Makungabikho ukungabaza ngakho: siphila enkathini yoMbuso Wezezimali. Ngokungafani nokunqotshwa kwezempi okwaqhuba ukwanda kwezindawo zemibuso yasendulo, uMbuso Wezezimali wanamuhla awuhlanganisi ukusetshenziswa okubonakalayo kwe I-Big Stick ideology (nakuba impiriyali yezempi ngokungangabazeki isaqhubeka nanamuhla), kodwa kunalokho ithatha isimo se- Isandla Esingabonakali. Lapho ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 umqondo wokubusa wawuqhutshwa amandla asetshenziswayo emibuso yobukhosi, uMbuso wekhulu lama-21 awusadingi noma yiziphi izinduku zokuphoqelela ukuthunyelwa kwezifundazwe ezizimele: ngokusebenzisa izindlela zokuphoqelela zomhlaba jikelele zokuqondisa izimakethe. kanye nezimo ze-IMF, amandla esakhiwo semali yezimali manje aqinisekisa ukuthi bonke bazokhothama phambi kwezimakethe zezimali.
In Ukuqongelelwa Kwemali Enkulu (1913), Rosa Luxembourg kuphawulwe ukuthi, “nakuba izimali mboleko zakwamanye amazwe zibalulekile ekukhululweni kwemibuso yonxiwankulu abasafufusa, ziseyizibopho eziqinisekile lapho amazwe amadala onxiwankulu agcina ngawo amandla awo, alawula ngezimali futhi afake ingcindezi kumasiko, inqubomgomo yangaphandle kanye neyezohwebo yonxiwankulu abasha. amazwe.” Lokhu kulawulwa kwezimali kwakukhulu kangangokuthi ku-First Wave of Globalization, eyaqala ngo-1870 kwaze kwaba sekuqaleni kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili ngo-1914, amazwe ahlulekayo abhekana nezinkinga. Amaphesenti angu-40 amathuba yokungenwa, ukubekelwa phansi ukusebenzelana kwezikebhe zezibhamu, noma ukuba nokulawulwa kwamanye amazwe kubekwe phezu kwezimali zabo zasekhaya ngaphansi kosongo lokuvinjwa kwemikhumbi yempi. Ngophawu olutshelayo noluyindida lwezikhathi, ngisho neNgqungquthela Yokuthula YaseHague ka-1906 kuqashelwa ukuba semthethweni kokusetshenziswa kwamandla ekuxazululeni izingxabano zezikweletu ezinkulu.
Ukuphoqelela Isiyalo Sabakweletayo: Inkathi ye-Gunboat Diplomacy
Ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 ukucabanga kwe-imperialism ngakho-ke kwathatha isimo sezempi ekugcineni esithembele emandleni amathuluzi emibuso yobukhosi ngokwazo. Ngo-1882, ngokwesibonelo, kulandela i- Ukuvukela kwe-Urabi e-Egypt, eyayisanda kukhipha abalawuli baseFrance nabaseBrithani ababethathe izintambo zokulawula ezezimali zase-Egypt ngemva kwezinkinga zezikweletu zango-1870, iBrithani yalihlasela kafushane izwe futhi yalifaka eMbusweni wamaNgisi njengesivikelo. Iya phambili ngokushesha eminyakeni eyi-130, futhi sinabaphathi bakwamanye amazwe be I-IMF iyangena ezithendeni zomunye futhi umbhikisho odumile wokuqinisekisa ukuthi i-Egypt ayikhokhi izikweletu zayo kumabhange aseNtshonalanga. Abakweletwayo banamuhla akusadingeki baphendukele ebuthweni lezempi lohulumeni babo ukuze baphoqelele izinkontileka zabo zokubolekwa imali: njengomuntu oqondisa izigwegwe emhlabeni wonke, i-IMF izobenzela lokho.
UMbuso Wase-Ottoman ngokufanayo awuzange wenze iphutha ngawo-1870, futhi nakuba wawusenamandla ngokwanele ukumelana nokuhlasela okuqondile kweYurophu, uhulumeni waseTurkey kwadingeka azinikele esivumelwaneni esihlazisayo nabakweletwayo bangaphandle: a UMkhandlu Wabanikazi Bamabhondi Angaphandle, eyakhiwa abameleli bamabhange amakhulu aseYurophu, yathatha izintambo phezu kwamahhovisi ayo entela nentela. Ngokwelungu elithile loMkhandlu, u-Edgar Vincent, “asikho isikhathi lapho amandla anwetshiwe aye anikezwa inhlangano yangaphandle esezweni Elibusayo.” Iya phambili ngokushesha iminyaka engu-130 futhi, futhi iTurkey iphinde izithole isenkingeni enkulu ngokwezimali. I-IMF ibizwe ngo-1998 futhi ihlela kabusha umnotho ngokuphelele, ibeke eceleni izigidi zabantu baseTurkey abampofu futhi ishiye i-Bretton Woods Project ukuba iqhubeke. uphetha ukuthi, "eshumini leminyaka layo elide ne-IMF, iTurkey ikwazile ukushintsha ukushoda komphakathi ngokushoda kwentando yeningi."
Ngo-1898, iGreece nayo yawela ngaphansi kokulawulwa kwezimali zakwamanye amazwe ngemuva kokungakhokhi izikweletu eyazithola ngesikhathi sempi yayo neTurkey. UMitchener no-Weidenmier landisa ukuthi, "Njengemibandela yesivumelwano sokuthula, amandla aseYurophu anikezwe igunya lokuthatha imali engenayo egameni lababolekisi abakhona kanye nokukhokhela inkokhelo yempi." Ukufana okungokomlando phakathi kwenkinga yezikweletu zaseGreece yango-1898 kanye neyanamuhla kuyamangaza. Njengoba iJalimane yayikade “ingumdlali omkhulu ekuhleleni ukuvikelwa kwezithakazelo zabanikazi bebhondi bakwamanye amazwe” ngo-1898, “inikezwe igunya ngamanye amazwe aseYurophu ukuze avumelane neGreece mayelana nokusebenza nokulawula ezezimali zamaGreki kanye nemibandela. yokukhokhwa kwesikweletu.” La magama abekwe emthethweni omusha; kodwa, njengoba uMitchener kanye no-Weidenmier begcizelela, ukugunyazwa kwalo mthetho - njengememorandamu yanamuhla yokuqiniswa - "kwakuyisenzo sokuzimela ngokubukeka kuphela."
Eminyakeni embalwa kamuva, ngo-1902, uMongameli uCipriano Castro waseVenezuela wenqaba ukunxephezela abatshalizimali baseYurophu ngokulahlekelwa abakwenza phakathi nezinxushunxushu ezazimlethe esikhundleni. Impendulo yabakweletwayo yayishesha futhi iwujuqu: izinyanga ezine, izikebhe zezibhamu zaseJalimane, zaseBrithani nezase-Italy zigobe izivikelo zogu lwaseVenezuela futhi zavimba amachweba ayo amakhulu ukuze kuphoqe uCastro ukuthi akhokhe isikweletu ngokugcwele. Eminyakeni emibili kamuva, ngokuyinhloko esabela kulokhu kubonakaliswa obala kombuso waseYurophu eNtshonalanga Nenkabazwe, uMongameli Theodore Roosevelt wamemezela ukuduma kwakhe. Roosevelt iqoqo ku-Monroe Doctrine, eyayibambe ngokuthi - kunokuba amandla aseYurophu adlakazelise egcekeni layo - i-US manje izosebenzisa izivumelwano zezikweletu ezisemthethweni zabaxhasi bezimali baseYurophu eLatin America naseCaribbean ngokwayo. Ememezela imfundiso yakhe entsha yenqubomgomo yezangaphandle, uRoosevelt wakhipha usongo olucashile komakhelwane bakhe: “Uma isizwe sibonisa ukuthi siyakwazi ukwenza ngendlela ephumelelayo nehloniphekile ezindabeni zezenhlalo nezombusazwe, uma sigcina ukuhleleka futhi sikhokha izibopho zaso, sidinga ungesabi ukugxambukela kwe-United States.”
Ngemva konyaka, ngo-1905, i-US Marines yahlasela i-Dominican Republic ngemva kokuba izame ukukhokha izikweletu zayo, ithatha imali engenayo yentela yezwe ukuze iqinisekise ukukhokha okugcwele kubanikazi bamabhondi abazimele. INicaragua yehlela isiphetho esifanayo ngo-1911-'12. Dlulisela phambili amanye amashumi ambalwa eminyaka, kuya ku-1982, futhi i-United States isiphinde yahlangana ezindabeni ezizimele zomakhelwane bayo baseLatin America, ukuthumela i-IMF kanye neBhange Lomhlaba egameni lababolekisi abazimele abanamandla. E-Venezuela, iminyaka eyisikhombisa yezinyathelo ze-Austerity ezigunyazwe yi-IMF ekugcineni ifinyelele i-apotheosis enkulu I-Caracazo imibhikisho yangomhla zingama-27 kuNhlolanja 1989, lapho amakhulu ezinkulungwane ekhombisa ukuncishiswa kwezibonelelo zikaphethiloli nokudla okuyingxenye yesivumelwano sikahulumeni ne-IMF. Kulokhu, esikhundleni sokubuyela ezikebheni zezibhamu zikahulumeni wase-US, abasebenzi basebhange baseWall Street bangathembela ngokugcwele ekuqondisweni kwezikweletu kuhulumeni waseVenezuela: abezokuphepha bavulela ngenhlamvu kubabhikishi futhi babulala abantu abangaphezu kuka-3,000. Isikweletu, yiqiniso, sibuyiselwa kakhulu.
Ukuphoqelela Isiyalo Sokweleta Enkathini Yombuso Wezezimali
Namuhla, inkathi yasebukhosini yokusebenzelana kwezikebhe zezibhamu kungenzeka ukuthi isifike esiphethweni esihlazisayo, kodwa inkathi yoMbuso Wezezimali isasebenza ngokugcwele. Okuphinda kuqinisekiswe inkinga yezikweletu eqhubekayo yaseYurophu ukuthi ubungxiwankulu bezezimali, lapho sebuthuthuke ngokuphelele futhi buhweba emhlabeni wonke, abunasidingo samajele abakweletayo, izingxoxo zezibhamu noma osolwandle base-US ukuze baphoqelele isiyalo sabakweletayo. Imigoqo yensimbi yejele labakweletayo ithathelwa indawo yimali engenayo yomhlaba wonke yezimali; izikebhe ezinezibhamu kudala zakwenza lokho uWarren Buffet akubiza ngokuthi izikhali zezimali zokucekela phansi okukhulu; futhi abaphathi bakwamanye amazwe bamahhovisi entela kanye nentela abasawagqoki amasudi ezempi kodwa baphatha amapotimende e-IMF. Ngokulawula kwayo ukungena kwezimali kanye nekhono layo lokubamba isikweletu esidingeka kakhulu, umfelandawonye wamabhange omhlaba (owenziwe amabhange amakhulu nabatshalizimali bezikhungo, kanye nezikhungo zezimali zamazwe ngamazwe kanye neziphathimandla zezimali nezezimali zezifundazwe eziphethe onxiwankulu) iye ithole uhlobo lwamandla esakhiwo oluvumela ukuthi iqondise ukuziphatha kwamazwe anezikweletu ngaphandle kokuthi asebenzise ukuphoqelelwa kwezempi. Yilokhu kuziphatha okuphoqelelwa izimakethe ezinkulu zomhlaba kanye nezikhungo zezezimali ezakha umgogodla woMbuso Wezezimali.
Uma ukhuluma ngoMbuso, uHardt noNegri sikhumbule, akufanele sikhohliswe ekucabangeni ukuthi sibhekisela kwisingathekiso. Akukhona ukuthi ukuqedwa kombuso wamaGreki wezezimali nowezimali ngandlela-thile kukhumbuza ukuhlasela kwamaNazi, njengoba bobabili ababhikishi bephiko kwesokunxele nakwesokudla eGreece kubonakala besho; ngeshwa, iqiniso liyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu futhi livukela kakhulu kunalokho. Kunokuba siwele ogibeni lokwenza izifanekiselo zomlando ezilula phakathi kwemibuso yezindawo yakudala kanye Nombuso Wezezimali wanamuhla, kufanele sicabange ngoMbuso njengombuso. umqondo; umqondo othi, emazwini kaHardt noNegri, “ubonakala ngokuntula imingcele.” Ngalo mqondo, ukubusa koMbuso Wezezimali - ngokungafani nalokho kwe-Third Reich noma uMbuso WaseBrithani - akunamingcele. Ngokungafani namasosha amaNazi noma imikhumbi yempi yasolwandle yaseBrithani, izimali ezinkulu azikwazi ukumane zixoshwe endaweni ebusayo yaseGreece. Esikhundleni sokubeka usongo lwendawo ebukhosini bezwe njengamandla abambayo, uMbuso Wezezimali kuyancibilika umbono wobukhosi bukazwelonke ngokuphelele ngokuketula isisekelo samandla kanye nokuba semthethweni okudumile lapho umbuso wesimanje ekugcineni uncike kukho: ikhono lawo lokuqondisa ukuhamba kwemali ngokusebenzisa inqubomgomo yezimali neyezimali.
Ngokwezinga elithile, imali eyinhloko yayihlala isebenza ngale kwemingcele yezwe lanamuhla. Njengoba uMarx no-Engels baphawula ku- Manifesto wamaKhomanisi, "Onxiwankulu ngokuxhashazwa kwabo izimakethe zomhlaba banikeze umkhakha wokukhiqiza nokusetshenziswa kuwo wonke amazwe." Kodwa ngokuqala kabusha kwezimali zomhlaba kusukela ngo-1973 kuye phambili, ukuthembela kwesakhiwo sombuso emalini yamaselula omhlaba kuye kwakhula kakhulu. Umbuso, oqhubeka nokuba khona endaweni yawo, kancane kancane uphucwa amandla aso okulawula ukugeleza okususwa kwezindawo zokutshalwa kwezimali esithembele kukho ukuze uqhubeke nokuba khona. Ngenxa yalokho, u-Subcomandante Marcos, owahola ngo-1994 ukuvukela umbuso wase-Zapatista ngokumelene nesifunda saseMexico - ngaleso sikhathi esasifakwe ngokugcwele eMbusweni Wezezimali - ngokusankondlo. kusho ukuthi, "ku-cabaret yokuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke, umbuso ubonakala njengomdansi wetafula ohlubula yonke into kuze kube yilapho usala nezingubo ezincane ezidingekayo kuphela: amandla okucindezela." Ngakho-ke isidingo sabakweletayo sokucindezelwa ngokomzimba sincipha kakhulu: ngokuhlubula umbuso futhi baveze obala ubunqunu bawo bodlame olwenziwa ezikhungweni, inqubo yokuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke isebenza ukufaka isiyalo sabakweletayo ku-apathasi yombuso, okwenza abaphathi bezwe bathobele ngokwesakhiwo umqondo we imali yomhlaba wonke.
Ngo-1982, amandla esakhiwo semali akhula ngokuqinile kulandela ukuwa Umbuso weBretton Woods, Isazi sezombangazwe saseMelika uCharles Lindblom wabhala isihloko esiyimpikiswano encwadini ethi Ijenali Yezepolitiki lapho efanisa imakethe nejele. Ngokuvumela abatshalizimali abazimele ukuba bagodle izimali ezidingeka kakhulu kuhulumeni nakwezomnotho, uLindblom waphawula, imakethe isebenza ngempumelelo njengendlela yokuqondisa izigwegwe kubaphathi bezifundazwe: ufuna ukuphakamisa izindinganiso zemvelo? Kuzodingeka ucabangele umthelela ekutshalweni kwebhizinisi - kanjalo nasemsebenzini kanye nesilinganiso sokugunyazwa kwakho njengosopolitiki. Ingabe ufuna ukulawula umkhakha wezezimali? Kuzodingeka ukhathazeke ngamabhange amakhulu avele athuthe izimpahla zawo kwelinye izwe. Ingabe ufuna ukukhulisa izintela kwabacebile? Kuzodingeka ucabangele iqiniso lokuthi izihlabani zakho zama-movie ezidumile zingase ukuya eRussia. Noma ngabe yini ofuna ukuyenza njengosopolitiki, uma nje usuphethe, into yokuqala okumele ubhekane nayo yibhizinisi, nezijeziso osomabhizinisi abangazithola ngokubamba ukutshalwa kwezimali uma bengayithandi imigomo yakho. Okuphawuleka kakhulu, uLindblom waphawula, “lesi sijeziso asincikile ekwenziweni kozungu noma inhloso yokujezisa ... Ukunaka nje ibhizinisi lakho kuyindlela yohlelo olungavamile lokucindezela ushintsho.”
Umbono kaLindblom ngemakethe njengejele unganwetshwa kalula ezimakethe zezimali zomhlaba zanamuhla. Njengoba uRobert Kuttner esanda kubeka kweyakhe ukubuyekeza ekaDavid Graeber Isikweletu: Iminyaka yokuqala eyi-5,000, “yonke iminotho yaphesheya, engenelwe ezikweletini zesikhathi esidlule, izithola isisejele labakweletwayo elingokomfanekiso lapho bengakwazi khona ukubuyisela abakweletwayo noma baphinde baphile ngendlela ephumelelayo.” Ngokufanayo, ummeli wezezimali uRoss Buckley unayo ezibhaliwe ukuthi “sisenokuthile okufana ncamashí namajele anezikweletu ezizweni ezinezikweletu ezinkulu.” Njengoba sabona e-Greece nase-Italy ngo-2011, indlela yokuqondisa izigwegwe ezimakethe zomhlaba wonke ekugcineni isebenzela ukubukela phansi izinqubo zentando yeningi, esikhundleni sazo kufakwe ukuphathwa kwezobuchwepheshe. Kulolu hlelo, osopolitiki bayehliselwa esikhundleni sesikhashana abaphathi yezinsiza zikahulumeni egameni lezimali; uhlelo ekugcineni olulula kakhulu futhi olungabizi kakhulu kumfelandawonye wababhange bomhlaba kunokuthumela izikebhe zezibhamu noma ukuthatha izwe ngokoqobo. Ngalo mqondo, uMbuso Wezezimali wanamuhla awuyona nje isingathekiso: uyisiphetho sokuthuthuka konxiwankulu kube uhlobo oluphelele lwe-imperialism - olungadingi noma yikuphi ukuchitheka kwegazi engxenyeni yenhloko-dolobha ngenkathi lusaqinisekisa ukwabiwa kabusha kwengcebo okuphezulu okuvela kwabampofu. kwabacebile.
Sonke Siyiziboshwa Zezikweletu Manje
Kodwa kwabanye, ngisho namandla amakhulu esakhiwo semali yezimali akabonakali emuhle ngokwanele. Noma okuzenzakalelayo sekukhishiwe a priori njengenketho yenqubomgomo “esemthethweni” ekulawuleni izinkinga zezikweletu zamazwe ngamazwe, kusekhona amazwi akhuphukayo ukuze kungenelele okunye ezindabeni ezizimele zamazwe anezikweletu. Ngemuva kokuzenzakalelayo kwe-Argentina ka-2001, isibonelo, izazi zezomnotho ze-MIT uRicardo Caballero noRudi Dornbusch. waphikisana ukuthi “i-Argentina ayinakwethenjwa” nokuthi “Othile kufanele aphathe izwe ngokubambelela ngokuqinile.” Ukuyeka ukukhuthaza ukuketulwa kwezempi okusizwa yi-CIA - isisombululo esithandwayo senhloko-dolobha ezinze e-US phakathi nenkathi yeMpi Yomshoshaphansi - ababhali baphakamise ukuthi "i-Argentina manje kufanele idele ubukhosi bayo bezezimali, bezezimali, bokulawula kanye nokuphathwa kwempahla isikhathi eside, sisho iminyaka emihlanu,” futhi sivumele okhomishana bakwamanye amazwe ukuthi bathathe izintambo zokuphatha izimali zezwe. “Ngokuqondile,” bagcizelela, “ibhodi yabamabhange abakhulu bakwamanye amazwe abanolwazi kufanele ilawule inqubomgomo yezimali yase-Argentina.”
Ngokufanayo, uMitchener no-Weidenmier, osomnotho ababili abenza konke okusemandleni ukuze bagcizelele ukuphumelela kokuphoqwa kwezempi ekuvimbeleni ukwehluleka kwezikweletu phakathi kuka-1870 no-1913, asikisela ukuthi namuhla “uhlobo oluthile lokulawulwa kwezimali noma lwezimali lwekomiti yezimali yangaphandle lungase lubeke isiyalo esidingekayo kubakweleti abaphikayo.” Omunye umhlaziyi oqavile wenkinga yezikweletu zaseLatin America ngeminyaka yawo-1980, incwadi yakhe yanconywa ngokuphawulekayo uMqondisi Ophethe we-IMF uJacques De Larosière, uSihlalo weFederal Reserve uPaul Volcker, kanye nosomabhizinisi oholayo uCharles Dallara, baze bafinyelela lapho. ukuphakamisa umbono owesabisayo othi “izikebhe zezibhamu ziwumngane omkhulu wababoleki.” Akumangalisi ukuthi izingcingo ezifanayo zokuqedwa kobukhosi bezimali zinanelwa emibuthanweni yaseYurophu eyenza inqubomgomo namuhla. Ngo-2011, ngokwesibonelo, ilungu elilodwa eliholayo leqembu lika-Angela Merkel waphikisana ukuthi "iGrisi kumele ilahle okuthile, njengokunye kobukhosi bayo bezwe - okungenani okwesikhashana," ukuze kuvunyelwe abakweletwayo abazimele ukuba babuyiselwe ngokugcwele.
Ngesikhathi sezingxoxo phakathi kweGreece nabakweletwayo abazimele ngonyaka odlule, uLarry Elliot, umhleli wezomnotho we The Guardian, ngokufanelekile ukuphawula ukuthi, nakuba “imikhumbi yempi ithathelwe indawo amaspredishithi ... Waphawula ukuthi ukucindezela kwangempela manje “kuvela emabhange, kuma-hedge funds naseqenjini lezikhulu ze-International Monetary Fund, i-European Central Bank kanye ne-EU.” Mhlawumbe-ke, asikho kude nenkathi yombuso njengoba singathanda ukucabanga - futhi nakuba ukusetshenziswa kwamandla ezempi kungase kubhekwe njengemingcele namuhla, ukungabi khona kwayo kwangempela akuwona nje umphumela wokuziphatha okukhululekile okukhanyiselwe kodwa kunalokho umkhiqizo wezindleko eziphezulu zokungenelela kwezempi uma kuqhathaniswa nezindlela eziphumelela kakhulu zokungenelela ngokwezimali ezithathe indawo yakho. Noma kunjalo ingxenye eyodwa kwezintathu yezifundazwe zase-US zisavumela izakhamizi ukuthi ziboshelwe ukwehluleka ukukhokha izikweletu zazo, ukuthambekela okuvamile eMbusweni Wezezimali kube wukusuka ekusebenziseni okuqondile kwesijeziso maqondana nezinhlobo zokubusa ezihlelekile. Ngalo mqondo, ijele labakweletayo akuseyona nje indawo ebonakalayo lapho “abakweletwayo abanganaki” bevalelwa kude nomphakathi wonke; isiphenduke indlela yokuqondisa izigwegwe esusa izindawo ehlanganisa imbulunga yonkana. Sonke siyiziboshwa zezikweletu manje.
Ngenhlanhla, amandla esakhiwo semali yezimali awasoze aphelela. Eqinisweni, labo abazimisele ukubhekisisa bangakwazi kakade ukubona imifantu ezindongeni zejele – ezinye zazo ezenziwa yinqwaba yemizamo yokuphunyuka yeziboshwa ngokwazo, njengoba zizama ngamandla ukubhodloza indlela yazo yokuphuma; okunye okubangelwa ukungakwazi kwesakhiwo sezimali emhlabeni wonke ukusekela isisindo esingabekezeleleki somthwalo wezikweletu othi, amafemu kanye nemizi eye yanda eminyakeni edlule. Njengoba uLindblom ngokwakhe agcizelela ngokubalulekile ukuthi, noma kuphi lapho kukhona amajele, kuzoba khona nekhefu lokuboshwa, futhi uhlelo oluwohlokayo lokuqondiswa kwezimakethe olusekela uMbuso Wezezimali ngokusobala akude nobufakazi bokuphunyuka. Isipiliyoni sase-Argentina sango-2001 siyisibonelo. Nakuba singekho isidingo sokwenza intando yeningi okuzenzakalelayo kwe-Argentina okuxoxwa ngakho kabanzi - esikhundleni sesenzo soguquko sokudelela, bekumane kuwumzamo wokufuna abantu abaningi (futhi ophumelelayo) weqembu elidumile lamaPeronist lokubambelela emandleni lapho kubhekene nezinxushunxushu ezinkulu emphakathini - isifundo esibaluleke kakhulu esizovela e-Argentina ukuthi, lapho kuqubuka ukuvukela umbuso okuzenzakalelayo nokuqhubekayo, ngisho nezindonga eziqine kakhulu zizogcina ziwile.
Ngempela, i-Financial Empire kungenzeka isenze sonke saba yiziboshwa zezikweletu zanamuhla, kodwa sisengakwazi ukuba yiziboshwa abalingiswa bezenhlalo yekhefu elikhulu kunawo wonke emlandweni - inqobo nje uma sithola izifundo ezifanele emlandweni omude wokubusa kombuso owasiholela kuleliphuzu elibalulekile emlandweni wesintu.
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa kuphela ngokuphana kwabafundi bayo.
Nikela