Eli phepha, elibhalwe phantsi kwesihloko esithi, "i-US Settler-Colonialism and Genocide Policies," yanikezelwa kwi-Organisation of American Historians 2015 iNtlanganiso yoNyaka eSt. Louis, MO ngo-Aprili 18, 2015.
Imigaqo-nkqubo kunye nezenzo zase-US ezinxulumene nabemi boMthonyama, nangona ngokuqhelekileyo kuthiwa "ubuhlanga" okanye "ucalucalulo," azifane zichazwe njengento eyiyo: iimeko zakudala ze-impiriyali kunye nohlobo oluthile lobukoloniyalizi-ikoloniyalizim yabahlali. Kunjengokuba isazi ngemvelaphi yabantu uPatrick Wolfe sibhala, โUmbuzo wokutshatyalaliswa kohlanga awukho kude kwiingxoxo zobukoloniyali. Umhlaba bubomiโokanye, ubuncinane, umhlaba uyimfuneko ebomini.โi Imbali yase-United States yimbali yobukoloniyali yabaphambukeli.
Ukwandiswa kwe-United States ukusuka elwandle ukuya kulwandle oluqaqambileyo kwakuyinjongo kunye noyilo lwabaseki belizwe. Umhlaba โokhululekileyoโ wawuyimagnethi eyatsala abantu baseYurophu. Emva kwemfazwe yenkululeko kodwa yandulela ukubhalwa koMgaqo-siseko wase-US, iNkongolo yelizwekazi yavelisa uMmiselo waseMntla-ntshona. Lo ibingumthetho wokuqala weriphabliki yokuqala, otyhila injongo yabo bafuna inkululeko. Yayiyiplani yokuhlanganisa iNdawo yaseIndiya ekhuselwe yiBritane (โiLizwe laseOhioโ) kwelinye icala leAppalachian kunye neAlleghenies. IBritane yenze indawo yokuhlala apho ngokungekho mthethweni ngeSibhengezo sowe-1763.
Ngowe-1801, uMongameli Jefferson wayichaza kakuhle injongo yelizwe elitsha elithe tyaba lokwandisa ilizwekazi elithe tyaba, esithi: โNangona izilangazelelo zethu zangoku zinokusithintela ngokweyethu imida, akunakwenzeka ukuba singajongi kwixesha elikude, xa ukuphindaphindeka kwethu ngokukhawuleza kuya kusiba nzima. lizandise ngaphaya kwaloo mida lize ligubungele lonke ilizwekazi elingasentla, ukuba asilolizwekazi lasemzantsi, elinabantu abathetha ulwimi olufanayo, abalawulwa ngendlela efanayo yimithetho efanayo.โ Lo mbono wesiphelo esibonakalayo wafunyanwa kwiminyaka embalwa kamva kwiMfundiso yeMonroe, ebonisa injongo yokomba okanye yokulawula imimandla yangaphambili yobukoloniyali baseSpain eMelika nasePasifiki, eya kusetyenziswa kuyo yonke le nkulungwane.
Uhlobo lwekoloniyalizim oluye lwafunyanwa ngabemi bomthonyama baseMntla Merika lwanamhlanje kwasekuqaleni: ukwandiswa kwamaqumrhu aseYurophu, exhaswa yimikhosi karhulumente, kwiindawo zangaphandle, ngokuhluthwa imihlaba kunye nobutyebi. I-Settler colonialism ifuna umgaqo-nkqubo wokutshabalalisa uhlanga. Izizwe zomthonyama kunye noluntu, lo gama bezamana nokugcina iinqobo ezisemgangathweni ezisisiseko kunye nokuqokelelana, ukususela ekuqaleni baye baxhathisa ubukoloniyali bale mihla kusetyenziswa iindlela zokuzikhusela nezikhubekisayo, kuquka neendlela zale mihla zokuxhathisa ngezixhobo zemibutho yenkululeko yesizwe nento ngoku ebizwa ngokuba bubunqolobi. Kuzo zonke iimeko baye balwa kwaye bayaqhubeka besilwela ukusinda njengabantu. Injongo yabasemagunyeni eUnited States yayikukuphelisa ubukho babo njengabantuโkungekhona nje ukuba babe ngabantu nje abaqhelekileyo. Le yeyona nkcazelo yokubulawa kwabantu namhlanje.
Injongo yabalawuli bamathanga eUnited States yayikukuphelisa ubukho babo njengabantuโkungekhona nje ukuba babe ngabantu nje abaqhelekileyo. Le yeyona nkcazelo yembubhiso yangoku xa ithelekiswa neziganeko zangaphambili zobundlobongela obugqithisileyo obungenanjongo yokubhanga. I-United States njengeziko lentlalo-qoqosho kunye nezopolitiko sisiphumo sale nkqubo ye-colonial yeenkulungwane kunye neqhubekayo. Izizwe zale mihla kunye noluntu lwale mihla luluntu oluyilwe kukuchasa ubukoloniyali, abathi ngalo baqhube izenzo zabo kunye nembali. Kuyamangalisa, kodwa akukho mmangaliso, ukuba baye basinda njengabantu.
ISettler-colonialism ifuna ubundlobongela okanye isoyikiso sobundlobongela ukuze kuzuzwe iinjongo zabo, nto leyo eyenza isiseko senkqubo yaseUnited States. Abantu abanikezeli ngomhlaba wabo, izixhobo, abantwana, kunye nekamva labo ngaphandle kokulwa, kwaye loo mlo uhlangabezana nobundlobongela. Ekusebenziseni amandla ayimfuneko ukufezekisa iinjongo zabo zokwandisa, urhulumente wobukoloniyali umisela ubundlobongela. Ingcinga yokuba ungquzulwano lwemveli lwabahlali luyimveliso engenakuphepheka yeeyantlukwano zenkcubeko kunye nokungaqondani, okanye ukuba ubundlobongela benziwa ngokulinganayo ngamakholoni kunye nekholoni, bufiphalisa ubume beenkqubo zembali. Ubukoloniyali be-Euro-Amerika, umba wokudityaniswa koqoqosho longxowankulu, kwasekuqaleni yayinomkhwa wokubulala uhlanga.
Ngoko ke, yintoni equka ukubulawa kwabantu? Umntu endisebenza naye kweli qela, uGary Clayton Anderson, kwincwadi yakhe yakutshanje ethi, โEthnic Cleaning and the Indian,โ uphikisa ngelithi: โImbubhiso yohlanga ayisayi kuze ibe luphawu olwamkelwa ngokubanzi ngoko kwenzeka kuMntla Merika, kuba inani elikhulu lamaIndiya asinda nangenxa yemigaqo-nkqubo. zokubulawa kwabantu abaninzi ngomlinganiselo ofanayo neziganeko zombindi Yurophu, eKhambodiya, okanye eRwanda azizange ziphunyezwe.โii Kukho iimpazamo ezibulalayo kolu vavanyo.
Ibinzana elithi โimbubhisoโ layilwa emva kweShoah, okanye ukuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo, yaye ukwalelwa kwayo kwabethelelwa kwindibano yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo eyaqhutywa ngowe-1948 yaza yamkelwa ngowe-1951: INgqungquthela YeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo Yokuthintela Nokohlwaya Ulwaphulo-mthetho Lokubulala. Ingqungquthela ayiphindi ibuyele emva kodwa iyasebenza kubudlelwane be-US-Indigenous ukususela ngo-1988, xa i-Senate yase-US iyayivuma. Ingqungquthela yembubhiso sisixhobo esibalulekileyo sohlalutyo lwembali yeziphumo zobukoloniyali nakweliphi na ixesha, ngakumbi kwimbali yase-US.
Kwindibano, nasiphi na isenzo esinye kwezintlanu sigqalwa njengembubhiso yohlanga ukuba โsenziwe ngenjongo yokutshabalalisa, ngokupheleleyo okanye ngokuyinxenye, iqela lesizwe, lobuhlanga, lobuhlanga okanye lonquloโ:
(a) ukubulala amalungu eqela;
(b) ukwenzakaliswa ngokumandundu emzimbeni okanye ngokwasengqondweni kumalungu eqela;
(c) ngokwenza ngabom kwiqela leemeko zobomi ezibalelwa ukuzisa ukutshatyalaliswa kwalo ngokwasemzimbeni ngokupheleleyo okanye ngokuyinxenye;
(d) ngokumisela imilinganiselo ejoliswe ekuthinteleni ukubeleka kwiqela;
(e) ukudlulisela ngenkani abantwana beqela kwelinye iqela.iii
Ezi zenzo zilandelayo ziyohlwaywa:
(a) Ukubulawa kwabantu;
(b) Iyelenqe lokubulala;
(c) ukuphembelela ngokuthe ngqo noluntu ukuba benze imbubhiso;
(d) Ukuzama ukwenza imbubhiso;
(e) Ukubandakanyeka kwimbubhiso.
Igama elithi โimbubhisoโ lidla ngokusetyenziswa ngendlela engeyiyo, njengakuvavanyo lukaGqr. Okwenzeka eCambodia kwakusoyikeka, kodwa akuwi phantsi kwemiqathango yeNgqungquthela ye-Genocide, njengoko iNgqungquthela ibhekisela ngokukodwa kwiqela lesizwe, lobuhlanga, lobuhlanga okanye lenkolo, kunye nabantu abaphakathi kwelo qela elijoliswe ngurhulumente okanye ii-arhente zalo ngenxa yokuba. bangamalungu eqela okanye ngokuhlasela iziseko zobukho beqela njengeqela elihlangatyezwayo ngenjongo yokutshabalalisa elo qela lilonke okanye ngokuyinxenye. Urhulumente waseCambodia wenze ulwaphulo-mthetho olunxamnye noluntu, kodwa hayi ukubulawa kwabantu. Imbubhiso ayisosenzo esibi kakhulu kunayo nayiphi na enye into, kunoko luhlobo oluthile lwesenzo. Ibinzana elithi, โukuhlanjululwa kohlanga,โ ligama elichazayo elenziwe ngabangeneleli boluntu ukuchaza oko kwakusithiwa kusenzeka ngeemfazwe zeminyaka yee-1990 phakathi kweeriphabliki zaseYugoslavia. Ligama elichazayo, hayi ibinzana lomthetho wobuntu wamazwe ngamazwe.
Nangona ngokucacileyo iHolocaust yayiyeyona nto igqithiseleyo kuzo zonke izigebengu, umqobo obekwe ngamaNazi ayisiyonto efunekayo ukuba ithathelwe ingqalelo njengembubhiso. Isihloko seNgqungquthela yeNgqungquthela ethi "UMgaqo-siseko WokuThintela kunye Nokohlwaya uLwaphulo-mthetho lokuBulawa kwaBantu," ngoko umthetho umalunga nokuthintela ukubulawa kwabantu ngokuchonga iinkalo zomgaqo-nkqubo karhulumente, kunokohlwaywa kuphela emva koko. Okona kubaluleke kakhulu, ukubulawa kwabantu akunyanzelekanga ukuba kugqitywe ukuze kuthatyathwe njengembubhiso.
Imbali yase-US, kunye nokwenzakala okuzuzwe njengelifa, ayinakuqondwa ngaphandle kokujongana nokubulawa kwabantu eUnited States ngokuchasene nabemi boMthonyama. Ukusukela ngexesha lobukoloniyali ukuya kuthi ga ekusekweni kweUnited States nokuqhubeka kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini, oku kuye kwabandakanya intuthumbo, ubugrogrisi, ukuxhatshazwa ngokwesondo, ukubulawa kwabantu abaninzi, ukususwa kwabantu bomthonyama kwimimandla yookhokho babo, ukususwa ngenkani kwabantwana bomthonyama baseMelika. izikolo zokubhoda ezifana nezomkhosi, izabelo, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo wokuphelisa.
Ngaphakathi kwingqiqo ye-settler-colonialism, ukubulawa kwabantu ngohlanga yayiyinkqubo yendalo yonke yase-United States ukususela ekusekweni kwayo, kodwa kukwakho nemigaqo-nkqubo ebhaliweyo yokubulawa kohlanga kwicala lolawulo lwase-US ezinokuchongwa ubuncinane ngamaxesha amane ahlukeneyo: iJacksonian. ixesha lokususwa ngenkani; ugqatso lwegolide lwaseCalifornia kuMntla weKhalifoniya; ngexesha leMfazwe yamakhaya nakwixesha leMfazwe yamakhaya ebizwa ngokuba ziiMfazwe zaseIndiya kuMzantsi-ntshona kunye namaThafa amakhulu; kunye nexesha lokupheliswa koo-1950; ukongeza, kukho ixesha elidlulayo lezikolo ezinyanzelekileyo zokuhlalisa, ukusuka kowe-1870 ukuya kowe-1960. Isikolo sokubhoda saseCarlisle, esasekwa ligosa loMkhosi wase-US URichard Henry Pratt ngo 1879, waba ngumzekelo kwabanye esekwe yi Iziko lemicimbi yaseIndiya (BIA). UPratt wathi kwintetho yakhe ngowe-1892, โInjengele enkulu yathi ekuphela kweIndiya elilungileyo ngumfi. Ngandlel 'ithile, ndiyavumelana noluvo, kodwa kule nto kuphela: ukuba onke amaIndiya akhoyo kugqatso kufuneka abe efile. Bulala umIndiya ongaphakathi kuye kwaye usindise indoda. "
Amatyala embubhiso yobuhlanga aqhutywe njengomgaqo-nkqubo anokufunyanwa kumaxwebhu embali kunye nakwiimbali ezithethwa ngomlomo zoluntu lweMveli. Umzekelo wowe-1873 uqhelekile, njengoko uNjengele William T. Sherman wabhala oku, โSimele senze ngokunyanisekileyo ukuziphindezela nxamnye namaSioux, de ade atshatyalaliswe, amadoda, abafazi nabantwana . . . ebudeni bohlaselo, amajoni akakwazi kunqumama ukuze ahlule phakathi kwendoda nebhinqa, okanye kwanokucalula iminyaka.โiv
Oko kubizwa ngokuba โziiMfazwe zaseIndiyaโ ngobuchwephesha zaphela malunga ne-1880, nangona ukubulawa kwabantu ngeKnee eWounded kwenzeka kwiminyaka elishumi kamva. Ngokucacileyo isenzo esinenjongo yokutshabalalisa uhlanga, isathathwa ngokusemthethweni "njengedabi" kwiingxelo zembali yomkhosi wase-US. I-Congressional Medals of Honor yanikezelwa kumajoni angamashumi amabini abandakanyekayo. Isikhumbuzo sakhiwa eFort Riley, eKansas, ukuhlonipha amajoni abulawa ngumlilo wobuhlobo. Umsinga wedabi wenziwa ukuhlonipha umsitho kwaye wongezwa kwezinye iistreamer eziboniswa ePentagon, eWest Point, nakwiziseko zomkhosi kwihlabathi liphela. L. Frank Baum, ummi waseDakota Territory owaduma kamva ngokubhala Emangalisayo Wizard ye-Oz, uhlele i Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer ngelo xesha. Kwiintsuku ezintlanu emva kwesiganeko esibuhlungu eWounded Knee, ngoJanuwari 3, 1891, wabhala, โUvulindlela ngaphambili wavakalisa ukuba ekuphela kokhuseleko lwethu oluxhomekeke ekutshatyalalisweni ngokupheleleyo kwamaIndiya. Sakuba sibenze kakubi kangangeenkulungwane siye saba ngcono, ukuze sikhusele impucuko yethu, siyilandele ngempazamo enye okanye ngaphezulu size sisule ezi zidalwa zingagutywanga nezingagungqiyo ebusweni bomhlaba.โ
Nokuba ngowe-1880 okanye ngowe-1890, uninzi lwesiseko somhlaba esidityanelweyo esafunyanwa ziintlanga zomthonyama ngokusilwela nzima izivumelwano ezenziwe neUnited States zalahleka emva kwaloo mhla.
Emva kokuphela kweeMfazwe zaseIndiya, kwabakho ulwabiwo, omnye umgaqo-nkqubo wokubulawa kohlanga lwezizwe zomthonyama njengezizwe, njengabantu, ukubhangiswa kweqela. Sithatha iSioux Nation njengomzekelo, nangaphambi kokuba uMthetho wokwabiwa kweDawes ka-1884 uphunyezwe, kunye neBlack Hills esele ithinjwe ngokungekho mthethweni ngurhulumente wobumbano, ikhomishini karhulumente yafika kummandla waseSioux isuka eWashington, DC, ngo-1888 inesiphakamiso sokuba ukunciphisa iSioux Nation ukuya kwiindawo ezincinci ezithandathu, inkqubo eya kushiya iihektare ezizizigidi ezilithoba zivuliwe ukuze kuhlalwe i-Euro-American. Ikhomishini yafumanisa ukuba akunakwenzeka ukufumana utyikityo lwesithathu kwisine sesizwe njengoko kufunwa phantsi komnqophiso we-1868, yaza ke yabuyela eWashington inesindululo sokuba urhulumente angasihoyi isivumelwano kwaye athathe umhlaba ngaphandle kwemvume yeSioux. Ekuphela kwendlela yokufezekisa loo njongo yayiyimithetho, iCongress ikhulule urhulumente kwisinyanzelo sokuthethathethana ngesivumelwano. ICongress yayalela uNjengele uGeorge Crook ukuba akhokele igqiza lokuzama kwakhona, ngeli xesha ngomnikelo we-$1.50 ngehektare nganye. Kuthotho lweendlela zokuqhatha kunye nokusebenzisana neenkokeli ezinabantu ababhuqwa yindlala ngoku, ikomishini yafumana utyikityo olufunekayo. Isizwe esikhulu samaSioux saqhekezwa saba ziziqithi ezincinci ngokukhawuleza zirhangqwe macala onke ngabaphambukeli baseYurophu, uninzi lommandla wogcino yibhodi yokuhlola enabemi kwizabelo okanye umhlaba oqeshiweyo.v Ukudala olu gcino lodwa lwaphula ubudlelwane bembali phakathi kwezizwe kunye noluntu lweSizwe saseSioux kwaye kwavula iindawo apho abantu baseYurophu bahlala khona. Ikwavumele iBureau yeMicimbi yaseIndiya ukuba isebenzise ulawulo olungqongqo, ixhaswa yinkqubo yesikolo ekuhlalwa kuyo. Umdaniso weLanga, umsitho waminyaka le obudibanise iSioux kwaye womeleza umanyano lwesizwe, wawuvaliwe, kunye neminye iminyhadala yonqulo. Ngaphandle kwemeko yabantu baseSioux ebuthathaka phantsi kolawulo lobukoloniyali ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba, bakwazile ukuqalisa ukwakha ishishini lokufuya iinkomo endaweni yoqoqosho lwabo lwangaphambili lokuzingela iinyathi. Ngowe-1903, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States yawisa isigwebo Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, ukuba ngoMatshi 3, 1871, ulwabiwo-mali umkhweli wawusemthethweni kwaye iCongress yayinamandla "esigqeba" sokulawula impahla yaseIndiya. I-Ofisi yeMicimbi yaseIndiya inokuthi ke ngoko ilahle imihlaba kunye nemithombo yobutyebi yaseIndiya nokuba ithini na imiqathango yezibonelelo zesivumelwano sangaphambili. Kwalandelwa umthetho owavula ugcino-mali ekuhlawulweni ngokuqeshisa kunye nokuthengiswa kwezabelo ezithatyathwe kwintembeko. Phantse yonke imihlaba ephambili yokutyisa imfuyo yathathwa ngabafuyi abangengabo amaIndiya ngeminyaka yoo-1920.
Ngexesha le-New Deal-Collier kunye nokubhangiswa kwesabelo somhlaba waseIndiya phantsi koMthetho woHlanganiso lwaseIndiya, abantu abangengawo amaIndiya babebodlula amaIndiya kugcino lwaseSioux bathathu kwelinye. Noko ke, โoorhulumente bezizweโ abamiselwa ngenxa yoMthetho WokuHlanganisa Uhlaziyo lwaseIndiya bangqineka beyingozi ngokukhethekileyo yaye bewahlukanisa amaSioux.โvi Ngokuphathelele eli nyathelo, ongasekhoyo uMathew King, umbhali-mbali osele ekhulile weOglala Sioux (iPine Ridge), wathi: โISebe Lemicimbi YamaIndiya laqulunqa umgaqo-siseko nemithetho kamasipala yalo mbutho kunye noMthetho waseIndiya wokuHlaziywa ngokutsha koMthetho wowe-1934. ukuqaliswa komthetho wasekhaya. . . . Abantu bemveli basabambelele kwiSivumelwano sabo, kuba sisisizwe esizimeleyo. Sinorhulumente wethu.โvii โUlawulo lwasekhaya,โ okanye iniyo-koloniyalizim, yangqina umgaqo-nkqubo wexesha elifutshane, nangona kunjalo, kuba ekuqaleni kweminyaka yee-1950 iUnited States yaphuhlisa umgaqo-nkqubo wayo wokuphelisa, ngomthetho owawuyalela ukuba kupheliswe ngokuthe ngcembe konke ukubekelwa bucala kunye noorhulumente bezizwe.viii Ngexesha lokupheliswa kunye nokufuduswa, ingeniso yonyaka ngomntu ngamnye kwindawo ebekelwe iSioux ibimi kwi-355 yeedola, ngelixa idolophu ekufutshane yaseMzantsi Dakota yayingama-2,500 eedola. Ngaphandle kwezi meko, ekulandeleni umgaqo-nkqubo wayo wokupheliswa, i-Bureau yeMicimbi yaseIndiya yakhuthaza ukuncitshiswa kweenkonzo kwaye yazisa inkqubo yayo yokufudusa amaIndiya kumaziko emizi-mveliso asezidolophini, ngepesenti ephezulu yamaSioux afudukela eSan Francisco naseDenver efuna imisebenzi.ix
Iimeko zezinye izizwe zoMthonyama zazifana.
Igqwetha likaPawnee uWalter R. Echo-Hawk ubhala athi:
Ngowe-1881, imihlaba yamaIndiya eUnited States yehla yaya kutsho kwi-156 lezigidi zeehektare. Ngowe-1934, kwakusele kuphela malunga neehektare ezizizigidi ezingama-50 (ummandla olingana ne-Idaho neWashington) ngenxa yoMthetho woKwabiwa kweMali Jikelele wowe-1887. Ebudeni beMfazwe Yehlabathi II, urhulumente wathabatha iihektare ezingakumbi ezingama-500,000 1950 ukuze zisetyenziswe emkhosini. Ngaphezu kwekhulu lezizwe, amaqela, kunye neeRancherias zayishiya imihlaba yazo phantsi kwezenzo ezahlukeneyo zeNkongolo ngexesha lokupheliswa kwee-1955s. Ngowe-2.3, umhlaba wemveli wawucuthekile waya kutsho kwi-XNUMX ekhulwini kuphela [ubukhulu ekupheleni kweemfazwe zamaIndiya].x
Ngokwemvumelwano yangoku phakathi kwababhali-mbali, ukugqithiselwa komhlaba wonke ukusuka kwiMveli ukuya kwizandla zase-Euro-American okwenzeka eMelika emva kwe-1492 kubangelwa ngaphantsi kohlaselo lwaseBritane kunye ne-US yaseMelika, imfazwe, iimeko zembacu, kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yokubulawa kwabantu kuMntla Merika kunokuba iintsholongwane abafika nazo abahlaseli bengaqondanga. Umbhali-mbali uColin Calloway uphakathi kwabaxhasa le ngcamango yokubhala, โIzifo ezingubhubhani beziya kubangela ukuhla kwabantu abaninzi kumazwe aseMerika enoba ziziswe ngabahlaseli baseYurophu okanye ziziswe ekhaya ngabarhwebi boMthonyama baseMerika.โxi Ubango olunjalo lwenze ukuba nasiphi na esinye isiphelo sabantu boMthonyama sibe yinto engenakwenzeka. Yile nto isazi ngendalo uMichael Wilcox ayibize ngokuba "yingxelo yokugqibela." Unjingalwazi uCalloway ngumbhali-mbali ngocoselelo nohlonitshwa ngokubanzi weMveli yaseMntla Melika, kodwa isiphelo sakhe sichaza uqikelelo olungagqibekanga. Ukucinga okusemva kokucinga kuyimbali kwaye akukho ngqiqweni kuba iYurophu ngokwayo yaphulukana nesithathu ukuya kwisiqingatha sabemi bayo kwizifo ezosulelayo ngexesha lendyikityha yamaxesha aphakathi. Umgaqo-siseko wesizathu sokuba imbono yemvumelwano iphosakele kwaye i-ahistorical kukuba isusa iziphumo ze-colonialism yabahlali kunye nezandulela zabo kwi-Spanish "Reconquest" kunye noloyiso lwamaNgesi eSkotlani, e-Ireland naseWales. Ngexesha iSpeyin, iPortugal neBritani zafika ukuze zilawule amazwe aseMerika, iindlela zazo zokuphelisa abantu okanye ukubanyanzelela ukuba baxhomekeke kubo nokuba ngamakhoboka zazisele zendele, ziphucuka yaye zisebenza kakuhle.
Nakuphi na ukungaboni ngasonye okunokubakho malunga nobukhulu bemiNtu yeMveli yangaphambi kobukoloniyali, akukho mntu uthandabuzayo ukuba ukwehla ngokukhawuleza kwenani labantu kwenzeka kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesithandathu neyeshumi elinesixhenxe, ixesha lalo ukusuka kummandla ukuya kummandla kuxhomekeke ekubeni kwaqala nini ukoyiswa kunye nobukoloniyali. Phantse yonke imimandla yabemi baseMerika yancitshiswa ngama-90 ekhulwini emva kokuqalisa kweeprojekthi zolawulo lwamathanga, kuthotywa abemi ekujoliswe kubo baseMerika ukusuka kwikhulu lezigidi ukusa kwishumi lezigidi. Idla ngokubizwa ngokuba yeyona ntlekele yabemi abaninzi-eyayilwe njengendalo-kwimbali yoluntu, yayingafane ibizwa ngokuba yimbubhiso de kwaphakama iintshukumo zeMveli kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini kwakha imibuzo emitsha.
Umphengululi waseUnited States uBenjamin Keen uyavuma ukuba ababhali-mbali โbayamkela ngokungathandabuzekiyo inkcazelo โyobhubhani kunye nokungabikho kokungakhuselekiโ ngenxa yokuncipha kwamaIndiya, ngaphandle kokunikela ingqalelo ngokwaneleyo kwiinkalo zentlalo nezoqoqosho . . . nto leyo eyayibangela ukuba abemi bomthonyama bosulelwe kwanosulelo oluncinane.โxi Abanye abaphengululi bayavumelana noko. Isazi ngejografi uWilliam M. Denevan, ngoxa engabuhoyi ubukho bezifo ezigqugqisayo ezisasazekileyo, uye wagxininisa indima yemfazwe, eyomeleza impembelelo ebulalayo yezifo. Kwakukho uthethathethwano lwasemkhosini ngokuthe ngqo phakathi kwezizwe zaseYurophu kunye nezoMthonyama, kodwa uninzi lwabona amagunya aseYurophu ebeka ilizwe elinye leMveli kwelinye okanye amaqela aphakathi kwezizwe, kunye namahlakani aseYurophu encedisa icala elinye okanye omabini, njengoko kwakunjalo kwikoloniyali yabantu baseIreland, I-Afrika kunye ne-Asiya, kwaye yayiyeyona nto iphambili kwi-Holocaust. Abanye ababulali abakhankanywa nguDenevan kukusebenza kakhulu emigodini, ukuxhelwa rhoqo, ukungondleki kunye nendlala ebangelwa kukuwohloka kothungelwano lwezorhwebo lweMveli, ukuveliswa kokutya okuziphilisa kunye nokulahleka komhlaba, ukuphulukana nentando yokuphila okanye ukuvelisa kwakhona (kwaye ke ngoko ukuzibulala, ukuqhomfa, kunye nokubulawa kosana. ), kunye nokugxothwa kunye nobukhoboka.xiii Isazi ngembali yabantu uHenry Dobyns uye walatha ekuphazamisekeni kothungelwano lorhwebo lwabantu boMthonyama. Xa amagunya obukoloniyali athimba iindlela zorhwebo zeMveli, ukunqongophala okukhulu okwalandelayo, kubandakanywa neemveliso zokutya, kwenza abantu babuthathaka kwaye babanyanzela ukuba baxhomekeke kumakholoni, kunye nezinto ezenziweyo zaseYurophu ezithatha indawo yezoMthonyama. UDobyns uqikelele ukuba onke amaqela aBemi Bomthonyama athwaxwa kukunqongophala kokutya kunyaka omnye kwezine. Kwezi meko, ukuqaliswa nokukhuthazwa kotywala kwangqineka kukhobokisa yaye kuyingozi, oko kongezelela ekonakaleni kocwangco lwentlalo noxanduva.xi Ezi nyaniso ziyenza intsomi โyokungakhuseleki,โ kuquka notywala, ibe yingozi.
Umbhali-mbali uWoodrow Wilson Borah ugxile kwibala elibanzi lobukoloniyali baseYurophu, eliye lazisa abantu abancitshiswa kakhulu kwiZiqithi zePasifiki, eOstreliya, eNtshona kuMbindi Merika, nakwiNtshona Afrika.xv USherburne Cook-edibene noBorah kwiSikolo saseBerkeley esihlaziyiweyo, njengoko sasibizwa njalo-wafunda ukuzama ukutshatyalaliswa kwamaNdiya aseCalifornia. UCook uqikelela ukufa kwabantu abangama-2,245 phakathi kwabantu abakuMntla weKhalifoniyaโizizwe zaseWintu, eMaidu, eMiwak, eOmo, eWappo, naseYokutsโekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesibhozo kungquzulwano oluxhobileyo nolwaseSpeyin ngelixa abamalunga nama-5,000 babulawa sisifo baza abanye abangama-4,000 bafuduselwa ebufundisini. Kwaba bantu banye kwisiqingatha sesibini senkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba, imikhosi exhobileyo yaseUnited States yabulala abangama-4,000 6,000, yaye izifo zabulala abanye abangama-1852 1867. Phakathi kowe-4,000 no-XNUMX, abemi base-US baqweqwedisa abantwana abangama-XNUMX bamaIndiya kula maqela eKhalifoniya. Ukuphazamiseka kweziseko zentlalo zoMthonyama phantsi kwezi meko kunye nemfuno enzima yezoqoqosho inyanzelise uninzi lwabafazi ukuba babe ngoonongogo kwiinkampu ze-goldfield, okuqhubela phambili konakalisa intsalela yobomi bosapho eseleyo kolu luntu lwematriarchal.
Ababhali-mbali nabanye abakukhanyelayo ukubulawa kohlanga babethelela ukuncipha kwabemi ngenxa yezifo, nto leyo eyenza abantu Bomthonyama bangakwazi ukuxhathisa. Ngokwenza njalo bayala ukuvuma ukuba i-colonization yaseMelika yayiyimbubhiso yohlanga ngesicwangciso, hayi nje ikamva elibuhlungu labantu abangenalo ukhuseleko kwizifo. Ukuba isifo besinokwenza umsebenzi, akucaci ukuba kutheni i-United States ibone kufanelekile ukwenza iimfazwe ezingapheliyo ngokuchasene nabemi boMthonyama ukuze bafumane yonke i-intshi yomhlaba abawuthathileyo kubo-kunye nexesha langaphambili lobukoloniyali baseBritane, phantse. iminyaka engamakhulu amathathu emfazwe yokuphelisa.
Kwimeko yokuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo kwamaYuda, akukho bani uphikayo ukuba amaYuda amaninzi abulawa yindlala, ukusebenza ngokugqithiseleyo, kunye nezifo ngaphantsi kokuvalelwa kwamaNazi ngaphezu kokuba afela eziontini zegesi okanye abulawa ngezinye iindlela, ukanti izenzo zokudala nokugcina iimeko ezakhokelela koko kufa. ngokucacileyo kubulala uhlanga. Kwaye akukho mntu ucengceleza ibali lesiphelo elinxulumene nabemi bomthonyama baseMelika, okanye ama-Armenia, okanye amaBosnia.
Ayizizo zonke izenzo ezibandakanyiweyo kwingqungquthela yembubhiso ekufuneka zibekho ukuze zenze imbubhiso; nayiphi na enye kuzo yanele. Kwiimeko zemigaqo-nkqubo ye-United States yokubulala uhlanga kunye nezenzo, nganye kwiimfuno ezintlanu inokubonwa.
Ekuqaleni, Ukubulala amalungu eqela: Ingqungquthela yembubhiso ayicacisi ukuba kufuneka kubulawe inani elikhulu labantu ukuze kubulawe abantu, kunokuba amalungu eqela abulawe kuba engamalungu eqela. Ukuvavanya imeko malunga nokuthintela ukubulawa kwabantu, olu hlobo lokubulala luphawu lokungenelela.
Isibini, Ukudala ingozi enkulu emzimbeni okanye engqondweni kumalungu eqela: ezifana nendlala, ulawulo lokubonelela ngokutya kunye nokubamba ukutya njengesohlwayo okanye njengomvuzo wokuthotyelwa, umzekelo, ekusayineni izivumelwano zokuthinjwa. Njengoko umbhali-mbali wasemkhosini uJohn Grenier ebonisa kweyakhe Indlela yokuqala yeMfazwe:
Kwiminyaka engama-200 yokuqala yelifa lethu lomkhosi, ngoko, abantu baseMerika babexhomekeke kubugcisa bemfazwe awayebucekisa amajoni angoochwephesha beli xesha: ukutshabalalisa nokutshabalalisa iilali namabala otshaba; ukubulala abasetyhini nabantwana abaziintshaba; ukugqogqa iindawo zokuhlala abathinjwa; aboyikisayo nabaphatha ngenkohlakalo abo bangengawo amajoni; kunye nokubulala iinkokeli zotshaba. . . . Kwiimfazwe zomda phakathi kwe-1607 kunye ne-1814, abantu baseMelika benza izinto ezimbini-imfazwe engenamkhawulo kunye nemfazwe engaqhelekanga-kwindlela yabo yokuqala yemfazwe.XNUMX
UGrenier uthi le ndlela yemfazwe ayizange iqhubeke kuphela kwinkulungwane ye-19 kwiimfazwe ezichasene nezizwe zoMthonyama, kodwa yaqhubeka kwinkulungwane yama-20 kwaye ngoku kwiimfazwe ezichasene nabantu baseLatin America, kwiCaribbean nakwiPasifiki, kuMzantsi-mpuma weAsia, kuMbindi nakwiNtshona. EAsia naseAfrika.
Ukufaka ngabom kwiqela leemeko zobomi ezibalwe ukuzisa ukutshatyalaliswa kwayo ngokwasemzimbeni ngokupheleleyo okanye ngokuyinxenye: Ukususwa ngenkani kuzo zonke izizwe zomthonyama kwimpuma ye-Mississippi ukuya kwi-Indian Territory ngexesha lolawulo lukaJackson yayingumgaqo-nkqubo obaliweyo onenjongo yokutshabalalisa ezo zizwe zabantu kwimihlaba yazo yantlandlolo, kunye nokubhengeza abantu bomthonyama abangazange basuse ukuba bangabi seMuskogee, eSauk. , iKickapoo, iChoctaw, itshabalalisa ubukho bokufikelela kwisiqingatha sesizwe ngasinye esisusiweyo. Izikolo zokubhoda ezinyanzelekileyo, uLwabiwo kunye nokupheliswaโyonke imigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente esemthethweniโnazo ziphantsi kolu didi lolwaphulo-mthetho lokubulala. Ukususwa ngenkani kunye nokuvalelwa iminyaka emine kwabantu baseNavajo kubangele ukufa kwesiqingatha sabemi babo.
Ukumisela amanyathelo ajoliswe ekuthinteleni ukuzalwa phakathi kweqela: Okudumileyo, ngexesha lokupheliswa kweXesha, urhulumente wase-US walawula iNkonzo yezeMpilo yaseIndiya wenza eyona nto iphambili kwezonyango kunyango lwabafazi boMthonyama. Ngo-1974, uphononongo oluzimeleyo lomnye oogqirha abambalwa bomthonyama baseMelika, uGqr. Connie Pinkerton-Uri, uChoctaw/Cherokee, wafumanisa ukuba umfazi omnye kwabane bomthonyama uvalelwe inzala ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe. Uphando lukaPnkerton-Uri lubonise ukuba iNkonzo yezeMpilo yaseIndiya โikhethe abafazi baseIndiya abanegazi elipheleleyo kwiinkqubo zokuvala inzala.โ Ekuqaleni wakhanyela Indian Health Service, kwiminyaka emibini kamva, uphononongo olwenziwa yi-US General Accounting Office wafumanisa ukuba 4 of 12 Indian Health Service imimandla Service inzala 3,406 abafazi bomthonyama ngaphandle kwemvume yabo phakathi 1973 kunye 1976. I-GAO yafumanisa ukuba 36 abafazi phantsi. Ubudala beminyaka engama-21 bavalwe inzala ngenkani ngeli xesha ngaphandle kokugunyaziswa kwenkundla ukuba kumiswe ukuvala inzala kwabasetyhini abangaphantsi kweminyaka engama-21.
Ukudlulisela ngenkani abantwana beqela kwelinye iqela: Amaqumrhu karhulumente awahlukahlukeneyo, ubukhulu becala oomasipala, imimandla, namaphondo, ayesoloko ebasusa abantwana bomthonyama kwiintsapho zabo aze abakhulisele abantwana bomthonyama. Kwiintshukumo zokuchasa iiNative zoo-1960 kunye noo-1970, imfuno yokuyekiswa kwesi senzo yabhalwa kwi-Indian Child Welfare Act ka-1978. Nangona kunjalo, umthwalo wokunyanzelisa umthetho wawukuRhulumente wesizwe, kodwa umthetho awuboneleli ngemali. izibonelelo zoorhulumente boMthonyama ukuba baseke iziseko zophuhliso zokubuyisela abantwana kwishishini lokuthatha abantwana, apho iintsana zaseIndiya zazifunwa kakhulu. Ngaphandle kwezi zithintelo kunyanzeliso, eyona mpatho-mbi iye yathotywa kule minyaka ingamashumi amathathu ilandelayo. Kodwa, ngoJuni 25, 2013, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States, kwisigwebo se-5-4 esaqulunqwa nguJustice Samuel Alito, yasebenzisa imimiselo yoMthetho we-Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) ukuba umntwana, owaziwa ngokubanzi njengoBaby Veronica, akazange. kufuneka ahlale notata wakhe onguCherokee. Isigqibo senkundla ephakamileyo sahlahlโ indlela yokuba uMatt noMelanie Capobianco, abazali abakhulisa umntwana, bacele iiNkundla zaseMzantsi Carolina ukuba umntwana abuyiselwe kubo. Inkundla yachitha injongo kunye nenjongo yoMthetho weNtlalontle yoMntwana waseIndiya, iphoswa ngumbono ongemva kwe-ICWA, ukhuselo lobutyebi benkcubeko kunye nobutyebi obungabantwana boMthonyama; ayikokukhusela oko kubizwa ngokuba ziintsapho zemveli okanye zenyukliya. Imalunga nokuqaphela ukuxhaphaka kweentsapho ezandisiweyo kunye nenkcubeko.xviii
Ke, kutheni iNgqungquthela yeGenocide ibalulekile? Izizwe zomthonyama ziselapha kwaye zisesichengeni somgaqo-nkqubo wokubulawa kwabantu. Le ayisiyombali nje eyandulela iNgqungquthela ye-1948 Genocide. Kodwa, imbali ibalulekile kwaye kufuneka isasazwe ngokubanzi, ifakwe kwiitekisi zezikolo zikarhulumente kunye nezibhengezo zenkonzo yoluntu. Imfundiso yokuFumana isengumthetho welizwe. Ukusukela phakathi kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesihlanu ukuya embindini wenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, uninzi lwelizwe elingengowaseYurophu lalawulwa phantsi kweMfundiso yokuFumana, enye yemigaqo yokuqala yomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe oonomonaki baseYurophu ababhengezwa ukuba benze uphando, ukwenza imephu, kunye nokubanga imihlaba esemthethweni. kubantu abangaphandle kweYurophu. Yavela kwibhunga likapopu elakhutshwa ngowe-1455 elavumela ubukhosi bamaPhuthukezi ukuba buthabathe iNtshona Afrika. Emva kohambo lukaColumbus lokuhlola ngolwandle ngowe-1492, exhaswa ngukumkani nokumkanikazi welizwe elalisandulโ ukuzalwa laseSpeyin, omnye upopu wanikezela imvume efanayo eSpeyin. Iingxwabangxwaba phakathi kookumkani bamaPhuthukezi nabaseSpeyin zakhokelela kwiSivumelwano esasungulwa ngupopu saseTordesillas (1494), esathi, ngaphandle kokwahlulahlula umhlaba ngokulinganayo phakathi kobukhosi obubini baseIberia, sacacisa ukuba yimimandla engengomaKristu kuphela eyayiphantsi kwemfundiso yokufunyanwa kwezinto.elinesithoba Le mfundiso apho onke amazwe aseYurophu athembele ngayo yaqala ngokusekwa ngokungenasizathu kunye nokungavisisaniyo kwamalungelo akhethekileyo ookumkani base-Iberia phantsi komthetho we-canon wamaKristu wokwenza amakoloniyali abantu basemzini, kwaye eli lungelo lathatyathwa kamva zezinye iiprojekthi zobukoloniyali baseYurophu. IRiphabhlikhi yaseFransi yasebenzisa esi sixhobo somthetho kwiiprojekthi zayo zenkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba kunye neyeshumi elinesithoba, njengoko yenzayo i-United States eyayisandul' ukuzimela xa yayiqhubeka nolawulo lwamathanga loMntla Merika olwaqalwa yiBritane.
Ngo-1792, kungekudala emva kokusekwa kwe-US, uNobhala weLizwe uThomas Jefferson wathi iMfundiso yokuFumana ephuhliswe ngamazwe aseYurophu yayingumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe osebenza kurhulumente omtsha wase-US. Ngowe-1823 iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States yakhupha isigqibo sayo Johnson v. McIntosh. Ebhalela uninzi, uJaji oyiNtloko uJohn Marshall wabamba ukuba iMfundiso yokuFumana ibingumgaqo osekiweyo womthetho waseYurophu kunye nomthetho wamaNgesi osebenzayo kumathanga aseBritani akuMntla Merika kwaye ukwangumthetho waseUnited States. INkundla yachaza amalungelo awodwa omhlaba afunyanwa lilizwe laseYurophu ngokufunyanwa kwawo: โInto efunyenweyo yanika urhulumente igunya, okanye igunya lakhe, elithe lenziwa, ngokuchasene nabo bonke abanye oorhulumente baseYurophu, isibizo esinokuthi sigqitywe ngurhulumente. ilifa.โ Ngoko ke, โababhaqiโ baseYurophu nabaseMelika baseMelika baye bafumana amalungelo okuba nomhlaba wokwenene kumazwe aBemi Bomthonyama nje ngokutyala iflegi. Amalungelo abantu bomthonyama, ngokwamazwi eNkundla, โayengahoywanga kwaphela; kodwa ngokuyimfuneko, ukusa kumkhamo othile, babebuthathaka.โ Inkundla yahlabela mgama yathi โamalungelo aBemi Bomthonyama okufumana ulongamo olupheleleyo, njengezizwe ezizimeleyo, ayethotyiwe.โ Abantu bomthonyama banokuqhubeka behlala emhlabeni, kodwa isihloko sasihlala kumandla okufumanisa, iUnited States. Esi sigqibo safikelela kwisigqibo sokuba amazwe oMthonyama โzizizwe zasekhaya, ezixhomekeke kuyo.โ
Imfundiso yokuFumana ithathwa njengento eqhelekileyo kangangokuba ayifane ikhankanywe kwimibhalo yembali okanye yezomthetho epapashwe kumazwe aseMerika. IForam yeZizwe eziManyeneyo yeZizwe eziManyeneyo, edibana rhoqo ngonyaka kwiiveki ezimbini, yanikezela iseshoni yayo yonke ye-2012 kwimfundiso.xx Kodwa bambalwa abemi baseMelika abayaziyo le ukuqiniseka yemeko yaBemi bomthonyama eUnited States.
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i UPatrick Wolfe, "I-Settler Colonialism kunye nokupheliswa koMthonyama," Ijenali yoPhando lweGenocide 8, vol. 4 (Disemba 2006), 387.
ii UGary Clayton Anderson, Ukucocwa kohlanga kunye namaIndiya: Ulwaphulo-mthetho olufanele ukuba luhlasele iMelika. (UNorman: IYunivesithi yase-Oklahoma Press, ngo-2014.), 4.
iii โINgqungquthela yokuThintela kunye nokohlwaya uLwaphulo-mthetho lokuBulawa kwabantu, eParis, ngomhla wesi-9 kuDisemba 1948,โ iThala leeNcwadi le-Audiovisual Law of International Law, http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/ha/cppcg/cppcg.html (yafikelelwa ngoDisemba 6, 2012). Bona kwanoJosef L. Kunz, โIngqungquthela YeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo Ngembubhiso,โ Ijenali yaseMelika yoMthetho waMazwe ngaMazwe 43, hayi. 4 (Oktobha 1949) 738โ46.
iv NgoAprili 17, 1873, ecatshulwe kuJohn F. Marszalek, USherman: Umdla weJoni woLawulo (ENew York: I-Free Press, 1992), 379.
v Bona ubungqina bukaPat McLaughlin, uSihlalo worhulumente weStanding Rock Sioux, eFort Yates, eMntla Dakota (ngoMeyi 8, 1976), kwiindibano zeAmerican Indian Policy Review Commission, eyasekwa yiNkongolo kuMthetho kaJanuwari 3, 1975.
vi Bona: Kenneth R. Philp, John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954.
vii UKumkani ucatshulwe kuRoxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Isizwe esikhulu samaSioux: Sihleli kuMgwebo eMelika (Lincoln: IYunivesithi yaseNebraska Press, i-2013), i-156.
viii Ngengxoxo ecacileyo yeniyo-koloniyalizim ngokunxulumene namaIndiya aseMelika kunye nenkqubo yogcino, bona uJoseph Jorgensen, Inkolo yomdaniso weLanga: Amandla kwabangenamandla (Chicago: IYunivesithi yaseChicago Press, i-1977), i-89-146.
ix Kukho imfuduko eqhubekayo ukusuka kwiindawo ezibekelwe indawo ukuya kwizixeko kunye needolophu ezikwimida kunye nokubuyela kwiindawo ezibekelwe indawo, ukuze isiqingatha sabemi baseIndiya nangaliphi na ixesha sibe kude nogcino. Ngokuqhelekileyo, nangona kunjalo, ukufuduka akuyiyo isigxina kwaye kufana nomsebenzi wokufuduka ngaphezu kokufuduka ngokusisigxina. Esi sigqibo sisekelwe kuqwalaselo lwam kunye nakwizifundo ezingapapashwanga zabemi bomthonyama kwiNdawo yaseSan Francisco Bay naseLos Angeles.
x Walter R. Echo-Hawk, Kwiinkundla zoMnqobi (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2010), 77-78.
xi Colin G. Calloway, uphononongo lukaJulian Granberry, IiMelika ezinokuthi zibe: IiNkqubo zeNtlalo yaseMelika yaseMelika ngexesha (Tuscaloosa: IYunivesithi yaseAlabama Press, 2005), Ethnohistory 54, hayi. 1 (Ubusika 2007), 196.
xi UBenjamin Keen, "Ibali eliMhlophe liphinde landwendwelwa," Ukuhlaziywa kweMbali yaseSpain yaseMelika 51 (1971): 353.
xiii Denevan, โIntsomi eNcinci,โ 4โ5.
xi UHenry F. Dobyns, Inani labo liye lancitshiswa: iNative American Population Dynamics eMpuma kuMntla Melika (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press ngentsebenziswano neNewberry Library, 1983), 2. Bona kwa Dobyns, Idemografi yeMbali yaseMelika, kunye noDobyns, โUkuqikelela aBemi bomthonyama baseMerika: uVavanyo lweeNdlela zokuSebenza ngoQikelelo olutsha lweHemispheric,โ I-Anthropology yangoku 7 (1966), 295โ416, kunye nethi โReply,โ 440โ44.
xv UWoodrow Wilson Borah, "iMelika njengeModeli: Impembelelo yeDemographic yoKwandiswa kweYurophu kwiLizwe elingelona elaseYurophu," kwi. Actas y Morรญas XXXV Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Mรฉxico 1962,3 imiqulu. (IsiXeko saseMexico: Umhleli weLibros de Mรฉxico, 1964), 381.
XNUMX UJohn Grenier, Indlela yokuQala yeMfazwe: Ukwenza iMfazwe yaseMelika kwiFrontier, ngo-1607-1814 (ENew York: iCambridge University Press, 2005), 5, 10.
xviii http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/06/25/supreme-court-thwarts-icwa-intent-baby-veronica-case-150103
elinesithoba Robert J. Miller, โUMthetho Wamazwe Ngamazwe WobuKoloniyali: Uhlalutyo Lokuthelekisayo,โ kwinqaku elikhethekileyo elithi โSymposium of International Law in Indigenous Affairs: The Doctrine of Discovery, the United Nations, and the Organization of Americas States,โ kupapasho olukhethekileyo; Lewis kunye noClark Law Review 15, hayi. 4 (Ubusika 2011), 847-922. Bona ngokunjalo Vine Deloria Omnci., Ngokholo oluhle kakhulu ( eSan Francisco: Iincwadi ze-Straight Arrow, 1971), 6โ39; USteven T. Newcomb, Abahedeni kwiLizwe Ledinga: Ukucacisa iMfundiso yokuFumana kobuKristu (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2008).
xx I-Eleventh Session, i-United Nations Permanent Forum kwi-Indigenous Issues, http://social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/UNPFISessions/Eleventh.aspx (ifikeleleke ngo-Oktobha 3, 2013).
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