Ngaphambi kwekhulu leminyaka le-2014 lokuqala "kwempi yokuqeda zonke izimpi," iMpi Yezwe Yokuqala ngokuzumayo ikhona yonke indawo empilweni yethu. UStephen Spielberg's I-War Horse ivulwe ezikrinini zama-movie ezingu-2,376 futhi iqoqe abaqokwe abayisithupha be-Oscar, kuyilapho i- umdlalo oyimpumelelo kakhulu isekelwe ekutheni isagcwele phama ezixukwini zaseNew York kanti ukukhiqizwa kwesibili kulungiselelwa ukuhambela izwe.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-opera yensipho ye-TV okufanele uyibuke yezinyanga ezimbili ezedlule, Downton Abbey, isanda kuphetha isizini yayo ngokuqabula okungalindelekile. Eziqephu eziyisikhombisa, umhlaba walo ophansi phezulu wothando olunqatshelwe kanye nezinkinga zamandla athatha ababukeli baseMelika kusukela phakathi nempi, 1916, ngale kwe-Armistice, ne-Abbey ehlonishwayo ngokwayo iphenduke isibhedlela se-convalescent samasosha alimele. Amanye amadrama ngempi ka-1914-1918 asendleleni, phakathi kwawo kukhona i-HBO-BBC miniseries esekelwe kuFord Madox Ford's. Ukuphela KweParade i-quartet yamanoveli, kanye nokulingiswa kwe-TV kwenoveli kaSebastian Faulks Iculo lezinyoni kusuka enkampanini yokukhiqiza esekelwa yi-NBC.
Eqinisweni, akukho okusha kulokhu. Abenzi bamafilimu nababhali bamanoveli sekuyisikhathi eside bekhexiwe indlela ababusi base-Europe abanethemba, abakhanyiselwe ilanga, bangaphambi kuka-1914 abagqoke izigqoko zokuzivikela nama-hussar embukisweni ngokushesha kangaka abaphenduke indawo yokubulala abantu abaningi ngezinga elingakaze libonwe. Futhi kunezizathu ezinhle zokubheka Impi Yezwe Yokuqala ngokucophelela nangokuseduze.
Phela, yikona okubangele ukufa kwamasosha angaba yizigidi eziyisishiyagalolunye kanye nenani elikhulu nakakhulu lezakhamuzi. Kwasiza ekubhebhethekiseni ukuqothulwa kohlanga lwase-Armenia kanye neNguquko YaseRussia, kwashiya inqwaba yeYurophu kuyincithakalo eshunqayo, futhi kwenza umhlaba waba mubi cishe ngazo zonke izindlela ongazicabanga - ngaphezu kwakho konke, ngokubeka isisekelo umzuzwana futhi obulalayo nakakhulu, ngisho nangaphezulu. impi yomhlaba wonke.
Kunezizathu ezinhle futhi zokuthi sikhathazeke kakhulu ngokwenzeka kuleyo minyaka yempi ezweni elibalelwa kuyo yomine yale midlalo yefilimu ne-TV: iBrithani. Ngo-1914, leso sizwe sasisesicongweni senkazimulo, umbuso onamandla wembulunga yonke ongangatshazwa, owawubusa umbuso omkhulu kunayo yonke eyake yabonwa emhlabeni. Eminyakeni emine nengxenye kamuva isikweletu sayo sikazwelonke sase senyuke ngokuphindwe kashumi, kwafa amasosha aseBrithani angaphezu kuka-720,000 XNUMX, futhi amakhulu ezinkulungwane alimala kanzima kakhulu, amaningi awo egeja izingalo, imilenze, amehlo, izitho zangasese.
Inani lemali lawela kakhulu ikakhulukazi emakilasini abafundile abahlinzeka ngabaphathi abasha kanye nokaputeni ababehola amabutho abo bephuma emiseleni futhi badubula izibhamu ezibulalayo. Ukunikeza isibonelo esisodwa esimangalisayo, emadodeni athweswa iziqu e-Oxford ngo-1913, ama-31% abulawa.
“Ishanelwe Ngokuqhuma Okubomvu Kwenzondo”
Nokho, kuyaxaka, kuwo wonke umbukwane wabafana nehhashi, ukuduma kwabagibeli bamahhashi, imisele enodaka, nothando nokulahlekelwa ngesikhathi sempi, abakhi be-War Horse, Downton Abbey kanye—angingabazi—imikhiqizo efanayo esizoyibuka maduze nje yeqa idrama yokuziphatha enkulu kakhulu yaleyo minyaka yezingxabano, esaqhubeka inenanela esikhathini sethu sezimpi ezibizayo nezingadingekile. Lokhu bakwenza ngokushiya ngaphandle ingxenye yabalingisi bangaleso sikhathi. IMpi Yezwe Yokuqala yayingeyona nje impi phakathi kwamabutho ayizimbangi, kodwa futhi impi enamandla, uma ihlangothi lunye, phakathi kwalabo ababecabanga ukuthi impi yayiyimpi yenkolo ehloniphekile nalabo ababecabanga ukuthi kuwubuhlanya obuphelele.
Abaphikisi bempi baboshwa emazweni amaningi. Ngokwesibonelo, kwakunabangaphezu kuka-500 abenqaba ukuya empini ngenxa kanembeza ababeboshwe e-United States ngaleyo minyaka, kanye nabanye ababeboshiwe ngenxa yokukhuluma ngokumelene nokungenela impi. U-Eugene V. Debs wayazi ijele kusukela ngesikhathi sakhe njengomholi wenyunyana yezitimela, kodwa wachitha isikhathi eside evalelwe - iminyaka engaphezu kwemibili - enxusa amadoda aseMelika ukuthi amelane nalolu hlelo. Elahlwe yicala lokuvukela umbuso, wayesesesitokisini sakhe ejele likahulumeni e-Atlanta ngoNovemba 1920 lapho, isikhathi eside ngemva kokuphela kwempi, ethola amavoti acishe abe yisigidi njengongenele ukhetho lukaMongameli weSocialist.
Omunye umbhikisho waseMelika owawumelene nempi waphenduka inhlekelele lapho, ngo-1917, amaphoyisa ase-Oklahoma ebopha abantu abacishe babe ngama-500—abamhlophe, abamnyama, kanye namaMelika Omdabu - bebamba iqhaza kulokho abakubiza ngokuthi Ukuhlubuka Kommbila Oluhlaza ngokumelene “nempi yesicebi, impi yabampofu.” Kushone abathathu kwalimala abaningi.
Abamele impi nabo baphonswa ejele laseJalimane naseRussia. Kodwa izwe elinenhlangano enkulu kunazo zonke futhi ehleleke kangcono yokulwa nempi - futhi lapha kulapho abadali balawo mafilimu namadrama emvunulo ye-TV ngakho bathandwa izethameli ze-Anglophile American ziphuthelwe yithuba elibalulekile - kwakuyiBrithani.
Isizathu esiyinhloko sokuphikiswa kwempi kwabonakala kunamandla uma kuqhathaniswa sasilula ngokwanele: ngo-1914, isizwe esiyisiqhingi sasingakaze sihlaselwe. Abahlaseli baseJalimane bangena eFrance naseBelgium, kodwa iJalimane yayinethemba lokuthi iBrithani yayingeke ingene empini. Kwaba njalo nabanye baseBrithani. Ngenkathi izwe labo lingenela impi ngesizathu sokuthi iJalimane yephule ukungathathi hlangothi kweBelgium, idlanzana elizwayo laqhubeka nokugcizelela ukuthi ukugxumela engxabanweni phakathi kwamanye amazwe kwakuyiphutha elibi.
UKeir Hardy wayengumphikisi wempi wakuqala ovelele. Umholi wezinyunyana kanye neLungu lePhalamende, lapho eneminyaka engu-21 ubudala, wayesechithe ingxenye yempilo yakhe engumvukuzi wamalahle futhi akazange aye esikoleni. Noma kunjalo, waba ngomunye wezikhulumi ezinkulu zaleso sikhathi, izixuku ezimangazayo ngobugagu bakhe, amehlo akhe ahlabayo, anensipho esindayo, nentshebe ebomvu egqamile. Ecindezelwe yithemba lokuthi izigidi zamadoda asebenzayo aseYurophu zazibulalana zodwa kunokuba zenze isizathu esivamile sokulwela amalungelo azo, intshebe yakhe imhlophe, wafa ngo-1915, eseminyakeni yawo-50.
Phakathi kwalabo abaphonsela inselele ngesibindi i-war fever, imihlangano yabo yayivame ukuchithwa ngobudlova amaphoyisa noma izixuku ezishisekela izwe, kwakukhona umshisekeli wobufazane owaziwa kakhulu. UCharlotte Despard. Umfowabo omncane, ngokumangalisayo, kwakunguField Marshal Sir John French, umkhuzi oyinhloko weWestern Front unyaka wokuqala nengxenye yempi. Umndeni ofana nawo wawungumndeni odumile wePankhurst wama-suffragettes: USylvia Pankhurst waba umphikisi ogqamayo wengxabano, kanti udadewabo uChristabel kusukela ekuqaleni wayengumshayi wezigubhu oshisekayo wempi. Abagcinanga ngokuyeka ukukhuluma bodwa, kodwa bashicilela amaphephandaba aqhudelana njalo ehlasela umsebenzi womunye.
Intatheli yezophenyo ehamba phambili yaseBrithani, Edmund Dene Morel, kanye nesazi sefilosofi esidume kakhulu, Bertrand Russell, bobabili babengabagxeki bempi abashisekayo. “Le mpi iwubala, ngenxa yobukhulu bayo bonke,” kubhala uRussell. "Awukho umgomo omkhulu osengozini, akukho njongo enkulu yomuntu ehilelekile nhlangothi zombili." Washaqeka lapho ebona izakhamuzi zakubo “zikhukhulwa ngomsindo obomvu wenzondo.”
Wabhala ngobuqotho obumangalisayo ngendlela okwakunzima ngayo ukumelana nesimo somkhuhlane wezempi kazwelonke “lapho isizwe sonke sisesimweni sodlame. Njengoba kwakudingeka umzamo omkhulu ukuze kugwenywe ukuhlanganyela le njabulo njengoba bekudingeka ukuze kugqame indlala noma inkanuko yobulili, futhi kwakunomuzwa ofanayo wokuphambana nomzwelo wemvelo.”
Bobabili uRussell noMorel bachitha izinyanga eziyisithupha ejele ngenxa yezinkolelo zabo. U-Morel wasebenzisa isikhathi sakhe sokusebenza kanzima, ephethe ama-slabs angama-100 e-jute eya endaweni yokusebenzela yasejele ngenkathi ephila ngokudla okungenalutho phakathi nobusika obubandayo lapho iziko lamajele laligcina ukutholakala ezweni lamalahle.
Abesifazane bayathanda UViolet Tillard waya ejele futhi. Wayesebenzela iphephandaba elimelene nempi elavalwa ngo-1918 futhi waboshelwa ukwenqaba ukudalula indawo yomshini walo wokunyathelisa womshoshaphansi. Futhi phakathi kwamaqhawekazi angaculwanga ngaleso sikhathi sokulwa nempi kwaba Emily Hobhouse, owadabula ngasese eSwitzerland engathathi hlangothi eya eBerlin, wahlangana nongqongqoshe wezangaphandle waseJalimane, baxoxa ngemibandela yokuthula ababengase babe nayo, base bebuyela eNgilandi ukuze bazame ukwenza okufanayo nohulumeni waseBrithani. Izikhulu zakhona zathi ungumuntu othanda impisi yodwa, kodwa empini eyabulala abantu abangaba izigidi ezingu-20, uyena yedwa owahamba esuka kolunye uhlangothi eya kolunye waphinde wabuya efuna ukuthula.
Okwenza Sazi Kakhulu Ngempi Kunokuthula
Ekupheleni kwempi, amadoda aseBrithani angaphezu kuka-20,000 6,000 ayedelele ukubuthelwa empini, futhi ngokomthetho, abaningi benqaba nenkonzo ehlukile enikezwa abenqaba ngenxa kanembeza, njengokushayela i-ambulensi ngaphambili noma ukusebenza embonini yezempi. Bangaphezu kuka-XNUMX babo abavalelwe ejele - kuze kube yileso sikhathi inani elikhulu kakhulu labantu abake baboshwa ngenxa yezizathu zezepolitiki ezweni lentando yeningi lasentshonalanga.
Kwakungekho lula nganoma yikuphi kwalokhu. Ababenqaba uhlaka babehlekwa usulu futhi beklolodelwe (izixuku zabajikijela amaqanda abolile lapho benikezwa ithuba), baboshwa ngaphansi kwezimo ezinzima, futhi balahlekelwa ilungelo lokuvota iminyaka emihlanu. Kodwa ngokuphela kwempi, ezweni elicekeleke phansi elilila ukulahlekelwa kwalo futhi lizibuza ukuthi yini engase ithethelele lokho kubulawa kweminyaka emine, abantu abaningi bazizwa ngendlela ehlukile ngabaphikisi. Bangaphezu kwesigamu seshumi nambili bagcine beqokelwe eNdlu Yezikhulu futhi intatheli uMorel waba ngumkhulumeli omkhulu weLabour Party ePhalamende ezindabeni zangaphandle. Eminyakeni engamashumi amathathu emva kwe-Armistice, isazi sezinyunyana u-Arthur Creech Jones, owayechithe iminyaka emibili nengxenye ejele njengomphikisi wempi, waqokwa kwikhabhinethi yaseBrithani.
Isibindi samadoda nabesifazane abanjalo ekukhulumeni izingqondo zabo ngomunye wemibuzo emikhulu yenkathi yabalahlekisela kakhulu: ekuhlekweni komphakathi, ukuboshwa, imindeni ehlukene phakathi, ukulahlekelwa abangane nemisebenzi. Futhi nokho zikhohliwe kakhulu namuhla ngesikhathi lapho kufanele kugujwe ukumelana nezimpi ezingenangqondo. Esikhundleni salokho cishe sivame ukugubha labo abalwa izimpi - ukunqoba noma ukuhlulwa - kunalabo abaphikisana nazo.
Akuwona nje amafilimu nezinhlelo ze-TV esizibukayo, kodwa amatshe esikhumbuzo namamnyuziyamu esiwakhayo. Akumangalisi, njengoba uJenene Omar Bradley ake asho, ukuthi “sazi okwengeziwe ngempi kunalokho esikwazi ngokuthula.” Sivame ukucabanga ngezimpi njengezikhathi zobuqhawe, futhi ngomqondo omncane, olula zingaba. Kepha ubuqhawe obukhudlwana, obuntuleka kakhulu eWashington kule minyaka eyishumi edlule, bulele ekucabangeni ukuthi impi ifanele ukulwa nakancane. Ekufuneni izifundo ezimpini ezedlule, kunendaba ejule kakhulu okufanele ixoxwe kunaleyo yomfana nehhashi lakhe.
U-Adam Hochschild ungumbhali wencwadi ethi King Leopold’s Ghost and Bury the Chains, phakathi kweminye imisebenzi. Incwadi yakhe yakamuva edayisa kakhulu, Ukuqeda Zonke Izimpi: Indaba Yokuthembeka Nokuvukela, 1914-1918 (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt), ugxile kubagxeki abamelene nempi beMpi Yezwe I. Manje isitholakala ngephepha elingemuva, isingowamanqamu kukho kokubili Umklomelo We-National Book Critics Circle kanye Nomklomelo Wencwadi we-Los Angeles Times. Ukulalela inhlolokhono yakamuva ka-Timothy MacBain yomsindo we-Tomcast lapho u-Hochschild exoxa ngezindaba eziningi ezingachazeki zalabo baseNgilandi abamelene nokubandakanyeka eMpini Yezwe I kanye nomyalezo abawunikeza isikhathi sethu, chofoza. lapha, noma uyilande ku-iPod yakho lapha.
Lesi sihloko sivele okokuqala ku-TomDispatch.com, i-weblog ye-Nation Institute, enikeza ukugeleza okuqhubekayo kweminye imithombo, izindaba, kanye nemibono evela ku-Tom Engelhardt, umhleli wesikhathi eside ekushicileleni, umsunguli we-American Empire Project, umbhali we Ukuphela Kwesiko Lokunqoba, njengenoveli, Izinsuku Zokugcina Zokushicilela. Incwadi yakhe yakamuva ithi The American Way of War: How Bush's Wars Became Obama's (Haymarket Books).