokusabalala kwamaselula, nokho uhlelo lwahlala ludume ngendlela emangalisayo kwaze kwaba yilapho luyekiswa khona ngo-2012.
Iliphi ithuba elikhona lezinguquko ezinkulu ze-inthanethi, njengoba manje umdlandla “wemakethe yamahhala” weminyaka yawo-1990 usunikeze ithuba lokunqoba ukubusa kwezinkampani? Ngisho nokushintshwa okuncane emithethweni kuvusa ulaka lwabaphathi bemboni yezenhlalakahle. Lapho ngo-2014 uhulumeni wase-Spain ezama ukuphoqelela umthetho wempahla yengqondo ephoqelela i-Google ukuthi ikhokhele abahlinzeki bezindaba ngezixhumanisi nezingcaphuno ezinikezwe Ezindabeni ze-Google, inkampani yamemezela ukuthi izovala isevisi yayo e-Spain. Isinyathelo esifanayo sikahulumeni wase-Australia siholele ekutheni i-Facebook ivimbe okwesikhashana amakhasi ezindaba endaweni yawo kulelo zwe ekuqaleni kwalo nyaka.
Ngaphandle kokucasuka kwabakhululekile baseMelika ngeBig Tech, abaphathi beBiden kungenzeka balondoloze amandla embonini. Ngisho nokuqokwa kwabaholi ababili abaqavile bokungathembeki - uTim Wu kuNational Economic Council kanye noLina Khan kwiFederal Trade Commission - ithimba likaBiden ligcwele abamele imboni, futhi linxenxwa kanzima ngemuva kwezigcawu. Lokhu akumangazi: I-Democratic Party iseduze ne-Big Tech. Abaphathi bakaClinton babeka izisekelo zokuhwebelana kwe-inthanethi ngokwemibandela yaseMelika, ngenkathi abaphathi baka-Obama bavumela izikhondlakhondla zezenhlalo, noma zilwa nazo mayelana namalungelo ombuso olwazi lwabasebenzisi - umnyango wezobulungiswa, ngokwesibonelo, wafuna ukuthi i-Twitter inikeze ukufinyelela ama-akhawunti amavolontiya e-WikiLeaks.
Amandla emboni yezenhlalakahle ezombusazwe, hhayi nje kwezomnotho. Nakuba izinkundla zokuxhumana zisebenzela inzuzo, ziphinde zidale imiphakathi yabantu. Abasihleli njengemakethe noma njengentando yeningi: kunalokho, basikhuthaza ukuthi siqongelele ukuthanda, amasheya kanye nama-retweets, sakhe abalandeli futhi siziphathe njengosaziwayo. Lo mhlaba onomkhuhlane, noqhudelanayo unenzuzo enkulu, kodwa futhi ushintsha ukuthi singobani nokuthi sizihlanganisa kanjani nabantu - lawa amandla angempela ezepolitiki. Ukuthembela kwethu kulezi zinkundla, kanye nempilo yenhlalo eziyikhuthazayo, kuqhubekisela phambili ubumpofu bethu bomphakathi. Kusishiya singahlelekile, sincike kochwepheshe futhi singenakuzivikela emandleni: lokho isazi sezokuhlalisana kwabantu u-Theda Skocpol akubiza ngokuthi “intando yeningi enciphile”.
Nokho ekhulwini lama-20, njengoba i-Skocpol ibhala, amakhulu nezinkulungwane zezinhlangano zomphakathi zaziqhutshwa ngokwentando yeningi, isisekelo sombuso. Singenza okufanayo ngezinkundla eziku-inthanethi. Imibuso yamabhizinisi efana ne-Facebook ne-Google mancane amathuba okuthi ithathwe kubunikazi bomphakathi. Kodwa kungenzeka ukuthi kuhlolwe ama-digital cooperatives, kuqede ukubanjwa kwalaba babhemu futhi kuqedwe inganekwane yokuthi i-inthanethi yethu ayinakugwenywa.
URichard Seymour ungumbhali we "The Twittering Machine" (Indigo Press)
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa kuphela ngokuphana kwabafundi bayo.
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