Xa athe wazithengisa kuwe umzalwana wakho ongumHebhere nokuba ngumHebherekazi, wakukhonza iminyaka emithandathu; wothi ngomnyaka wesixhenxe umndulule ekhululekile kuwe. Xa uthe wamndulula ekhululekile kuwe, uze ungamndululi elambatha; womnika ngesisa empahleni yakho emfutshane, nasesandeni sakho, nasesixovulelweni sakho;OKANYE uThixo wakho ukusikelele uze umnike. Uze ukhumbule ukuba ube ulikhoboka ezweni laseYiputa, uYehovaOKANYE uThixo wakho wakukhulula ngentlawulelo; ngenxa yoko ndikuwisela umthetho ngale nto namhla.
โ Duteronomi 15:12-15
Ngaphandle kolwaphulo-mthetho olubandakanya ukwaphula umthetho, kunye nokwahluka kumgaqo ochanekileyo wengqiqo, apho umntu ukuza kuthi ga ngoku esihla, aze azixelele ukuba uyayishiya imigaqo yendalo yomntu, kwaye usisidalwa esikhohlakeleyo, kukho ukwenzakala kukholisa ukwenziwa umntu othile, nokuba nguwuphi na, omnye umntu wonelwa sikreqo sakhe; ekubeni ke lowo ufumene umonakalo, unelungelo elingaphezu kwesohlwayo esikunye naye, libe nelungelo elikhethekileyo lokufuna imbuyekezo.
-UJohn Locke, "Unyango Lwesibini"
Ngokusebenza kwethu esingahlawulelwayo kunye nokubandezeleka, siye sazuza ilungelo lomhlaba, amaxesha amaninzi ngokuphindaphindiweyo, kwaye ngoku sizimisele ukuba nawo.
-Ongaziwayo, ngo-1861
I. "Ke Leyo Yenye Nje Yelahleko Zam"
CU-lyde Ross wazalwa ngo-1923, ongowesixhenxe kubantwana abali-13, kufutshane ne-Clarksdale, eMississippi, kwikhaya leeblues. Abazali bakaRoss babengabanini kwaye balima umhlaba oziihektare ezingama-40, ugungxulwa ziinkomo, iihagu, kunye neemeyile. Unina kaRoss wayeya kuqhuba eClarksdale ukuba amthengele kwihashe kunye ne-buggy, apho watyala khona yonke ikratshi elinokuthi libekwe kwiCadillac. Le ntsapho yayinelinye ihashe, nedyasi ebomvu, eyalinika uClyde. Intsapho yakwaRoss yayifuna okuncinci, ngaphandle koko zonke iintsapho ezimnyama kwi-Deep South zazifuna kakhulu-ukukhuselwa komthetho.
Ngeminyaka yee-1920, uJim Crow Mississippi waye, kuzo zonke iinkalo zoluntu, ikleptocracy. Uninzi lwabantu baseburhulumenteni luphangiwe ngokuqhubekayo ivoti-ukuqweqwediswa okwenziwe ngobuqhetseba berhafu ye-poll kunye nesihlunu se-lynch mob. Phakathi kuka-1882 no-1968, abantu abantsundu abaninzi bagxothwa e-Mississippi kunalo naliphi na elinye ilizwe. โMna nawe siyayazi ukuba yeyiphi eyona ndlela yokuthintela umntu ongavotiyo,โ watsho uTheodore Bilbo, uSenator waseMississippi kunye neKlansman enebhongo. "Uyenza ngobusuku obungaphambi konyulo."
Urhulumente wombuso ubambisene nokuphanga i-franchise kunye nokuphanga isikhwama. Uninzi lwamafama amnyama aseMississippi ahlala ematyaleni, phantsi kolawulo lookumkani bomqhaphu ababengabanini-mhlaba, abaqeshi babo, kunye nabarhwebi babo bokuqala. Izixhobo kunye nezinto eziyimfuneko ziye zaphuculwa xa kuthelekiswa nembuyekezo yesityalo, eyamiselwa ngumqeshi. Xa abalimi babegqalwa njengabasematyaleniโkwaye amaxesha amaninzi babenjaloโibhalansi engalunganga yayigqithiselwa kwixesha lonyaka elilandelayo. Indoda okanye ibhinqa elalichasa eli lungiselelo lalizibeka esichengeni sokwenzakala okanye ukufa. Ukwala ukusebenza kwakuthetha ukubanjwa phantsi kwemithetho yokungakhathali nokusebenza ngenkani phantsi kwenkqubo yezohlwayo karhulumente.
Ukuza kuthi ga kwinkulungwane yama-20, abantu abantsundu bathetha ngokubaleka kwabo eMississippi ngendlela efanayo nookhokho babo ababalekayo. Kwincwadi yakhe ka-2010, Ukufudumala Kweminye Ilanga, U-Isabel Wilkerson ubalisa ibali lika-Eddie Earvin, umkhethi wesipinatshi owabaleka e-Mississippi ngo-1963, emva kokuba enziwe ukuba asebenze ngompu. โAwuthethanga ngayo okanye awuxelelanga mntu,โ watsho uEarvin. "Kwafuneka ubaleke."
Xa uClyde Ross wayesengumntwana, abasemagunyeni baseMississippi bathi uyise wayetyala i-$ 3,000 kwiirhafu zangasemva. Umdala uRoss wayengakwazi ukufunda. Wayengenalo igqwetha. Wayengazi mntu kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni. Wayengalindelanga ukuba amapolisa angakhethi buso. Ngokufanelekileyo, intsapho yakwaRoss yayingenayo indlela yokuphikisa ibango kwaye akukho khuselo phantsi komthetho. Abasemagunyeni bawuhlutha umhlaba. Bayibamba inqwelo. Athabatha iinkomo, iihagu, neemeyile. Ke ngoko kukugcinwa okwahlukeneyo kodwa ngokulinganayo, usapho lonke lwakwaRoss lwancitshiswa lwabelwa.
Oku kwakungeyonto ingaqhelekanga. Ngo-2001, i-Associated Press yapapasha uphando olunamacandelo amathathu malunga nokubiwa komhlaba wabantu abantsundu ukususela kwixesha le-antebellum. Olu ngcelele lwabonisa amaxhoba angama-406 kunye neehektare ezingama-24,000 zomhlaba oxabisa amashumi ezigidi zeerandi. Umhlaba wathatyathwa ngeendlela ezisusela kubugcisa obusemthethweni ukuya kubugrogrisi. "Eminye imihlaba ethatyathwe kwiintsapho ezimnyama iye yaba yiklabhu yelizwe eVirginia," i-AP yabika, kunye "namabala e-oyile e-Mississippi" kunye "nendawo yokuqeqesha i-baseball spring eFlorida."
UClyde Ross wayengumntwana okrelekrele. Utitshala wakhe wacinga ukuba ufanele aye kwisikolo esilucelomngeni ngakumbi. Ibincinci inkxaso yokufundisa abantu abamnyama eMississippi. Kodwa uJulius Rosenwald, umnini weSears, Roebuck, wayeqalise iinzame zamabhongo zokwakha izikolo zabantwana abamnyama kuwo wonke uMzantsi. Utitshala kaRoss wayekholelwa ukuba kufuneka aye kwisikolo saseRosenwald. Kwakukude kakhulu ukuba uRoss ahambe aze abuyele kwangethuba ukuze asebenze emasimini. Abantwana basekuhlaleni abamhlophe babenebhasi yesikolo. UClyde Ross akazange, kwaye ngaloo ndlela waphulukana nethuba lokuphucula imfundo yakhe.
Kwandula ke, xa uRoss wayeneminyaka eli-10 ubudala, iqela lamadoda amhlophe lafuna ekuphela kwento awayenayo yobuntwanaโihashe elinedyasi ebomvu. โAwunakuba nalo eli hashe. Siyayifuna,โ watsho omnye wabamhlophe. Banika uyise kaRoss i-17 yeedola.
โNdenze yonke into ngelo hashe,โ watsho uRoss kum. โYonke into. Bamthabatha ke. Mbeke kumzila womdyarho. Andizange ndiyazi ukuba kwenzeka ntoni kuye emva koko, kodwa ndiyazi ukuba abazange bambuyise. Ke leyo yenye yeelahleko zam.โ
Ilahleko yonyuka. Njengabanini-zabelo, usapho lakwaRoss lwabona umvuzo walo uphathwa njengengxowa-mali yenkunkuma yomnini-mhlaba. Abanini-mhlaba bekufanele ukuba bohlule iingeniso ezivela kumasimi womqhaphu kunye nabezabelo. Kodwa iibhali zihlala zinyamalala ngexesha lokubala, okanye ukwahlukana kunokutshintshwa ngokukhawuleza. Ukuba umqhaphu wawuthengiswa ngeesenti ezingama-50 ngeponti, intsapho yakwaRoss yayinokufumana iisenti ezili-15, okanye ezintlanu kuphela. Ngomnye unyaka umama kaRoss wamthembisa ngokumthengela isuti yeedola ezisi-7 kwinkqubo yasehlotyeni ecaweni yabo. Waodola isuti ngeposi. Kodwa ngaloo nyaka intsapho kaRoss yahlawulwa kuphela iisenti ezintlanu ngeponti yomqhaphu. Imeyile yafika iphethe isuti. AbakwaRos babengakwazi ukuhlawula. Isuti yabuyiselwa emva. UClyde Ross akazange aye kwiprogram yecawa.
Kwakukule minyaka yokuqala awathi uRoss waqalisa ukuziqonda njengomntu waseMerikaโakazange aphile phantsi komyalelo oyimfama wobulungisa, kodwa phantsi kwesithende sorhulumente owaphakamisa ukuphanga okuxhobileyo kumgaqo olawulayo. Wacinga ngokulwa. โYithi cwaka nje,โ watsho uyise. โKuba baya kuza basibulale sonke.โ
UClyde Ross wakhula. Wabizelwa eMkhosini. Amagosa athi ayeza kumkhulula ukuba angahlala ekhaya aze asebenze. Wakhetha ukuthatha amathuba akhe emfazwe. Wayehlala eCalifornia. Wafumanisa ukuba angangena ezivenkileni ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa. Wayekwazi ukuhamba ezitratweni ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa. Wayenokungena kwindawo yokutyela aze afumane inkonzo.
URoss wathunyelwa ngenqanawa eGuam. Walwa kwiMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi ukuze asindise ihlabathi kubuzwilakhe. Kodwa xa ebuyela eClarksdale, wafumanisa ukuba inkohlakalo imlandele ukugoduka. Kwakungowe-1947, iminyaka esibhozo ngaphambi kokuba u-Mississippi ahlasele u-Emmett Till kwaye wawuphosa umzimba wakhe owaphukileyo kuMlambo iTallahatchie. IMfuduko Enkulu, imfuduko enkulu yabantu abazizigidi ezi-6 base-Afrika baseMelika eyathatha uninzi lwenkulungwane yama-20, ngoku yayikwizaza zayo zesibini. Abahambi ngezonqulo abantsundu abazange bahambe baye ngasentla befuna nje umvuzo ongcono kunye nomsebenzi, okanye izibane eziqaqambileyo kunye neehambo ezinkulu. Babebaleka oongqwayingqwayi baseMzantsi. Babefuna ukukhuselwa ngumthetho.
UClyde Ross wayephakathi kwabo. Weza eChicago ngo-1947 waza wathatha umsebenzi wokungcamla eCampbell's Soup. Wenza umvuzo ozinzileyo. Watshata. Wayenabantwana. Umvuzo wakhe wawungowakhe. No Klansmen wamhlutha ivoti. Uthe xa esihla ngestrato akanyanzelekanga ukuba ashukume kuba kwakudlula umlungu. Kwakungeyomfuneko ukuba akhulule umnqwazi okanye athintele amehlo akhe. Uhambo lwakhe ukusuka kulutsha ukuya ekubeni ngummi ogcweleyo lwalubonakala lusondele. Inye kuphela into eyayilahlekileโikhaya, loo bheji yokugqibela yokungena kumyalelo ongcwele wodidi oluphakathi lwaseMelika kwiminyaka ye-Eisenhower.
Ngo-1961, uRoss kunye nenkosikazi yakhe bathenga indlu kuMntla Lawndale, indawo ephithizelayo kwindawo yaseChicago eWest Side. INorth Lawndale yayisele ingummelwane wamaYuda ubukhulu becala, kodwa iqaqobana labantu base-Afrika baseMelika babehlala apho ukususela ngeminyaka yee-40s. Uluntu lwaluzinziswe yiSears, ikomkhulu laseRoebuck. IZiko lamaJuda laseNorth Lawndale lakhuthaza abantu abantsundu ukuba bafudukele elumelwaneni, befuna ukulenza libe โyindawo yokulinga ukuphila kwabantu beentlanga ezahlukeneyo.โ Kwidabi lomanyano elalisiliwa ngelo xesha kulo lonke elo lizwe, uMntla Lawndale wabonakala unomhlaba omhle. Kodwa phandle engceni ende, oohola bendlela, abakhohlakele njengayo nayiphi na ikleptocrat yaseClarksdale, babelalele.
Kwiinyanga ezintathu emva kokuba uClyde Ross efudukele endlwini yakhe, ibhoyili yaphuma. Oku kuya kuba luxanduva lomninimzi, kodwa eneneni, uRoss wayengenguye umninimzi. Iintlawulo zakhe zenziwe kumthengisi, kungekhona ibhanki. Kwaye uRoss akazange asayine i-mortgage eqhelekileyo. Wayethenge โngemvumelwanoโ: isivumelwano soburhalarhume esidibanisa lonke uxanduva lobunini-ndlu kunye nazo zonke izinto ezingeloncedo zokurentaโngelixa enikezela ngeenzuzo zazo zombini. URoss wayethenge indlu yakhe ngee-$27,500. Umthengisi, ingenguye umninimzi wangaphambili kodwa uhlobo olutsha lomntu ophakathi, wayeyithenge nge-12,000 yeedola kuphela kwiinyanga ezintandathu ngaphambi kokuba ayithengisele uRoss. Kwisivumelwano sokuthengisa, umthengisi wagcina isivumelwano de isivumelwano sihlawulwe ngokupheleleyo-kwaye, ngokungafaniyo ne-mortgage eqhelekileyo, uRoss akayi kufumana i-equity okwangoku. Ukuba uye waphoswa yintlawulo enye, ngoko nangoko wayeza kuphulukana nentlawulo yakhe yee-R1,000 XNUMX, yonke imali awayeyihlawula nyanga nganye, kunye nesakhiwo ngokwaso.
Amadoda arhweba ngezivumelwano kuMntla Lawndale ayethengisa izindlu ngamaxabiso anyusiweyo aze azigxothe iintsapho ezazingakwazi ukuhlawulaโethabatha intlawulo yazo nezavenge zazo zenyanga njengengeniso. Emva koko babeza kuzisa olunye usapho lwabantsundu, bahlambe, baphinde. Unobhala weofisi wathi: โUbalayisha ngeentlawulo abangakwaziyo ukuzihlawula Iindaba zeDaily zaseChicagoyomphathi wakhe, umqapheli uLou Fushanis, ngo-1963. โEmva koko ubahlutha ipropati. Ezinye zezakhiwo uzithengise izihlandlo ezithathu okanye ezine.โ
URoss uzame ukufumana i-mortgage esemthethweni kwenye indawo, kodwa waxelelwa ligosa lemali-mboleko ukuba akukho mali ekhoyo. Inyaniso yayikukuba kwakungekho nkxaso-mali kubantu abafana noClyde Ross. Ukusukela ngeminyaka yoo-1930 ukuya koo-1960, abantu abantsundu kwilizwe lonke baye banqunyulwa kakhulu kwimarike yemali-mboleko yezindlu ngokusetyenziswa kwezomthetho nezingekho mthethweni. Abamhlophe baseChicago basebenzise yonke imilinganiselo, ukusuka โkwiminqophiso ethintelayoโ ukuya kuqhushumbisi, ukugcina iindawo abahlala kuzo zahluliwe.
Iinzame zabo zomelezwa ngurhulumente womanyano. Ngowe-1934, iCongress yenza i-Federal Housing Administration. I-FHA yaqinisekisa ukuba imali mboleko yabucala, ebangela ukuhla kwenzala kunye nokwehla kobungakanani bentlawulo ephantsi efunekayo ukuthenga indlu. Kodwa i-inshurensi ye-inshurensi yayingenakwenzeka kuClyde Ross. I-FHA yamkele inkqubo yeemephu ezilinganisa ubumelwane ngokozinzo olubonwayo. Kwiimephu, iindawo eziluhlaza, ezilinganiswe "A," zibonise iindawo "ezifunwayo" ukuba, njengoko omnye umvavanyi watshoyo, wayengenawo "umphambukeli omnye okanye iNegro." Le mimandla yayigqalwa njengethemba elihle kakhulu le-inshurensi. Abamelwane apho abantu abantsundu babehlala khona balinganiswe "D" kwaye bahlala bejongwa njengabangafanelanga ukuxhaswa yiFHA. Zazinemibala ebomvu. Ayinamsebenzi nepesenteji yabantu abamnyama abahlala apho okanye umgangatho wabo wentlalo. Abantu abantsundu babejongwa njengosulelo. I-Redlining yahamba ngaphaya kweemali-mboleko ezixhaswa yi-FHA kwaye yasasazeka kulo lonke ishishini le-mortgage, eyayisele igcwele ubuhlanga, ngaphandle kwabantu abamnyama kwiindlela ezininzi ezisemthethweni zokufumana imali mboleko.
"Urhulumente onika isibonelelo esinjalo kubakhi kunye nababolekisi bekunokufuna ukuthotyelwa komgaqo-nkqubo wokungacaluli," uCharles Abrams, ingcali yezifundo zasezidolophini eyanceda ukudala i-New York City Housing Authority, wabhala ngo-1955. "Endaweni yoko, i-FHA yamkela ubuhlanga umgaqo-nkqubo owawunokupheliswa kwimithetho yaseNuremberg.โ
Iziphumo ezibi zichazwe kakuhle nguMelvin L. Oliver noThomas M. Shapiro kwincwadi yabo yowe-1995, Ubutyebi Obumnyama/Ubutyebi Abamhlophe:
Ukuvalelwa ngaphandle kwelona thuba libalaseleyo lokuqokelelwa kobutyebi kwimbali yaseMelika, abantu base-Afrika baseMelika ababenqwenela nabakwaziyo ukuhlawulela ubunini bamakhaya bazifumana sele bethunyelwe kuluntu olusembindini wedolophu apho utyalo-mali lwabo lwachatshazelwa โziziprofeto zokuzizalisekisaโ Abavandlakanyo be-FHA: banqanyulwe kwimithombo yotyalo-mali olutsha[,] amakhaya abo kunye noluntu baye bawohloka kwaye baphulukana nexabiso xa kuthelekiswa naloo makhaya kunye noluntu abavavanyi be-FHA babona lunqweneleka.
EChicago nakwilizwe lonke, abamhlophe abajonge ukufezekisa iphupha laseMelika banokuthembela kwinkqubo yetyala esemthethweni exhaswa ngurhulumente. Abantsundu balahlelwa kumbono wababolekisi abanganyanisekanga ababebathathela imali nemidlalo. โKwakunje ngabantu abathanda ukuphuma baye kudubula iingonyama eAfrika. Yayilulonwabo olufanayo, โigqwetha lezindlu lixelele umbhali-mbali uBeryl Satter kwincwadi yakhe ka-2009, Iipropati zoSapho. "Ulonwabo lokuleqa kunye nokubulala."
Kodwa ukulwa noClyde Ross wenza. Ngo-1968 wajoyina iContract Buyers League eyayisandulโ ukusekwaโingqokelela yabaninimzi abantsundu kuMazantsi e-Chicago naseWest Sides, bonke ababevaleleke kwinkqubo efanayo yokuphangwa. Kwakukho uHowell Collins, onkontileka yakhe yayifuna ukuba ahlawule ii-$25,500 14,500 zendlu eyayithengwe ngumhloli wee-$XNUMX XNUMX. Kwakukho uRuth Wells, owakwazi ukuhlawula isiqingatha sekhontrakthi yakhe, elindele ukubolekwa imali, wasuka wabona i-inshorensi ye-inshurensi iphuma emoyeni-imfuneko umthengisi wayongezelele ngaphandle kolwazi lukaWells. Abathengisi bekhontrakthi basebenzisa zonke izixhobo abanazo ukuze bahluthe abathengi babo. Boyikisa abahlali abamhlophe ukuba bathengise okuphantsi. Baxoka malunga nokuthotyelwa kwezakhiwo kunye neekhowudi zokwakha, emva koko bashiya umthengi enoxanduva xa abahloli besixeko befika. Baziveza njengabathengisi bezindlu, kanti enyanisweni yayingabanikazi. Bakhokele abathengi babo kumagqwetha awayekho kule nkqubo.
I-Contract Buyers League yazilwela. Amalunguโayeya kuthi ekugqibeleni abe ngaphezu kwama-500โaphuma esiya kwiindawo ezichumileyo apho babehlala khona abo baqikelelwayo baza abahlazisa ngokunkqonkqoza kwiminyango yabamelwane bawo bebazisa ngeenkcukacha zorhwebo lokubolekisa ngemali. Balile ukuhlawula izavenge zabo, endaweni yoko babambe iintlawulo zenyanga kwi-akhawunti ye-escrow. Bandula ke bamangalela abathengisi bekhontrakthi, bebatyhola ngokuthenga iipropati baze baphinde bathengise kwakhona ngaloo ndlela โukuze bafumane ingeniso enkulu nengekho sikweni kumalungu ohlanga lwamaNegro.โ
Ukubuyisela โukuvinjwa kwamalungelo kunye namalungelo abo phantsi koLungiso lweshumi elinesithathu kunye neleshumi elinesine,โ lo mbutho wafuna โimithandazo yokucela isiqabuโโimbuyekezo yazo zonke iimali ezihlawulwe kwiikhontrakthi nazo zonke iimali ezihlawulwe ukuze kuphuculwe izakhiwo nezakhiwo, ngenzala yesi-6 ekhulwini. ixabiso lerenti โelilungileyo, elingacaluliyoโ ngexesha lomsebenzi. Ngaphezu koko, eli qela licele inkundla ukuba ibagwebe abamangalelwa โbenze ngabom nangolunya yaye ubungendawo ngundoqo wesi senzo.โ
URoss kunye neContract Buyers League babengasabheneli kurhulumente nje ngokulingana. Babengasabaleki ngethemba lokufumana okulungileyo kwenye indawo. Babemangalela uluntu ngolwaphulo-mthetho kuluntu lwabo. Babefuna ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho lulawuleke ekuhleni. Babefuna ukuba abo baphumeza olu lwaphulo-mthetho babhengezwe njengabakhubekisayo eluntwini. Kwaye babefuna imbuyekezo ngenxa yokwenzakala okukhulu okuziswe phezu kwabo ngaboni. Ngo-1968, uClyde Ross kunye neContract Buyers League babengasafuni nje ukukhuselwa ngumthetho. Babefuna imbuyekezo.
II. โUmahluko Wohlobo, Hayi Isidangaโ
Ngokweenkcukacha-manani zakutsha nje, uMntla Lawndale ngoku ukwisiphelo esingalunganga phantse kuzo zonke izalathi zentlalo noqoqosho. Ngowe-1930 abemi bayo babengama-112,000. Namhlanje angama-36,000. Intetho ye-halcyon "yokuphila phakathi kweentlanga" ifile. Abamelwane bangama-92 ekhulwini abantu abamnyama. Umlinganiselo wokubulawa kwayo ngama-45 kwabali-100,000 14โuphinda kathathu umlinganiselo weso sixeko siphela. Umlinganiselo wokufa kweentsana uli-1,000 kwabali-1987 1,800โngaphezu kokuwuphinda kabini umlinganiselo welizwe lonke. Amashumi amane anesithathu ekhulwini abantu baseNorth Lawndale bahlala ngaphantsi komgca wentlupheko-ixabiso eliphindwe kabini laseChicago. Amakhaya angamashumi amane anesihlanu ekhulwini akwizitampu zokutyaโphantse ukuwuphinda kathathu umlinganiselo wesixeko ngokubanzi. Sears, uRoebuck wayishiya loo ngingqi ngo-XNUMX, ethatha imisebenzi eli-XNUMX ngayo. Abantwana baseMantla eLawndale akufuneki babhideke ngamathemba abo: Iziko lokuvalelwa kwabaselula laseCook County lihlala kufutshane ngqo nommelwane.
INorth Lawndale ngumfanekiso ogqithileyo weendlela ezigulisa iChicago emnyama. Bunjalo ke ubungangamsha bezi zigulo kunokuthiwa abantsundu nabamhlophe abahlali kwisixeko esinye. Umndilili wengeniso yomntu ngamnye kwindawo emhlophe yaseChicago iphantse yaphinda kathathu leyo yeendawo ezihlala abantu abamnyama. Xa isazi sezentlalo saseHarvard uRobert J. Sampson wavavanya amazinga okuvalelwa eChicago kwincwadi yakhe ka-2012, IsiXeko esikhulu saseMelika, wafumanisa ukuba ummandla omnyama onomnye wezinga eliphezulu lokuvalelwa (i-West Garfield Park) inezinga elingaphezu kwamaxesha angama-40 ngaphezu kwendawo emhlophe enezinga eliphezulu (Ukucoca). โLo ngumahluko omangalisayo, nakuthelekiso loluntu,โ ubhala watsho uSampson. "Umahluko wohlobo, hayi isidanga."
Ngamanye amazwi, iindawo ezihlwempuzekileyo zaseChicago-eziphawulwa kukungaqeshwa okuphezulu kunye nemizi ekhokelwa ngabazali abangenamaqabane-ayiyo ihlwempu; โzahlukene ngokwendalo.โ Oku โakuyonto ifana nje nokuba imeko yezoqoqosho iphantsi,โ ubhala athi uSampson. "Kule pateni iChicago ayiyedwa."
Ubomi babantu abamnyama baseMelika bungcono kunokuba babunjalo kwisiqingatha senkulungwane eyadlulayo. Ukuthotywa kweempawu zeWhites Kuphela azikho. Amazinga entlupheko yabantsundu ehlile. Amazinga okukhulelwa kwabakwishumi elivisayo abamnyama akwirekhodi esezantsi-kwaye umsantsa phakathi kwamazinga akhulelwa kwabakwishumi elivisayo abamnyama nabamhlophe wehlile kakhulu. Kodwa inkqubela enjalo ixhomekeke kwisiseko esixengaxengayo, kwaye iimpazamo zikuyo yonke indawo. Umsantsa wemivuzo phakathi kwamakhaya abantu abantsundu nabamhlophe uphantse wafana nanamhlanje njengoko wawunjalo ngowe-1970. UPatrick Sharkey, isazi ngezentlalo yoluntu kwiYunivesithi yaseNew York, wahlolisisa abantwana abazalwa ukususela ngowe-1955 ukusa kowe-1970 waza wafumanisa ukuba isi-4 ekhulwini sabamhlophe nama-62 ekhulwini kwabantsundu kulo lonke elaseMerika. bakhulele kwiindawo ezihluphekayo. Isizukulwana kamva, isifundo esifanayo sabonisa, akukho nto itshintshileyo. Kwaye nangona abamhlophe abazalelwa kwiindawo ezifumileyo babedla ngokuhlala kwiindawo ezifumileyo, abantsundu babedla ngokuphuma kuzo.
Ayimangalisi loo nto. Iintsapho zabantsundu, nokuba zirhola kangakanani na, azityebi kangako kuneentsapho zabamhlophe. IZiko loPhando lePew liqikelela ukuba amakhaya abamhlophe axabisa ngokuphindwe kangangama-20 kunalawo ahlala abantu abantsundu, kwaye nangona i-15 lepesenti kuphela yabamhlophe abanobutyebi obungenaziro okanye obungalunganga, ngaphezu kwesithathu sabantsundu. Ngokufanelekileyo, intsapho emnyama eMelika isebenza ngaphandle komnatha wokhuseleko. Xa kuvela ingxaki yemaliโimeko engxamisekileyo yezonyango, uqhawulo-mtshato, ukuphelelwa ngumsebenziโukuwa kakhulu.
Kwaye njengokuba iintsapho ezintsundu zayo yonke imivuzo zihlala zikhubazekile ngenxa yokunqongophala kobutyebi, ngokunjalo zihlala zikhubazekile kukhetho lwazo oluthintelweyo lwendawo yokuhlala. Abantu abamnyama abanemivuzo yodidi oluphezulu abadli ngokuhlala kwiindawo ezikumgangatho ophakathi. Uphando lukaSharkey lubonisa ukuba iintsapho zabantsundu zenza i-100,000 yeedola zihlala kwiintlobo zeendawo ezihlala iintsapho ezimhlophe zenza i-30,000 yeedola. USharkey ubhala athi: โAbantsundu nabamhlophe bahlala kwiindawo ezahlukeneyo kangangokuba akunakwenzeka ukuthelekisa iziphumo zoqoqosho zabantwana abamnyama nabamhlophe.โ
Iziphumo ziyamangalisa. Njengomthetho, abantu abantsundu abahluphekayo abasebenzi indlela yabo yokuphuma kwi-ghetto-kwaye abo bahlala bejongana noloyiko lokubukela abantwana babo nabazukulwana bebuyela emva.
Kwanobungqina obubonakalayo benkqubela buyabuna phantsi kokukhanya okukrakra. Ngo-2012, i-Manhattan Institute yaphawula ngovuyo ukuba ucalucalulo lwehlile ukusukela ngeminyaka yoo-1960. Kwaye nangona kunjalo ama-Afrika aseMelika ahlala-ngokude-elona qela lahlulelene kakhulu elizweni.
Ngokucalucalula, kunye nokubekwa bodwa kwabenzakeleyo nabaphangiweyo, kuza ukugxininiswa kokungalungi. IMelika engacamanga inokubona intlupheko, nazo zonke iziphumo zayo, zisasazeke kulo lonke ilizwe ngaphandle komkhethe kumbala wolusu. Endaweni yoko, intlupheko idibene ne-melanin. Oku kutshiswa komlilo kuye kwabangela umonakalo omkhulu.
Omnye umsonto wokucinga kuluntu lwase-Afrika yaseMelika lubambe ukuba la manani acinezelayo ngokuyinxenye asuka kwipathologies yenkcubeko enokuguqulwa ngegrit yomntu kunye nokuziphatha okuhle kakhulu. (Ngo-2011, uSodolophu waseFiladelphia uMichael Nutter, ephendula kubundlobongela obuphakathi kwamadoda amnyama aselula, wabeka ityala kusapho: โManinzi amadoda enza iintsana ezininzi angafuni ukubahoya, emva koko sigqibe kwelokuba sijongane nentsapho yakho. abantwana.โ UNutter waphethukela kwezo ntsana zingenayise ekucingeleka ukuba: โNxibelelani iibhulukhwe zenu phezulu nize nithenge ibhanti, kuba akukho mntu ufuna ukubona isinxibo sakho sangaphantsi okanye ukuqhekeka kwempundu.โ) Lo msonto umdala njengezopolitiko ngokwazo. Kukwaphosakele. Uhlobo localucalulo lokucalula abantu abantsundu ngokuzingileyo alunakuze loyiswe ngokwenza amaxhoba alo ahlonipheke ngakumbi. Undoqo wobuhlanga baseMelika kukungabi nantlonipho. Kwaye ngenxa yamanani amanyumnyezi, sibona ilifa elibi.
Isuti yeContract Buyers League iziswe nguClyde Ross kunye namahlakani akhe bajonge ngqo kweli lifa. Isuti yayisekelwe kwimbali ende yaseChicago yocalucalulo, eyadala iimarike zezindlu ezimbini-enye isemthethweni kwaye ixhaswa ngurhulumente, enye ingenamthetho kwaye igadiwe ngamarhamncwa. Ityala liye latsala de kwangowe-1976, xa iligi yaphulukana nenkundla yamatyala. Ukufumana ukhuseleko olulinganayo lomthetho kwabonakala kunzima; ukufumana imbuyekezo kwabonakala kungenakwenzeka. Ukuba kukho nawaphi na amathandabuzo malunga nemeko yejaji, umphathi-nkundla wabasusa ngokuthi, xa ebuzwa ngesi sigwebo, ukuba wayenethemba lokuba siya kunceda ukuphelisa โingxubakaxaka ka-Earl Warren ayenzileyo. IBrown v. IBhodi yeMfundo nabo bonke obo bubhanxa.โ
INkundla ePhakamileyo ibonakala ivakalelwa ngaloo ndlela. Kule minyaka ingamashumi amabini idlulileyo ibone ukubuyiswa kowiso-mthetho olunenkqubela phambili lweminyaka yee-1960. Abakhululekileyo bazibone bekwindlela yokuzikhusela. Ngo-2008, xa uBarack Obama wayengumongameli, wabuzwa ukuba ngaba iintombi zakhe-uMalia noSasha-kufuneka baxhamle kwisenzo sokuqinisekisa. Uphendule ngelingeni.
Utshintshiselwano lwaluxhomekeke kuthelekiso oluyimpazamo losapho oluqhelekileyo lwaseMelika kunye nosapho lokuqala olukhethekileyo. Kukhuphiswano lokunyukela phezulu, uBarack noMichelle Obama baphumelele. Kodwa baphumelele ngokulunga ngokuphindwe kabiniโnokunyamezela ngokuphindwe kabini. UMalia noSasha Obama banandipha amalungelo angaphaya kwamaphupha aqhelekileyo omntwana omhlophe. Kodwa olo luthelekiso aluphelelanga. Owona mbuzo ubalulekileyo ngowokuba bathelekisa njani noJenna noBarbara Bushโimveliso yezizukulwana ezininzi zamalungelo, hayi nje enye. Nokuba yeyiphi na into eyenziwa ngabantwana baka-Obama, iya kuba bubungqina bokunyamezela kosapho lwabo, hayi ukulingana okubanzi.
III. โSilidla ilifa Ilifa Lethu Okwaneleyoโ
Ngo-1783, ibhinqa elikhululekileyo u-Belinda Royall wacela i-commonwealth yaseMassachusetts ukuba ibuyiselwe. UBelinda wazalelwa eGhana yanamhlanje. Waxhwilwa esengumntwana waza wathengiswa ebukhobokeni. Wanyamezela iPasiji ePhakathi kunye neminyaka engama-50 yobukhoboka ezandleni zika-Isaac Royall kunye nonyana wakhe. Kodwa iRoyall encinci, i-Bhritane ethembekileyo, yabaleka ilizwe ngexesha leRevolution. U-Belinda, ngoku okhululekileyo emva kwesiqingatha senkulungwane yokusebenza, wabongoza indlu yowiso-mthetho yaseMassachusetts:
Ubuso bomceli wakho, ngoku buphawulwe ngeefolo zexesha, kunye nokwakheka kwakhe kugoba phantsi kwengcinezelo yeminyaka, ngelixa yena, ngeMithetho yeLizwe, walelwa ukuqeshwa kweqhekeza elinye lobo butyebi bukhulu, ngaphandle kwabo. uqokelelwe yishishini lakhe, kwaye yonke yongezwa bubukhoboka bakhe.
Ke ngoko, ezilahlela ezinyaweni zakho, ukuba imbeko yakho, njengomzimba wamadoda, eyenzelwe ukugxothwa kwe-vassage, umvuzo weSidima, kunye nokubuyiswa okufanelekileyo kweshishini elithembekileyo-uyathandaza, ukuba isibonelelo esinjalo sikhutshwe. we Estate of Colonel Royall, njengoko kuya kumthintela, kunye nentombi yakhe ebuthathaka ngakumbi, kwintlupheko enkulu kakhulu, kwaye uchithachithe intuthuzelo phezu indlela emfutshane kunye ezantsi ubomi babo.
U-Belinda Royall wanikwa ipenshoni ye-15 yeeponti kunye ne-12 yesheleni, ukuba ihlawulwe kwi-estate ka-Isaac Royall-enye yeenzame zokuqala eziphumeleleyo zokucela imbuyekezo. Ngelo xesha, abantu abantsundu eMelika babenyamezele iminyaka engaphezu kwe-150 yobukhoboka, kwaye ingcamango yokuba banokuba netyala lembuyekezo yayingeyomvisiswano wesizwe, ubuncinane yayingekho ngqiqweni.
IQuaker John Woolman ngowe-1769 yabhala: โKukho ingxelo enzima kuthi njengebutho labantu ngokucinezelwa kwabantu abangazange basenzakalise, yaye ukuba ityala elithile labantu abaninzi belichazwe ngokufanelekileyo, bekuya kubonakala ngathi bekunokuthethwa. yayinkulu ngenxa yabo.โ
Njengoko umbhali-mbali uRoy E. Finkenbine ebhaliwe, ekuqaleni kweli lizwe, ukulungiswa kwabamnyama kwakucatshangelwa ngenkuthalo kwaye kaninzi kwenziwa. AmaQuaker eNew York, eNew England naseBaltimore ade enze โubulungu buxhomekeke ekubuyekezeni abo babefudula bengamakhoboka.โ Ngowe-1782, iQuaker Robert Pleasants yakhulula amakhoboka ayo angama-78, yawanika iihektare ezingama-350, yaye kamva yakha isikolo kumhlaba wawo yaza yalungiselela imfundo yawo. I<em>Pleasants yabhala: โUkwenziwa koku okusesikweni kwabo benzakeleyo baseAfrika, bekuya kuba ngumnikelo owamkelekileyo kulowo โUlawula ebukumkanini babantu.โ โ
U-Edward Coles, i-protegรฉ kaThomas Jefferson owaba ngumnikazi wamakhoboka ngenxa yelifa, wathabatha amaninzi amakhoboka akhe emantla waza wawanika umhlaba e-Illinois. UJohn Randolph, umzala kaJefferson's, wanqwenela ukuba onke amakhoboka akhe akhululwe ekufeni kwakhe, kwaye bonke abo baneminyaka engaphezu kwama-40 banikwe iihektare ezili-10 zomhlaba. URandolph wabhala wathi: โNdiwanika yaye ndidlulisela kuwo onke amakhoboka am inkululeko yawo, ndizisola ngokusukโ entliziyweni ngokuba ndibe ngumnini wayo.โ
Kwincwadi yakhe Ngonaphakade Mahala, U-Eric Foner ubalisa ibali lomtyali ongonwabangayo ekhalimela umntu okhululekileyo etya ukutya emsebenzini:
Mtshali: โNdilivila ndini, ndiphulukana nomsebenzi wemini yonke nguwe.โ
Freedman: "Massa, zingaphi iintsuku endizibhubhile nguwe?"
Ngenkulungwane yama-20, unobangela wembuyekezo wathatyathwa ngamaqela ahlukeneyo awayequka igqala leMibutho emanyeneyo uWalter R. Vaughan, owayekholelwa ukuba imbuyekezo yayiya kuba lukhuthazo kuMzantsi; itshantliziyo elimnyama uCallie House; iinkokheli zamazwe amnyama ezifana no-โQueen Motherโ uAudley Moore; kunye nomlweli wamalungelo oluntu uJames Forman. Lo mbutho wadibana ngo-1987 phantsi kombutho oyimbumba obizwa ngokuba yiNational Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America (NโCOBRA). I-NAACP ivume ukulungiswa kwe-1993. UCharles J. Ogletree Jr., unjingalwazi kwi-Harvard Law School, uye walandela amabango okubuyisela enkundleni.
Kodwa ngelixa abantu abakhuthaza ukulungiswa kwembuyekezo batshintshile ngokuhamba kwexesha, impendulo evela elizweni ihleli ifana. โBaye bafundiswa ukusebenza nzima,โ utshilo Chicago Tribune yahlelwa ngowe-1891. โBaye bafundiswa impucuko yobuKristu, nokuthetha ulwimi lwesiNgesi olundilisekileyo endaweni yeentyantyambo zaseAfrika. Le ngxelo inesikwele kulawo ayefudula engamakhoboka.โ
Hayi ncam. Ekubeni babekhotyokiswe iminyaka engama-250, abantu abantsundu abazange bayeke ukuba bazibonele ngokwabo. Babesoyika. Kumazantsi asezantsi, kwalawula ubukhoboka besibini. Emantla, izindlu zowiso-mthetho, oosodolophu, imibutho yabahlali, iibhanki nabemi bonke baye basebenzisana ukucinezela abantu abantsundu kwiindawo ezihlala abantu abantsundu, apho babexinene, behlawuliswa imali eninzi yaye bengafundanga ngokwaneleyo. Amashishini ayebacalula, ebanika eyona misebenzi mibi kunye neyona mivuzo mibi. Amapolisa abaphatha ngenkohlakalo ezitratweni. Kwaye uluvo lokuba ubomi babantu abantsundu, imizimba yabantsundu, kunye nobutyebi abantsundu yayiziithagethi ezifanelekileyo zahlala zimiliselwe kuluntu ngokubanzi. Ngoku sele siyishiyile isiqingatha senkulungwane yethu yokuphangwa, sithembisa, โSoze siphinde.โ Kodwa sisenomona. Kufana nokungathi siqhube ityala lekhadi lokuthenga ngetyala kwaye, ekubeni sizibophelele ukuba asisayi kuphinda sihlawulise, sihlale sibhidekile kukuba ibhalansi ayipheli. Iziphumo zolo lungelelwaniso, inzala eyongezeleka mihla le, zisijikelezile.
Broach isihloko sembuyekezo namhlanje kunye nentlaninge yemibuzo ilandelayo ngokungenakuphepheka: Ngubani oza kuhlawulwa? Baza kuhlawulwa malini? Ngubani oza kuhlawula? Kodwa ukuba izinto ezisebenzayo, hayi ubulungisa, imbuyekezo yeyona ndawo incamathelayo, kangangexesha elithile kukho isiqalo sesisombululo. Kule minyaka ingama-25 idlulileyo, iCongressman uJohn Conyers Omnci., omele indawo yaseDetroit, uye waphawula yonke iseshoni yeCongress ngokuzisa umthetho oyilwayo obiza uphononongo lweCongress ngobukhoboka kunye neziphumo zabo ezingapheliyo kunye neengcebiso "zoncedo olufanelekileyo."
Ilizwe elinomdla wokwazi ukuba imbuyekezo inokusebenza njani inesisombululo esilula kumthetho oyilwayo wakwaConyers, ngoku obizwa ngokuba yi-HR 40, iKomishoni yokuFundisa iZindululo zoLungiso kuMthetho wama-Afrika aseMelika. Singawuxhasa lo mthetho uyilwayo, singenise umbuzo ukuze sifundwe, emva koko sivavanye izisombululo ezinokubakho. Kodwa asinamdla.
โKungenxa yokuba ngabantu abantsundu abenza ibango,โ utshilo uNkechi Taifa, owanceda ekufumaneni iNโCOBRA. โAbantu abathetha ngembuyekezo bathathwa njengamageza ashiyekileyo. Kodwa konke esithetha ngako kukufunda [ulungiso]. Njengoko uJohn Conyers etshilo, sifunda yonke into. Sifunda amanzi, umoya. Ngaba asikwazi nokufunda umcimbi? Eli tyala aligunyazisi nesenti ebomvu nakubani na.โ
Ukuba i-HR 40 ayizange-phantsi kweDemocrats okanye iRiphabhlikhi-ifikelele kumgangatho weNdlu icebisa ukuba iinkxalabo zethu azimiliselwanga kukungenzeki kwembuyekezo kodwa kwinto ekhoyo ngakumbi. Ukuba sigqiba kwelokuba iimeko zaseMantla eLawndale nakwiMelika emnyama azichazeki kodwa ziyinto kanye kanye obunokuyilindela kuluntu oluhlala kangangeenkulungwane kwi-crosshairs yaseMelika, ke siza kwenza ntoni ngedemokhrasi indala yehlabathi?
Umntu akanakuwubaleka lo mbuzo ngokuwangawangisa ngesandla kwixesha elidlulileyo, elahla izenzo zookhokho bakhe, okanye ngokukhankanya umhla wamva nje wokufuduka kwezinyanya. Umkhonzi wokugqibela sele efile ixesha elide. Ijoni lokugqibela lokunyamezela i-Valley Forge sele lifile ixesha elide. Ukubanga ngokuzingca igqala kunye nokukhanyela umnikazi wamakhoboka kukuthand' izwe ร la carte. Uhlanga luhamba nezizukulwana ngezizukulwana. Sasingekho xa iWashington yayiwela iDelaware, kodwa uguqulelo lukaEmanuel Gottlieb Leutze lunentsingiselo kuthi. Sasingekho xa uWoodrow Wilson wasingenisa kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi I, kodwa sisahlawula imali yomhlalaphantsi. Ukuba ingqondi kaThomas Jefferson ibalulekile, kukwanjalo nokuthatha kwakhe umzimba kaSally Hemings. Ukuba uGeorge Washington uwela imicimbi yaseDelaware, kufuneka kube njalo nokufuna kwakhe ngokungenalusini uMgwebi u-Oney.
Ngo-1909, uMongameli uWilliam Howard Taft waxelela ilizwe ukuba abantu basemazantsi โabakrelekreleโ abamhlophe bakulungele ukubona abantsundu โnjengamalungu aluncedo eluntwini.โ Emva kweveki uJoseph Gordon, indoda emnyama, wabulawa ngaphandle kweGreenwood, eMississippi. Inqanaba eliphezulu lexesha le-lynching lidlulile. Kodwa iinkumbulo zabo baphangwayo ubomi babo zisahleli kwimiphumo engapheliyo. Enyanisweni, eMelika kukho inkolelo engaqhelekanga kwaye inamandla yokuba ukuba uhlaba umntu omnyama ngamaxesha angama-10, ukuphuma kwegazi kuyeka kwaye ukuphilisa kuqala xa umhlaseli ewisa imela. Sikholelwa ukuba ulawulo olumhlophe luyinyani yexesha elidlulileyo, ityala lobunjubaqa elinokuthi linyamalale ukuba asijongi.
Bekusoloko kukho enye indlela. โKulilize ukuyiphikisa loo nto oobawo bethu zizise apha, hayi thina,โ watsho uMongameli waseYale uTimothy Dwight ngo-1810.
Sizuza ilifa ilifa lethu elaneleyo kunye nazo zonke incumbrances zayo; kwaye sibophelelekile ekuhlawuleni amatyala ookhokho bethu. le Simelwe kukuthi sikhululwe ityala, ngokukodwa ke, ukuba silikhulule: yaye, xa uMgwebi olilungisa weNdalo iphela esiza kuxoxa nabakhonzi bakhe, uya kusibiza ngokungqongqo intlawulo. Ukubanika inkululeko, nokuma apha, kukuzibazela isiqalekiso.
IV. โIingxaki Ezobukhoboka Zisikhulula Kuzoโ
IMelika iqala kuphango olumnyama kunye nedemokhrasi emhlophe, iimpawu ezimbini ezingachasananga kodwa ziyahambelana. Umbhali-mbali uEdmund S. Morgan wabhala wathi: โAmadoda awayehlanganisene ukuze aseke iUnited States ezimeleyo, ezinikele kwinkululeko nasekulinganeni, mhlawumbi ayebamba amakhoboka okanye ekulungele ukubambisana nabo bakwenzayo oko. Akukho namnye kubo owaziva ekhululekile ngokupheleleyo ngesi sibakala, kodwa abazange bazive benetyala ngako. Uninzi lwawo lwawazuza njengelifa amakhoboka awo kunye nokunamathela kwawo kwinkululeko evela kwisizukulwana sangaphambili, yaye ayesazi ukuba ezi zibini zazingadityaniswanga.โ
Xa abantu baseAfrika ababengamakhoboka, baphangwa imizimba yabo, baphangwa iintsapho zabo, kwaye baphangwa imisebenzi yabo, baziswa kwikoloni yaseVirginia ngo-1619, abazange baqale banyamezele ubuhlanga obuhamba ze obuya kugubungela inzala yabo. Abanye babo bakhululwa. Abanye babo batshata. Kanti abanye basinda kunye nabakhonzi abamhlophe ababebandezeleke njengabo. Abanye bade bavukela kunye, badibana phantsi kukaNathaniel Bacon ukutshisa iJamestown ngo-1676.
Kwiminyaka elikhulu kamva, ingcamango yokuba amakhoboka kunye nabamhlophe abahlwempuzekileyo badibanisa imikhosi yayiza kothusa iimvakalelo, kodwa ngemihla yangaphambili yamathanga amaNgesi, la maqela mabini ayefana kakhulu. Abakhenkethi abangamaNgesi abatyelela eVirginia bafumanisa ukuba abaphathi bayo โbaxhaphaza abakhonzi babo ngengcinezelo engathethekiyo yaye beyisebenzisa nzima.โ Izicaka ezimhlophe zabethwa, zikhohliswa ukuba zisebenze ngaphaya kwezivumelwano zazo, kwaye zathengiswa ngendlela efanayo njengamakhoboka.
Oku โkusebenza nzimaโ kwavela kwisibakala esilula seHlabathi Elitshaโumhlaba wawungenamida kodwa umsebenzi ophantsi wawulinganiselwe. Njengoko ubude bobomi busanda kwikoloni, abalimi baseVirginia bafumana kuma-Afrika angamakhoboka owona mthombo osebenzayo ngakumbi womsebenzi ophantsi. Ngelixa abakhonzi abafakwe kwi-indentation babengabantu abasemthethweni kwisithsaba samaNgesi kwaye ngaloo ndlela benelungelo lokhuseleko oluthile, amakhoboka aseAfrika angena kwiikoloni njengabaphambukeli. Bakhululwe kukhuselo lwesithsaba, baba ngabasebenzi bokuqala baseMelika abafanelekela ukuxhaphazwa okuphezulu, abakwaziyo ukuxhathisa okuncinci.
Kwiminyaka engama-250 eyalandelayo, umthetho waseMerika wasebenza ekunciphiseni abantu abantsundu ekubeni babe ngabangenakuchukunyiswa baze banyuse onke amadoda amhlophe abe kumgangatho wabemi. Ngowe-1650, uVirginia wayalela ukuba โbonke abantu ngaphandle kwamaNegroโ baphathe izixhobo. Ngo-1664, eMaryland wayalela ukuba nawuphi na umfazi oliNgesi owatshata nekhoboka kufuneka aphile njengekhoboka lenkosi yomyeni wakhe. Ngomnyaka we-1705, indibano yaseVirginia yawisa umthetho ovumela ukunqunyulwa kwamakhoboka angalawulekiyo-kodwa ukwalela iinkosi ukuba zibethe "umkhonzi omhlophe ongumKristu ehamba ze, ngaphandle komyalelo wobulungisa boxolo." Kwaloo mthetho mnye, elo thanga layalela ukuba โonke amahashe, iinkomo neehagu, ezizezakhe ngoku, okanye eziya kuthi emva koko zibe zezalo naliphi na ikhobokaโ zihluthwe zize zithengiswe yicawa yasekuhlaleni, ingeniso eyayisetyenziselwa ukuxhasa โamahlwempu amahlwempu. yatsho iparishi.โ Ngelo xesha, ngeba besaphila abantu abakhumbula abantsundu nabamhlophe bejoyina ukutshisa iJamestown kwiminyaka engama-29 kuphela ngaphambili. Kodwa ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-18, kwabakho iiklasi ezimbini eziziiprayimari eMerika.
UJohn C. Calhoun, iSenate yaseSouth Carolina, wathi: โAmaqela amabini amakhulu oluntu ayingobantu abazizityebi nabangamahlwempu, kodwa abamhlophe nabamnyama,โ watsho uJohn C. Calhoun, kwiNdlu yeeNgwevu ngowe-1848. abazizityebi, baphuma kudidi oluphezulu, yaye bayahlonelwa yaye baphathwa njengabalinganayo.โ
Ngomnyaka we-1860, uninzi lwabantu abahlala eMzantsi Carolina naseMississippi, phantse isiqingatha sabo bahlala eGeorgia, kwaye malunga nesinye kwisithathu sabo bonke abantu baseMzantsi Afrika babekho kwicala elingalunganga lomgca weCalhoun. Ilizwe elinelona nani likhulu labantu baseMelika ababengamakhoboka yayiyiVirginia, apho kwezinye iingingqi iipesenti ezingama-70 zabo bonke abantu babesebenza ngamatyathanga. Phantse isinye kwisine sabo bonke abemi baseMzantsi abamhlophe babenamakhoboka, yaye emqolo isiseko sezoqoqosho saseMelikaโnommandla omkhulu weAtlantikiโsakhiwa. Kumazwe asixhenxe womqhaphu, isinye kwisithathu sayo yonke ingeniso emhlophe safunyanwa ebukhobokeni. Ngowe-1840, umqhaphu owawuveliswa ngamakhoboka wawungumlinganiselo wama-59 ekhulwini wempahla ethunyelwa kwamanye amazwe. Uthungelwano lwalo mbutho wamakhoboka lwanwenwela emantla ukuya kutsho kwi-looms ye-New England, kunye nokuwela i-Atlantiki ukuya kwi-Great Britain, apho inamandla enguqu enkulu yezoqoqosho kwaye yatshintsha indlela yembali yehlabathi. Umbhali-mbali uEric J. Hobsbawm wabhala wathi: โNabani na othi umqhaphu uthi umqhaphu.โ
Ubutyebi obabunikwa iMelika ngobukhoboka babungapheleli nje kwizinto ezazitsalwa ngamakhoboka emhlabeni kodwa nakumakhoboka ngokwawo. Umbhali-mbali waseYale uDavid W. Blight wathi: โNgowe-1860, amakhoboka ayexabiseke ngaphezu kwayo yonke imizi-mveliso yaseMerika, zonke iindlela zikaloliwe, onke amandla okuvelisa aseUnited States. "Amakhoboka yayiyeyona nto inkulu, ngokude, i-asethi yemali yepropathi kulo lonke uqoqosho lwaseMelika." Ukuthengiswa kwala makhobokaโโemizimbeni yawo loo mali yajiyayo,โ ubhala athi uWalter Johnson, umbhali-mbali waseHarvardโkwabangela ubutyebi obungakumbi. Iimali-mboleko zathathwa ukuze zithengwe, ukuze zibuyiswe ngenzala. Ii-inshorensi zayilwa ngokuchasene nokufa ngesiquphe kwekhoboka kunye nokulahleka kwengeniso. Ukuthengiswa kwamakhoboka kwahlawuliswa irhafu kwaye kwabhalwa notarized. Ukuthengiswa komzimba omnyama kunye nokuqhekeka kosapho lwabantsundu kwaba luqoqosho kubo, kuqikelelwa ukuba kuzise amashumi ezigidi zeedola kwi-antebellum America. Ngowe-1860 kwakukho izigidigidi zabantu abaninzi kwiNtlambo yaseMississippi kunayo nayiphi na enye indawo elizweni.
Phantsi kwamanani abandayo kukho ubomi obahluleleneyo. โNdandisoloko ndinoloyiko lokuba uNksk. Moore, inkosikazi yakhe, afune imali aze athengise ngomfazi wam endimthandayo,โ yabhala yathi indoda ekhululekileyo, icinga ngexesha awayelichithe ebukhobokeni. โSasisoloko sisoyika ukwahlukana kokugqibela. Umsa wethu ngomntu ngamnye wawunamandla kakhulu, yaye oku kwasenza sahlala sinexhala lokwahlukana ngenkohlakalo.โ
Ukwahlula ngenkani kwakuxhaphakile kwi-antebellum South. Kwezinye iindawo ikhoboka lalinamathuba angama-30 ekhulwini okuba lithengiswe ebomini balo. Amashumi amabini anesihlanu ekhulwini orhwebo phakathi kwamazwe atshabalalisa umtshato wokuqala kwaye isiqingatha sawo satshabalalisa intsapho yenyukliya.
Xa umfazi nabantwana bakaHenry Brown, ikhoboka eRichmond, eVirginia, babeza kuthengiswa, uBrown wafuna inkosi emhlophe eyayinokuthenga umfazi nabantwana bayo ukuze bagcine intsapho ikunye. Wasilela:
Ngemini elandelayo, ndema ecaleni kwendlela, apho amakhoboka, angamakhulu amathathu anamashumi amahlanu, ayefanele kudlula khona. Umthengi owathenga umfazi wam wayengumfundisi waseWisile, owayesele eza kuqalisa kuMntla Carolina. Kungekudala kwadlula iinqwelo ezintlanu zeenqwelo zabantwana abancinane, kwaye ndijonga koyena uphambili, ndingakubona ntoni ngaphandle komntwana omncinane, ekhomba isandla sakhe esincinane kum, edanduluka, โNanko ubawo; Bendisazi ukuba uza kuza andivalelise.โ Yayingumntwana wam omdala! Kungekudala iqela lemigulukudu lasondela umfazi wam ebotshwe kulo. Ndakhangela, ndabona ubuso bakhe obuqhelekileyo; kodwa Owu, mfundi, oko kukroba kwentlungu! wanga uThixo angandisindisa kwakhona ndinyamezele ukoyikeka okungathethekiyo kwaloo mzuzu! Wagqitha, wasondela apho bendime khona. Ndambamba ngesandla, ndifuna ukuthi ndlela-ntle kuye; ndaphelelwa ngamazwi; isiphoso sokuthetha sasibalekile, ndahlala ndingathethi. Ndamlandela umgama othile, isandla sakhe sibambelele kwesam, ngokungathi ndiyamsindisa kwikamva lakhe, kodwa andizange ndikwazi ukuthetha, kwaye ndanyanzeleka ukuba ndijike ndithule.
Ngexesha apho unxibelelwano ngezonxibelelwano lwalungekabikho kwaye nabantsundu bengenankululeko yokuhamba, ukwahlukana kweentsapho zabantsundu yayiluhlobo lokubulala. Apha sifumana iingcambu zobutyebi baseMelika kunye nentando yesininzi-ekutshatyalalisweni kwenzuzo eyona nto ibalulekileyo ekhoyo kubo nabaphi na abantu, intsapho. Ukutshatyalaliswa akuzange kwenzeke ngokunyuka kweMelika; yenze lula oko kunyuka. Ngokwakha uluntu lwamakhoboka, iMelika yadala isiseko sezoqoqosho kumalinge ayo amakhulu kwidemokhrasi. Ingxabano yabasebenzi eyabangela imvukelo kaBacon yathintelwa. Abasebenzi baseMelika abayimfuneko bebekhona njengepropathi engaphaya kommandla wezopolitiko, beshiya abantu baseMelika abamhlophe bekhululekile ukuba bavuthe ixilongo uthando lwabo lwenkululeko kunye nemilinganiselo yedemokhrasi. Xa wayehlola inkqubo yedemokhrasi yamandulo eVirginia, undwendwe oluvela eNgilani lwaphawula ukuba abemi beli lizwe โbanokuthi bayayithanda inkululeko nedemokhrasi engasikelwanga mda ngenxa yenyambalala yabantu, abanokuthi kwamanye amazwe babe ngamahlokondiba, ekubeni belapho phantse bebonke bebunjwe ngamahlokondiba abo. amakhoboka angamaNegro.โ
V. Ukuphanga Okuzolileyo
Imiphumo yeminyaka engama-250 yobukhoboka, yemfazwe kwiintsapho zabantsundu nakubantu abantsundu, yayinzulu. Njengobunini bezindlu namhlanje, ubunini bekhoboka babunomdla, bukhanga kungekuphela nje abo bangamakhoboka kodwa abo babenqwenela. Kanye njengokuba abanini bezindlu namhlanje banokuxubusha ukongezwa kwepatio okanye ukupeyinta kwegumbi lokuhlala, abanikazi bamakhoboka bathengisa iingcebiso kwiindlela ezilungileyo zokuzalisa abasebenzi, ukufuna abasebenzi kunye nokukhupha isohlwayo. Kanye njengokuba umninimzi namhlanje unokurhumela iphephancwadi elinjalo Le Ndlu indala, amakhoboka ayeneejenali ezifana Uphononongo lukaDe Bow, eyakhuthaza ezona ndlela zilungileyo zokonga ingeniso kumakhoboka. Ekuqaleni kweMfazwe Yombango, ukukhotyokiswa kwabantu abamnyama baseMelika kwakucingelwa ukuba kusisiseko selizwe kangangokuba abo babefuna ukuyiphelisa babebizwa ngokuba ngabaqhekeki abafanelwe kukufa. Khawufane ucinge ukuba kuya kwenzeka ntoni ukuba umongameli namhlanje uphume ethanda ukuthatha onke amakhaya aseMelika kubanini bawo: impendulo inokuba bubundlobongela.
โEli lizwe lasekwa ukuze mhlophe, hayi umntu ontsundu,โ wabhala uJohn Wilkes Booth, ngaphambi kokuba abulale uAbraham Lincoln. โKwaye ujonge Ubukhoboka baseAfrikakwakwelo mbono ibekwe ngabo baqulunqi babekekileyo boMgaqo-siseko wethu, mna ngokwam ndakhe ndawuqwalasela iteyona ntsikelelo inkulu (yeyethu nakuthi) uThixo wakha wayinika uhlanga olukholekileyo.โ
Emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, amaRiphabhlikhi eRadical azama ukwakha ilizwe kwakhona kwinto efana nokulingana kwihlabathi-kodwa abethwa liphulo elithi "Redemption," elikhokelwa ngabakwaWhite Liners, iiRed Shirts, kunye noKlansmen abazimisele ukuxhasa uluntu " yenzelwe i mhlophe, hayi umntu omnyama.โ Kwabakho abanqolobi kumazwe aseMzantsi. Kwimbali yakhe enkulu Ukwakhiwa ngokutsha, u-Eric Foner ubalisa ngeziganeko zokuhlaselwa kwabantu abantsundu ngenxa yokungasusi iminqwazi; ngenxa yokwala ukunikezela ngeflaski yewhiskey; ngenxa yokungathobeli iinkqubo zecawa; โukusebenzisa intetho ekrwadaโ; ukuphikisana nezivumelwano zabasebenzi; ngenxa yokwala โukubotshwa njengekhoboka.โ Ngamanye amaxesha uhlaselo lwalujongwe nje โekunciphiseni ama-niggers kancinane.โ
Ubunqolobi baqhubeka imini yonke. Imikhosi ye-Federal yarhoxa eMzantsi ngowe-1877. Kwinkulungwane elandelayo, ugonyamelo lwezobupolitika lwatyelelwa ngabantu abantsundu ngokungenalusini, luphathwa ngokukhethekileyo kubantu abantsundu ngamabhongo. Izikolo neecawe zabantsundu zatshiswa zaphela. Abavoti abantsundu kunye nabagqatswa bezopolitiko ababezama ukubahlanganisa boyika, kwaye abanye babulawa. Ekupheleni kweMfazwe Yehlabathi I, amagqala antsundu abuyela emakhayeni awo abethwa ngenxa yobuganga bokunxiba iyunifomu yaseMerika. Ukuthotyelwa kwamajoni emva kwemfazwe, eyabeka amagqala amhlophe namnyama kukhuphiswano lwemisebenzi enqongopheleyo, yavelisa iRed Summer ka-1919: ulandelelwano lwee-pogroms zobuhlanga ngokuchasene nezixeko ezininzi ukusuka eLongview, eTexas, ukuya eChicago ukuya eWashington, DC. Ugonyamelo olunxamnye nabantsundu lwaqhubeka kwada kwaya kutsho ngeminyaka yee-1920โngowe-1921 ihlokondiba labamhlophe layitshabalalisa โiBlack Wall Streetโ kaTulsa, yaye ngowe-1923 elinye layitshabalalisa idolophu yabantsundu iRosewood, eFloridaโyaye phantse akukho mntu wohlwaywayo.
Umsebenzi wamahlokondiba yayiyinguqulelo ekrakra nenogonyamelo yocalucalulo olwalunwenwela nakwezona ndawo ziphezulu zorhulumente waseMerika. ISivumelwano Esitsha namhlanje sikhunjulwa njengomzekelo wento ekufuneka urhulumente onenkqubela ayenzeโaphose umnatha obanzi wokhuseleko loluntu okhusela amahlwempu nabaxhwalekileyo ngelixa kusakhiwa abakumgangatho ophakathi. Xa abaqhubela phambili benqwenela ukuvakalisa ukuphoxeka kwabo ngoBarack Obama, bakhomba kwizinto eziphunyeziweyo nguFranklin Roosevelt. Kodwa ezi nkqubela azifane ziqaphele ukuba iNdlela entsha kaRoosevelt, efana nedemokhrasi eyayivelisayo, ihleli kwisiseko sikaJim Crow.
UIra Katznelson, unjingalwazi wembali nenzululwazi yezopolitiko eColumbia ubhala athi: โIJim Crow South, yayingumdibanisi wedemokhrasi yaseMerika.โ Amanqaku aloo ntsebenziswano aphezu kweSivumelwano esitsha. Iinkqubo ze-omnibus ezipasiswe phantsi koMthetho woKhuseleko lweNtlalo ngowe-1935 zazenziwe ngendlela yokukhusela indlela yokuphila yasemazantsi. I-inshorensi yabantu abadala (i-Social Security efanelekileyo) kunye ne-inshorensi yokungaphangeli ayibandakanyi abasebenzi basezifama nabasebenzi basekhayaโimisebenzi ehlala abantu abantsundu kakhulu. Xa uMongameli Roosevelt watyikitya uKhuseleko lweNtlalo kumthetho ngo-1935, i-65 pesenti yabantu base-Afrika baseMelika kuzwelonke kwaye phakathi kwama-70 kunye nama-80 ekhulwini eMzantsi babengafanelekanga. I-NAACP yaqhankqalaza, ibiza umnatha omtsha wokhuseleko waseMelika "sisisefo esinemingxunya nje enkulu ngokwaneleyo ukuba uninzi lweNegroes luwele."
Umthetho osayilwayo we-GI owawubhiyozelwa ngokufanayo awuphumelelanga ngokufanayo abantu abamnyama baseMelika, ngokubonisa ilizwe ngokubanzi ukunyanzelisa umgaqo-nkqubo wezindlu wocalucalulo. Nangona kubonakala kungaboni mbala, iSiqendu III somthetho oyilwayo, ojolise ekunikeni amagqala ekufikeleleni kwimali mboleko yezindlu ezinenzala ephantsi, ushiye amagqala amnyama ukuba adibane namagosa amhlophe kuLawulo lwaMagqala asekuhlaleni kwakunye neebhanki ezifanayo, iminyaka. , wala ukunika abantu abantsundu iimali zokuboleka imali. Umbhali-mbali uKathleen J. Frydl uthi kwincwadi yakhe ka-2009, UMthetho osaYilwayo weGI, ukuba abaninzi abantsundu bathintelwa ekufumaneni iTitle III izibonelelo "ukuba ichaneke ngakumbi ukutsho nje ukuba abamnyama abanakusebenzisa esi sihloko."
KwiMfazwe ebandayo yaseMelika, ubunini bezindlu babonwa njengendlela yokufaka ukuthanda izwe, kwaye njengamandla empucuko kunye ne-anti-radical force. UWilliam Levitt, owaba nguvulindlela kwihlomela-dolophu yale mihla ngophuhliso lweeLevittown ezahlukahlukeneyo, iindawo ahlala kuzo ezazicetyiwe. โKuninzi kakhulu ekufuneka ekwenzile.โ
Kodwa i-Levittowns, ngokuvuma kukaLevitt ngokuzithandela, yahlulwa kuyo yonke iminyaka yabo yokuqala. UDaisy noBill Myers, intsapho yokuqala emnyama eyafudukela eLevittown, ePennsylvania, yamkelwa ngoqhanqalazo kunye nomnqamlezo ovuthayo. Ummelwane owayeyichasile le ntsapho wathi uBill Myers โmhlawumbi wayengumfana olungileyo, kodwa ngalo lonke ixesha ndimjonga ndibona ii-$2,000 zehla kwixabiso lendlu yam.โ
Lo mmelwane wayenesizathu esivakalayo sokoyika. UBill kunye noDaisy Myers babevela kwelinye icala likaJohn C. Calhoun loluntu olubini. Ukuba bafudukela kwindlu elandelayo, umgaqo-nkqubo wezindlu waphantse waqinisekisa ukuba ixabiso lezindlu zabamelwane babo liya kuhla.
Ngelixa nje ngaphambi kweSivumelwano eNtsha, imali yokubambisa eqhelekileyo yayifuna intlawulo ephantsi enkulu kunye nembuyekezo epheleleyo kwisithuba seminyaka emalunga ne-10, ukudalwa kweQumrhu leMali-mboleko yabanini-ziNdlu ngo-1933 kwaye emva koko uLawulo lweZindlu lweZindlu kunyaka olandelayo lwavumela iibhanki ukuba zibonelele ngeemali-mboleko ezifuna ukungabikho. ngaphezu kwe 10 ekhulwini phantsi, amortized phezu 20 ukuya 30 iminyaka. Umbhali-mbali weYunivesithi yasePennsylvania uThomas J. Sugrue ubhala athi: โNgaphandle kokungenelela korhulumente kwimarike yezindlu, ukwakhiwa kweedolophu ezinkulu bekungenakwenzeka. โNgowe-1930, ngama-30 ekhulwini kuphela abemi baseMerika ababenamakhaya abo; ngo-1960, abangaphezu kwama-60 ekhulwini babengabanikazi bamakhaya. Ubunini bekhaya baba luphawu lobumi baseMelika. โ
Loo mfuziselo wawungayi kunikwa abantsundu. Ushishino lwezindlu zaseMelika lwalukholelwa ukuba ucalucalulo ngumgaqo wokuziphatha. Kwangowe-1950, ikhowudi yemigaqo yokuziphatha yeNational Association of Real Estate Boards yalumkisa ngelithi โUmthengisi mhlaba kufuneka angaze abe negalelo ekuziseni ebumelwaneni โฆ naluphi na uhlanga okanye isizwe, okanye nabaphi na abantu ababukho babo buza kuba yingozi ngokucacileyo kumaxabiso epropathi.โ Incwadana enemifanekiso yowe-1943 yachaza ukuba abantu abanjalo banokuquka oomatima, abarhwaphilizi, imigulukuduโโnebala elalifundisa abantwana bayo kwanokholeji licinga ukuba linelungelo lokuhlala phakathi kwabamhlophe.โ
Urhulumente wobumbano wavuma. Yayiyi-Home Owners' Loan Corporation, engeyiyo intlangano yamashishini yabucala, eyaqala inkqubo yokuhlengahlengisa, ngokukhetha ukunika imali-mboleko kwaye inyanzelisa ukuba nayiphi na ipropati ekuyo i-inshurensi igutyungelwe ngumnqophiso osisithintelo-isolotya kwisivumelwano esalela ukuthengiswa kwesakhiwo. nakubani na ngaphandle kwabamhlophe. Izigidi zeerandi ziphuma kwiingxowa zerhafu zisiya kwiindawo ezihlala abantu abamhlophe.
Umbhali-mbali uKenneth T. Jackson wabhala wathi kwincwadi yakhe yowe-1985: I-Crabgrass Frontier, imbali yokwakhiwa kwedolophu. Ngaphambili, ucalucalulo lwalusenziwa ngabantu ngabanye; I-FHA ikhuthaze ulwahlulo kwaye yalufaka njengomgaqo-nkqubo woluntu. Yonke imimandla yezixeko yabhengezwa ukuba ayifanelekanga ukufumana isiqinisekiso semali-mboleko.โ I-Redlining ayizange ikhutshwe ngokusemthethweni kude kube ngu-1968, nguMthetho weZindlu oLungileyo. Ngelo xesha umonakalo wawusele wenzekileโyaye iingxelo zokulungiswa kweebhanki zisaqhubeka.
Urhulumente womdibaniso usekelwe kubulungisa obulinganayo kubo bonke abemi balo, abathi ngokubuyisela bafumane impatho elinganayo. Kodwa ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, le ntengiso ayizange inikwe abantu abantsundu, abathi ngokuphindaphindiweyo bahlawule ixabiso eliphezulu lobumi kwaye bafumana imbuyekezo encinane. Ukuphanga kwakuyeyona nto ibalulekileyo yobukhoboka, kuluntu oluchazwe nguCalhoun. Kodwa phantse inkulungwane epheleleyo emva kokuphela kweMfazwe yamakhaya kunye nokupheliswa kobukhoboka, ukuphanga-ezolileyo, okucwangcisiweyo, okuntywiliselwe emanzini-kwaqhubeka naphakathi kweenjongo kunye nempumelelo ye-New Deal liberals.
VI. Ukwenza iGhetto yesiBini
Namhlanje iChicago sesinye sezona zixeko zahluleleneyo elizweni, into leyo ebonisa ucwangciso olunyanisekileyo. Kwiinzame zokuphakamisa ukongama kwabamhlophe kuwo onke amanqanaba ukuya kutsho ebumelwaneni, iChicagoโisixeko esasekwa ngumrhwebi woboya obumnyama uJean Baptiste Point du Sableโkudala inguvulindlela. Iinzame zaqala ngokunyaniseka ngowe-1917, xa iChicago Real Estate Board, yothuswe kukuthontelana kwabantsundu basemazantsi, yaphembelela ukuba icande isixeko sonke ngokobuhlanga. Kodwa emva kokuba iNkundla Ephakamileyo ikhuphe isigwebo esichasene nocalucalulo olucacileyo ngaloo nyaka, eso sixeko sanyanzeleka ukuba siqhubele phambili nenkqubo yaso ngeendlela ezilumke ngakumbi.
NjengoMbutho weMali-mboleko yabanini bezindlu, iFederal Housing Administration ekuqaleni yanyanzelisa iminqophiso ethintelweyo, eyanceda abantu abamnyama kunye nabanye abantu abangafunekiyo bobuhlanga ekufumaneni imali mboleko yezindlu exhaswa ngumanyano. Ngeminyaka yoo-1940, iChicago yakhokela isizwe ekusetyenzisweni kwale minqophiso ithintelweyo, kwaye malunga nesiqingatha sazo zonke iindawo zokuhlala esixekweni zazithintelwe ngokufanelekileyo kwabantsundu.
Yinto eqhelekileyo namhlanje ukuba nenkungu nelanga malunga nekhaya elidala elimnyama, apho oogqirha namagqwetha ayehlala kufutshane nabantu abapakisha inyama kunye nabasebenzi bentsimbi, ababehlala kufutshane noonongogo nabangasebenziyo. Le nostalgia yocalucalulo iyayihoya iimeko zangempela ezinyamezelwa ngabantu abahlala apho-i-vermin kunye nokutshisa, ngokomzekelo-kwaye uyayihoxisa into yokuba i-ghetto yakudala yayisekelwe ekukhanyeni amalungelo abantu abamnyama abonwaba ngabamhlophe baseMelika.
Ngo-1948, xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa isigwebo sokuba iminqophiso ethintelayo, nangona ivumelekile, yayinganyanzeliswa ngamanyathelo asemthethweni, iChicago yayinezinye izixhobo sele zilungile. Indlu yowiso-mthetho yelizwe lase-Illinois yayisele inike ibhunga lesixeko saseChicago ilungelo lokuvumaโkwaye ngaloo ndlela i-veto-nayiphi na indlu kawonke-wonke kwiiwadi zesixeko. Oku kwaba luncedo ngo-1949, xa umthetho omtsha wezindlu wathumela izigidi zeedola zerhafu eChicago nakwezinye izixeko kwilizwe jikelele. Ukususela ngowe-1950, ukukhethwa kwesiza sezindlu zoluntu kwaqhubeka ngokupheleleyo ngenxa yocalucalulo. Ngeminyaka yoo-1960, isixeko sasidale ngeeprojekthi zaso ezinkulu zezindlu oko umbhali-mbali u-Arnold R. Hirsch akubiza ngokuba โyighetto yesibini,โ enkulu kunebhanti elidala eliMnyama kodwa elingenamanzi. Ngaphezulu kweepesenti ezingama-98 kuzo zonke izindlu zikawonke-wonke zosapho ezakhiwa eChicago phakathi kowe-1950 ukuya phakathi koo-1960 zakhiwa kwiindawo ezimnyama.
Ulwamkelo lukarhulumente localucalulo lwaluqhutywa lucalucalulo olukhohlakeleyo lwabemi abamhlophe baseChicago. Iindawo ezihlala abamhlophe ezisesichengeni kungenelelo lwabantsundu zaseka imibutho yeebhloko ngenjongo yodwa yokunyanzelisa ucalucalulo. Baphembelela abantu abamhlophe ukuba bangathengisi. Baphembelela abo bantsundu abakwaziyo ukuthenga ukuze baphinde bathengise. Ngowe-1949, iqela lamaKatolika ase-Englewood laseka imibutho eyayinenjongo โyokugcina ummelwane.โ Inguqulelo: gcina abantu abamnyama ngaphandle. Kwaye xa uthethathethwano loluntu lwalunganelanga, xa urhulumente engaphumelelanga, xa iibhanki zabucala zingasakwazi ukubamba umgca, iChicago yaguqukela kwisixhobo esidala kwi-repertoire yaseMelika-ubundlobongela bobuhlanga. Iqela labahlali baseChicago ngeminyaka yee-1940 laqukumbela ngelithi: โUmkhwa wobugrogrisi ubonakala ngokulula. โKusezandleni zeghetto emnyama macala onke.โ Ngomhla woku-1 nowesi-2 kuJulayi ka-1946, ihlokondiba lamawaka lahlanganisana kwindawo yaseChicago's Park Manor, ngethemba lokukhupha ugqirha ontsundu owayesandul' ukungena. Eli hlokondiba layigibisela ngamatye indlu laza layitshisa negaraji. Uye wahamba ugqirha.
Ngowe-1947, emva kokuba amagqala ambalwa amnyama efudukele kwicandelo laseFernwood eChicago, kwabakho udushe ubusuku obuthathu; imigewu yabamhlophe yakhupha abantu abantsundu ezitratweni yaza yababetha. Kwiminyaka emibini kamva, xa intlanganiso yomanyano eyayizinyaswe ngabantsundu e-Englewood yavusa amarhe okuba indlu โyathengiswa kubani,โ abantsundu (nabamhlophe ekucingelwa ukuba bayavelana nabo) babethwa ezitratweni. Ngomnyaka we-1951, amawaka abamhlophe eCicero, imizuzu engama-20 okanye entshonalanga yedolophu yaseChicago, bahlasela isakhiwo sezindlu esihlala intsapho enye emnyama, bephosa izitena kunye neziqhushumbisi ngeefestile kwaye babeka indlu ngomlilo. I-Cook County grand jury yalile ukuhlawulisa abaqhankqalazi-kwaye endaweni yoko yamangalela igqwetha le-NAACP yosapho, umnini weflethi emhlophe, kunye negqwetha lomnini kunye ne-arhente yerenti, ebahlawulisa ngamayelenqe okuthoba amaxabiso epropathi. Kwiminyaka emibini emva koko, abamhlophe bachola kwaye batyala iziqhushumbisi eSouth Deering, malunga nemizuzu engama-30 ukusuka edolophini yaseChicago, ukunyanzela abantu abamnyama ukuba baphume.
Xa abanqolobi batshonayo ekugqibeleni, abaninimzi abamhlophe basuka babaleka elumelwaneni. Isigama semveli, indiza emhlophe, kuthetha uhlobo lwembonakalo yendalo yokukhetha. Ngapha koko, inqwelomoya emhlophe yayiluloyiso lobunjineli bezentlalo, ecwangciswe kukucingelwa kobuhlanga okwabelwana ngako kumacandelo karhulumente nawabucala aseMelika. Kuba ukuba naziphi na iintsapho ezimhlophe ezingacalucaluli zigqibe kwelokuba ukudityaniswa kungabi kubi kangako njengomgaqo okanye ukusebenza, bekusafuneka balwe neenyani ezinzima zomgaqo-nkqubo wezindlu waseMelika: Xa umninimzi omhlophe wenkulungwane yama-20 wathi ubukho bezindlu. iBill kunye noDaisy Myers banciphisa ixabiso lepropati yakhe, wayengabandakanyeki nje kwimfundiso yobuhlanga-wayeqwalasela ngokuchanekileyo impembelelo yomgaqo-nkqubo we-federal kumaxabiso emarike. I-Redlining yatshabalalisa amathuba otyalo-mali naphi na apho abantu abamnyama behlala khona.
VII. โAbantu abaninzi bawa endleleniโ
Ababukeli eMntla Lawndale, kwaye ekupheleni kweeghetto ezimnyama, babesazi ukuba kukho imali yokuphelisa uloyiko olumhlophe. Babhenela โkwi-block-bustingโโbeqhatha abamhlophe ukuba bathengise ngexabiso eliphantsi ngaphambi kokuba loo ngingqi ibe mnyama. Babeqesha ibhinqa elintsundu ukuba linyuke lisihla ngesitrato ngestroller. Okanye bangaqesha umntu ukuba afowunele inombolo ebumelwaneni efuna "uJohnny Mae." Emva koko baye baqhathe abamhlophe ukuba bathengise ngamaxabiso aphantsi, bebazisa ukuba okukhona abantu abantsundu befudukela apho, kokukhona ixabiso lezindlu zabo liza kuhla, kungcono ukuba bathengiswe ngoku. Ngala makhaya abamhlophe abamhlophe esandleni, abaqikeleli emva koko baphendukela kwindimbane yabantu abantsundu ababethontelana ukuya emantla njengenxalenye yeMfuduko Enkulu, okanye ababenqwenela ukubaleka iighettos: abaqikeleli babeza kuthatha izindlu ababesandula ukuzithenga ngexabiso eliphantsi. ngokusebenzisa i-block-busting kwaye uthengise kubo abamnyama ngekhontrakthi.
Ukuqhubeka neentlawulo zakhe kunye nokugcina ukushisa kwakhe, uClyde Ross wathatha umsebenzi wesibini kwiofisi yeposi kwaye emva koko umsebenzi wesithathu wokuhambisa ipizza. Umfazi wakhe wathatha umsebenzi esebenza eMarshall Field. Kwanyanzeleka ukuba abakhuphe abanye babantwana bakhe kwisikolo sabucala. Wayengakwazi ukuba sekhaya ukuze agade abantwana bakhe okanye abancede kumsebenzi wabo wesikolo. Imali kunye nexesha uRoss wayefuna ukunika abantwana bakhe endaweni yoko ekutyebiseni abaqapheli abamhlophe.
URoss wathi kum: โIngxaki yayiyimali. โNgaphandle kwemali awunakushukuma. Awukwazi ukufundisa abantwana bakho. Awunako ukubanika uhlobo lokutya olufanelekileyo. Ayikwazi ukwenza indlu ibukeke ilungile. Bacinga ukuba le ngingqi ilapho bebefanele ukuba khona. Itshintsha imbono yabo. Abantwana bam babefunda ezona zikolo zibalaseleyo kule ngingqi, yaye ndandingakwazi ukubagcina apho.โ
UMattie Lewis weza eChicago evela e-Alabama yakowabo phakathi kwiminyaka yoo-'40, xa wayeneminyaka engama-21, ecengwe ngumhlobo wakhe owamxelela ukuba angafumana umsebenzi wokuba ngumlungisi weenwele. Endaweni yoko waqeshwa yiWestern Electric, apho wasebenza khona iminyaka engama-41. Ndadibana noLewis kwikhaya lommelwane wakhe uEthel Weatherspoon. Bobabini babenamakhaya kuMntla Lawndale ngaphezu kweminyaka engama-50. Bobabini babethenge izindlu zabo ngesivumelwano. Bobabini bebesebenza noClyde Ross kwiinzame zeContract Buyers League zokufumana imbuyekezo kubathengisi bekhontrakthi abebesebenza eMntla Lawndale, iibhanki ebezixhase inkqubo, kunye noLawulo lweZindlu oluManyeneyo. Sidityaniswe nguJack Macnamara, owayesakuba ngumbutho oququzelelayo kwiContract Buyers League ekusekweni kwayo, ngo-1968. the Atlantic buyela kwi 1972.
UWeatherspoon wamthengela ikhaya ngowe-1957. โInkoliso yabamhlophe yaqalisa ukufuduka,โ wandixelela oko. โโAbantsundu bayeza. Abantsundu bayeza.โ Ngokwenene batsho. Baye babhalisa: Sukuthengisela abantu abamnyama.โ
Ngaphambi kokuba bafudukele kuMntla Lawndale, uLewis nomyeni wakhe bazama ukufudukela eCicero emva kokubona indlu eyayithengiswa apho. โUxolo, ndiyithengisile namhlanje,โ utshilo uRealtor kumyeni kaLewis. โNdamxelela ukuba, โUyazi ukuba abakufuni eCicero,โ โ ukhumbula oko uLewis. โ 'Abazukuvumela mntu umnyama eCicero.' โ
Ngo-1958, esi sibini sathenga ikhaya eNorth Lawndale ngesivumelwano. Babengakuboni oko kungalunganga. Kodwa uLewis, owazalelwa emazinyweni kaJim Crow, wagqalwa njengobuqhetseba baseMerikaโabantu abantsundu baqhubeka besenza, abantu abamhlophe baqhubeka bebuthabathaโisibakala sendalo. โEyona nto ndandiyifuna yayiyindlu. Yayikuphela kwendlela endandinokuyifumana ngayo. Babengababoleki abantu abamnyama ngelo xesha,โ utshilo. โSacinga ukuba, โLe yindlela ekuyiyo. Siyakuyenza loo nto side sife, kwaye abanakuze basamkele. Kunjalo kanye.'
โEkuphela kwendlela owawuza kuthenga ngayo ikhaya kukwenza ngendlela ababefuna ngayo,โ waqhubeka watsho. โKwaye ndandizimisele ukundifunela indlu. Ukuba wonke umntu unokuba nayo, nam ndiyayifuna. Ndandisebenzela abelungu eMzantsi. Yaye ndabona indlela ababehlala ngayo aba bantu bamhlophe eMntla ndaza ndacinga, โNgenye imini ndiya kuphila njengabo. Bendifuna iikhabhathi nazo zonke ezi zinto banazo abanye abantu. โ
Nanini na etyelela abamhlophe asebenza nabo emakhayeni abo, wayewubona umahluko. โNdandibona ukuba siyaqhathwa,โ watsho. Ndandidla ngokubona izinto ndize ndithi, 'Ndingathanda ukwenza oku endlwini yam.' Yaye babedla ngokuthi, โYenza loo nto,โ kodwa ndandiye ndicinge ukuba, โAndinakukwazi, kuba kusixabisa kakhulu.โ โ
Ndibuze uLewis kunye neWeatherspoon ukuba bazigcina njani iintlawulo.
โUyihlawule kwaye waqhubeka nokusebenza,โ utshilo uLewis malunga nekhontrakthi. โXa loo ntlawulo ifikayo, ubusazi ukuba kufuneka uyihlawule.โ
โUnciphise intlawulo yesibane. Yehlisa ityala lakho lokutya,โ utshilo uWeatherspoon.
โUkunciphisa izinto zomntwana wakho, eyona nto yayiphambili leyo,โ watsho uLewis. "Omdala wam wayefuna ukuba ligcisa kwaye omnye wam wayefuna ukuba ngumdanisi kwaye omnye wam wayefuna ukuthatha umculo."
ULewis kunye neWeatherspoon, njengoRoss, bakwazi ukugcina amakhaya abo. Ityala alizange libafumane umvuzo. Kodwa inyanzelise abathengisi bekhontrakthi etafileni, apho bavumela amanye amalungu eContract Buyers League ukuba afudukele kwiimali zokubambisa rhoqo okanye athathe nje izindlu zawo ngokuthe ngqo. Ngelo xesha babesele behlawuliswe amawaka ngamawaka. Xa ndithetha noLewis kunye ne-Weatherspoon, bendibona inxalenye yomfanekiso kuphela-iqaqobana elikwaziyo ukubambelela kumakhaya abo. Kodwa kubo bonke bethu abakhethekileyo, kuye wonke uBarack kunye noMichelle Obama, kwi-Ethel Weatherspoon nganye okanye uClyde Ross, kuye wonke umntu omnyama osindileyo, kukho amawaka amaninzi amkileyo.
โAbantu abaninzi bawile endleleni,โ watsho uLewis. โElinye ibhinqa landibuza enoba ndandiza kuligcina kusini na itshayina yalo. Wathi, 'Abazukukukhupha.' โ
VIII. "Intlupheko yaseNegro ayiyontlupheko emhlophe"
Ngenjikalanga yakutshanje yentwasahlobo eMntla Lawndale, ndindwendwele uBilly Lamar Brooks Sr. Brooks ubelitsha ntliziyo ukususela ebutsheni bakhe kwi-Black Panther Party, xa wayenceda iContract Buyers League. Ndadibana naye eofisini yakhe eBetter Boys Foundation, eyona ndawo iphambili yaseLawndale enenjongo yokwalathisa abantwana basekuhlaleni ukuba baphume ezitalatweni baye kwimisebenzi nakwikholeji. Umsebenzi kaBrooks ngowomntu. NgoJuni 14, 1991, unyana wakhe oneminyaka eli-19 ubudala, uBilly Omnci., wadutyulwa waza wabulawa. "Aba bafana bazamile ukumncamathela," utshilo uBrooks kum. โNdiyakrokrela ukuba wayenokuba nenxaxheba kwezinye izinto ... Usoloko esengqondweni yam. Yonke imihla."
UBrooks akazange akhuliswe ezitratweni, nangona kwindawo enjalo akunakwenzeka ukuyiphepha impembelelo. โNdandisiya ecaweni kathathu okanye kane ngeveki. Kulapho amantombazana ayekhona,โ watsho ehleka. โEyona nyaniso imangalisayo isekho. Akukho khaka ebomini. Kufuneka uye esikolweni. Ndahlala apha. Ndafunda eMarshall High School. Ngaphaya kwakukho iiMphimpi zaseYiputa. Ngaphaya bekukho ooVice Lords. โ
UBrooks uye wasuka kude neChicago Side eNtshona. Kodwa usasebenza eMntla Lawndale. Ukuba "unendlu enhle, uhlala kwindawo enhle, ngoko awukho phantsi kobundlobongela, kuba indawo yakho ayinqandwa," kusho uBrooks. โUnendawo yokhuseleko. Awudingi khuseleko.โ Kodwa ukuba โukhulele kwindawo enje, indawo yokuhlala ayimnandi. Xa bediliza iiprojekthi apha, bashiya iindawo eziphezulu kwaye beza ebumelwaneni benaloo ngqondo yengqondo. Awunanto, ngoko uza kuthatha into, nokuba ayiyonyani. Awunasitrato, kodwa engqondweni yakho sesakho.โ
Saya kwifestile emva kwedesika yakhe. Iqela labafana abantsundu babejinga phambi komzobo omkhulu wesikhumbuzo samadoda amabini amnyama: E-Lovin Memory Quentin aka โQ,โ Julayi 18, 1974 โค 2 Matshi 2012. Igama kunye nobuso benye indoda yayitshiziwe. -ipeyintwe liqela elikhuphisanayo. Amadoda asela utywala. Ngamanye amaxesha imoto yayidlula, icothe ukukhasa, ize ime. Enye yala madoda yayisondela kwinqwelo-mafutha ize itshintshe, emva koko ihambe. UBrooks wayebazi bonke aba bafana njengamakhwenkwe.
โYikona yabo leyo,โ watsho.
Sayibukela enye imoto idlula, sanqumama kancinci, sahamba. โAkukho ntlonipho, akukho ntloni,โ watsho uBrooks. โYiloo nto abayenzayo. Ukusuka kulaa ndledlana ukuya kulaa kona. Abahambi nangaphezu koko. Uyambona umkhuluwa phaya? Waphantse wafa kwiminyaka embalwa eyadlulayo. Lowo usela utywala phaya emva โฆ ndibazi bonke. Kwaye isizathu sokuba bazive bekhuselekile apha singunobangela wesi sakhiwo, nangenxa yokuba bathanda kakhulu ukuya naphina. Kodwa yingqondo yabo leyo. Yibloko yabo leyo.โ
UBrooks wandibonisa umfanekiso weqela leLittle League awayeliqeqeshe. Wehla ngomqolo wabantwana, esalatha ukuba ngabaphi abasentolongweni, ngabaphi abafileyo, kwaye ngabaphi abaqhuba kakuhle. Waze wakhomba unyana wakhe-โYinkwenkwe yam, Billy,โ watsho uBrooks. Emva koko wazibuza ngokuvakalayo ukuba ukugcina unyana wakhe kunye naye ngoxa wayesebenza eMntla Lawndale kwakumkhawulezisile kusini na ukufa kwakhe. โLunxibelelwano oluqinisekileyo, kuba ebeyinxalenye yento endiyenzileyo apha. Kwaye ndicinga ukuba mhlawumbi bekungafanelanga ndimveze. Kodwa ke, kwafuneka,โ watsho, โkuba ndandifuna ukuba naye.โ
Ukususela kwi-White House ukuhla, intsomi ithi ukuba ngutata yeyona nto iphambili ekuguleni abantu abantsundu. Kodwa uBilly Brooks Omnci. wayenotata. UTrayvon Martin wayenotata. UJordan uDavis wayenoyise. Ukubambelela kwizithethe ezikumgangatho ophakathi akuzange kubakhusele abantu abantsundu ekuphangweni. Ukubambelela kwimigaqo yodidi oluphakathi kuko oko kwenza i-Ethel Weatherspoon yaba kujoliso lwengeniso kubaqiqi abaqwengayo. Abathengisi bekhontrakthi abazange bajolise kwabo bahlupheka kakhulu. Bajolise kubantu abantsundu abaye basebenza nzima ngokwaneleyo ukugcina intlawulo ephantsi kwaye baphupha umqondiso wobumi baseMerika-ubunikazi bezindlu. Kwakungeyona i-tangle ye-pathology ebeka injongo kumqolo kaClyde Ross. Yayingengobuhlwempu obakhethayo uMattie Lewis โnjengochulumanco lokuleqa nokubulala.โ Abanye abantu abamnyama baya kuhlala belungile ngokuphindwe kabini. Kodwa ngokubanzi bafumanisa ukuba ukudlwengulwa okumhlophe kuphindwe kathathu ngokukhawuleza.
Abantu abakhululekileyo namhlanje badla ngokujonga ubuhlanga kungekhona njengento ekhoyo, ububi obahlukileyo kodwa njengesalamane sentlupheko yabamhlophe nokungalingani. Abayihoyanga isithethe eside seli lizwe esohlwaya ngempumelelo abantu abamnyama-kunye nokunyuswa kweso sohlwayo, phakathi kwenkulungwane yama-20, ukuya kumgaqo-nkqubo womanyano. UMongameli uLyndon Johnson usenokuba waphawula kwintetho yakhe yamalungelo oluntu kwiYunivesithi yaseWoward ngo-1965 ukuba "Intlupheko yeNegro ayiyontlupheko emhlophe." Kodwa abacebisi bakhe nabangeneli ezihlangwini zabo babe, kwaye basakruqukile ukwenza nawuphi na umgaqo-nkqubo owuqondayo umahluko.
Emva kwentetho yakhe, uJohnson wabiza iqela leenkokeli ezilwela amalungelo oluntu, kuquka nowayehlonelwa uA. Philip Randolph noBayard Rustin, ukuze balungise โinkohlakalo yamandulo.โ Kwiphepha lesicwangciso, bavumelana nomongameli ukuba "Intlupheko yeNegro yindlela ekhethekileyo, kwaye eyonakalisayo, yentlupheko yaseMelika." Kodwa xa kufikelelwa kumba wokujongana ngqo โnentshabalalo engakumbi,โ iqela likaRustin larhoxa, likhetha ukuqhubela phambili iinkqubo ezazithetha โbonke abahlwempuzekileyo, abamnyama nabamhlophe.โ
Umnqweno wokusebenzisa amandla okuziphatha omzabalazo wabantsundu ukujongana nokungalingani okubanzi kuvela kuvelwano kunye nepragmatism. Kodwa yenza umgaqo-nkqubo ongacacanga. Iinjongo ezichanekileyo ze-Affirmative action, umzekelo, bezisoloko zibonakala zinzima. Ngaba yenzelwe ukulungisa ulwaphulo-mthetho olufunjwe ebantwini abamnyama? Akunjalo ngokutsho kweNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ekulawuleni kwayo ngowe-1978 IiRegents zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke, INkundla yakhaba โucalucalulo ekuhlaleniโ โnjengengcinga engaqhelekanga yokwenzakala esenokungagungqi kwixesha elidlulileyo.โ Ngaba inyathelo eliqinisekisiweyo lenzelwe ukwandisa "iyantlukwano"? Ukuba kunjalo, ihambelana kuphela neengxaki ezithile zabantu abamnyama-ingxaki yento eyenziwa yiMelika kubo kwiinkulungwane ezininzi.
Oku kubhideka malunga neenjongo ze-affirmative action, kunye nokungakwazi kwethu ukujongana nembali ethile yokunqongophala okunyanzeliswa kwabamhlophe, kususela emva kwimvelaphi yomgaqo-nkqubo. โAkukho ngcaciso imiselweyo neqinileyo yesenzo sokuqinisekisa,โ wabhengeza oqeshwe kwiSebe lezaBasebenzi likaJohnson. โIsenzo sokuqinisekisa ngayo nayiphi na into ekufuneka uyenzile ukuze ufumane iziphumo. Kodwa oku akuquki impatho ekhethekileyo.โ
Nangona kunjalo iMelika yakhiwe phezu kwempatho ekhethekileyo yabantu abamhlophe-iminyaka engama-395 yayo. Ukuvumela ngokungathandabuzekiyo ukwahluka, ukuziva ulungile kwenza kancinci kakhulu ukulungisa oku.
Namhlanje, abaqhubela phambili bayacekisa ukucela ukongama kwabamhlophe njengengcaciso yayo nantoni na. Kwinqanaba lokwenziwayo, ukuthandabuza kuvela kumbono omfiliba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ewuthathileyo kuhlaziyo lweminyaka yee-1960. UMthetho wamaLungelo oKuvota ugxothiwe. I-Fair Housing Act ingaba ngolandelayo. Isenzo esiqinisekisiweyo sikwimilenze yayo yokugqibela. Ekumiseleni umzabalazo wodidi olubanzi endaweni yomzabalazo wokuchasa ubuhlanga, abaqhubela phambili banethemba lokuhlanganisa imbumba ngokuguqula umxholo.
Iipolitiki zokuphepha ubuhlanga ziyahenda. Kodwa irekhodi lixutywe. Uncedo kwiiNtsapho ezinaBantwana abaXhomekekileyo ekuqaleni lwalubhalelwe ikakhulu ngaphandle kwabantsunduโkodwa ngeminyaka yoo-1990 lwalubonwa njengomnikelo kwabantsundu. UMthetho wokuNakekela okufikelelekayo awukhankanyi uhlanga, kodwa oku akuzange kumgcine uRush Limbaugh ekuwugxekeni njengembuyekezo. Ngaphezu koko, ukwandiswa kwesenzo seMedicaid kwenziwa ngokufanelekileyo, oku kuthetha ukuba abaninzi abamnyama abahluphekayo kwiindawo zangaphambili ze-Confederate abazuzi kuyo. I-Affordable Care Act, njengoKhuseleko lweNtlalo, ekugqibeleni iya kwandisa ukufikelela kwayo kwabo bashiywe ngaphandle; okwangoku, abantu abamnyama baya kwenzakala.
Isazi ngentlalo yabantu uDouglas S. Massey ubhala athi: โYonke into ebiya kuthatha ukutshonisa inkqubo entsha ye-WPA iya kuba yimifanekiso epakishwe ngobuchule yamadoda amnyama angqiyame kwimihlakulo etshaya imidiza. "Ukupapasha malunga nomba wobuhlanga kwenza ithiyori embi kwezentlalo, uphando olubi, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo ombi woluntu." Ukusibetha ngoyaba isibakala sokuba enye yezona riphabliki ezindala ehlabathini zamiselwa phezu kwesiseko solongamo lwabamhlophe, ukuzenza ngathi iingxaki zebutho labantu abantlu-mbini ziyafana nengxaki yobukhapitali obungalawulekiyo, kukugubungela isono sokuphangwa kwesizwe ngoongxowankulu. isono sokuxoka kwesizwe. Ubuxoki bungayihoyi into yokuba ukunciphisa ubuhlwempu baseMelika kunye nokuphelisa ubungangamsha abamhlophe akufani. Ubuxoki buyayihoya into yokuba ukuvala โumsantsa wempumeleloโ akusayi kwenza nto ukuvala โumsantsa wokwenzakala,โ apho abaphumelele kwiikholeji abamnyama basenezinga eliphezulu lentswela-ngqesho kunabamhlophe abaphumelele kwiikholeji, kwaye abafaki-zicelo bemisebenzi abamnyama abangenazo iirekhodi zolwaphulo-mthetho banandipha ithuba elifanayo. yokuqeshwa njengabafaki-zicelo abamhlophe kunye iingxelo zolwaphulo-mthetho.
IChicago, njengelizwe ngokubanzi, yamkele imigaqo-nkqubo ebeka abona bantu bamnyama baseMelika abanamandla, amabhongo, kunye nabanobutyebi ngaphaya kwebala loluntu kwaye babaphawule njengeenjongo ezifanelekileyo zobusela obusemthethweni. Imiphumo iphinda ibuyele ngaphaya kweentsapho eziphangiweyo kuluntu olubona umboniso. Musa nje umfanekiso kaClyde Ross esebenza imisebenzi emithathu ukuze abambelele ekhayeni lakhe. Cinga ngabamelwane bakhe baseMntla Lawndaleโabantwana babo, abatshana baboโyaye ucinge ngendlela ukubukela oku okubachaphazela ngayo. Khawube nomfanekiso-ngqondweni wakho ungumntwana omnyama obukele abadala bakho bedlala ngayo yonke imithetho kuphela ukuba izinto zabo zilahlwe esitratweni kwaye bathathe eyona nto ingcwele-ikhaya labo.
Umyalezo owufumanayo inkwenkwana emnyama kwilizwe lakowabo, uBilly Brooks uthi, โ 'Awuyiyo ikaka. Awulunganga. Inye kuphela into oyixabisayo kukusebenzela thina. Awusoze ube nanto. Awuzukuyifumana imfundo. Sithumela iesile lakho entolongweni.' Bakuxelela nokuba unzima kangakanani na, nokuba ubeka ntoni na, awuyo shit. 'Siza kuthabatha oko unako. Awusoze ube nanto, nigger.' โ
IX. NgaseLizwe Elitsha
Xa uClyde Ross wayengumntwana, umntakwabo uWinter waxhuzula. Wacholwa ngabasemagunyeni wasiwa kwiFama yaseParchman, intolongo yesizwe yeehektare ezingama-20,000 kwingingqi yeDelta yaseMississippi.
"Wayengumntu othobekileyo," uClyde Ross uthi ngomntakwabo. โUyazi, ebelungile kuye wonke umntu. Kwaye waqala ukuba namakhubalo, kwaye akazange akwazi ukuzibamba. Kwaye bamphakamisa, kuba babecinga ukuba uyingozi.
Eyakhiwe ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane, iParchman yayifanele ukuba ibe yimpendulo eqhubekayo kunye nenguqu kwingxaki "yobugebenga beNegro." Enyanisweni yayiyi-gulag ye-Mississippi, into eyoyikisayo kubantu base-Afrika baseMelika kwi-Delta. Kwiminyaka yokuqala yenkulungwane yama-20, iRhuluneli yaseMississippi uJames K. Vardaman wayedla ngokuzonwaba ngokukhulula amabanjwa antsundu ukuba aye kwintlango eyingqongileyo aze azingele ngamarhamncwa egazi. Kwincwadi yakhe uDavid M. Oshinsky uthi: โKuwo wonke uMzantsi waseMerikaImbi Kunobukhoboka, "Ifama yaseParchman ifana nesohlwayo kunye nenkohlakalo, ngokunjalo kufanele ukuba ... I-Parchman yifama yezohlwayo ye-quintessential, eyona nto isondeleyo kubukhoboka obasinda kwiMfazwe yamakhaya."
Xa intsapho yakwaRoss yaya kulanda uBusika, abasemagunyeni babaxelela ukuba uBusika ufile. Xa intsapho yakwaRoss icela umzimba wakhe, abasemagunyeni eParchman bathi bamngcwabile. Usapho aluzange luwubone umzimba kaWinter.
Yaye le yayiyenye nje yeelahleko zabo.
Abaphengululi kudala bexoxa ngeendlela apho iMelika inokwenza imbuyekezo kwabo basebenza kunye nokukhutshelwa ngaphandle kwelizwe. Ngeminyaka yoo-1970, unjingalwazi woMthetho waseYale u-Boris Bittker waxoxa Ityala loBuyekezo lwabaMnyama ukuba ixabiso elirhabaxa lembuyekezo lingamiselwa ngokuphinda-phinda inani labantu base-Afrika baseMelika kubemi ngokwahlulo kumvuzo omhlophe nomnyama ngomntu ngamnye. Elo naniโi-34 yeebhiliyoni zeerandi ngowe-1973, xa uBittker wabhala incwadi yakheโinokongezwa kwinkqubo yembuyekezo nyaka ngamnye kangangeminyaka elishumi okanye emibini. Namhlanje uCharles Ogletree, unjingalwazi weHarvard Law School, uxoxa ngento ebanzi: inkqubo yoqeqesho lomsebenzi kunye nemisebenzi yoluntu ethatha ubulungisa bobuhlanga njengomsebenzi wayo kodwa ibandakanya amahlwempu azo zonke iintlanga.
Ukubhiyozela inkululeko kunye nedemokhrasi ngelixa ukulibala imvelaphi yaseMelika kuqoqosho lobukhoboka kukuthand' izwe ร la carte.
Mhlawumbi akukho manani abonisa kakuhle ilifa elihlala lihleli lembali elihlazo yelizwe lethu lokuphatha abantu abamnyama njengabemi, ama-sub-Americans, kunye nabantu abancinci kunomsantsa wobutyebi. Ulungiso luya kufuna ukuvala lo msantsa. Kodwa ngokuqinisekileyo njengoko ukudalwa komsantsa wobutyebi kufuna intsebenziswano yawo wonke umba woluntu, ukuwuvala kuya kufuna okufanayo.
Mhlawumbi emva kwengxoxo enzulu kunye nengxoxo-uhlobo olucetywa ngu-HR 40-sinokufumanisa ukuba ilizwe alinakuze libuyisele ngokupheleleyo abantu base-Afrika baseMelika. Kodwa siza kufumanisa okuninzi ngathi kwingxubusho enjaloโyaye mhlawumbi yiloo nto eyoyikisayo. Umbono wembuyekezo uyoyikeka hayi nje kuba singakwazi ukuhlawula. Umbono wembuyekezo usongela into enzulu ngakumbi-ilifa leMelika, imbali kunye nokuma kwehlabathi.
Uqoqosho lwangaphambili lwaseMelika lwalwakhiwe phezu kwamakhoboka. I-Capitol kunye ne-White House zakhiwa ngamakhoboka. UMongameli James K. Polk wathengisa ngamakhoboka kwiOfisi ye-Oval. Izikhalo malunga "ne-pathology emnyama," ukugxekwa kweziseko zeentsapho ezimnyama ngoochwephesha kunye neengqondi, zingenasiphelo kwilizwe elibukho babo buchazwe ngokungcungcuthekiswa kootata abamnyama, ngokudlwengulwa koomama abamnyama, ngokuthengiswa kwabantwana abamnyama. Uvavanyo olunyanisekileyo lobudlelwane baseMelika kusapho oluntsundu lutyhila ilizwe ukuba alingomondli walo kodwa ngumtshabalalisi walo.
Yaye le ntshabalalo ayizange iphele ngobukhoboka. Imithetho yocalucalulo yadibanisa umthwalo olinganayo wobumi ekwabiweni ngokulinganayo kwenzuzo yayo. Le mithetho yafikelela kwincopho yayo phakathi kwenkulungwane yama-20, xa urhulumente wobumbano-ngemigaqo-nkqubo yezindlu-wayeyila umsantsa wobutyebi, ohleli kuthi unanamhla. Xa sicinga ngegunya elimhlophe, sibonisa iimpawu eziMbalabala Kuphela, kodwa kufuneka sifanekise iiflegi zamapirate.
Kwinqanaba elithile, besisoloko sikubamba oku.
"Intlupheko yeNegro ayiyontlupheko emhlophe," utshilo uMongameli Johnson kwintetho yakhe yamalungelo oluntu.
Uninzi lwezizathu zayo kunye nonyango lwazo oluninzi ziyafana. Kodwa kukho iyantlukwanoโiyantlukwano enzulu, eyonakalisayo neyinkaniโevelisa iingcambu ezibuhlungu ekuhlaleni nasentsatsheni, nakuhlobo lomntu ngamnye. Le yantlukwano ayiyoyantlukwano yobuhlanga. Ziyimiphumo yenkohlakalo yamandulo, ukungabikho kokusesikweni kwangaphambili, nocalucalulo olukhoyo ngoku.
Siwabongoza amazwi kaJefferson noLincoln kuba bathetha okuthile malunga nelifa lethu nezithethe zethu. Senza oku kuba siyawaqaphela amakhonkco ethu kwixesha elidlulileyo-ubuncinane xa zisikhohlisa. Kodwa imbali emnyama ayiyicebisi idemokhrasi yaseMelika; iyayikhalimela. Ukugculelwa okudumileyo kwembuyekezo njengenkqubo ebhalwe ngoonqevu ebhalwe ngabashiyekileyo abanamehlo angalawulekiyo kunye nabalandeli belizwe abantsundu abangenangqondo kukoyika ukuzenza ngathi yintsini. Abantu abamnyama belizwe bahlala bebona into engenakuchazwa malunga neMelika ukuba abahlanganisi abafuni ukuyivuma-ukuba ubungangamsha abamhlophe ayisiyiyo nje into eyenziwa ngama-demagogues ashushu, okanye umcimbi wokuqonda ubuxoki, kodwa amandla asisiseko eMelika kangangokuba kunzima ukucinga ilizwe ngaphandle. yona.
Kwaye ke kufuneka sibe nomfanekiso welizwe elitsha. Imbuyekezo-endithetha ngayo ukwamkelwa ngokupheleleyo kwebhayiloji yethu edibeneyo kunye neziphumo zayo-lixabiso ekufuneka silihlawule ukuze sizibone ngokuthe ngqo. Ikhoboka lotywala elichachayo kusenokufuneka liphile nesigulo salo ubomi balo bonke. Kodwa noko akaphili ubuxoki obunxilileyo. Ukulungiswa kuyasikhanga ukuba sikugatye ukuxilwa kwe-hubris kwaye sibone iMelika njengoko injalo-umsebenzi wabantu abangafezekanga.
Ngaba imbuyekezo ayisayi kusahlula? Akukho ngaphezu kokuba sele sahlulelene. Umsantsa wobutyebi ubeka nje inani kwinto esiyivayo kodwa esingenakuyithetha-ukuba impumelelo yaseMelika ayizange ifumaneke kwaye yayikhetha ekusasazweni kwayo. Into efunekayo kukusasazwa kweemfihlo zosapho, ukuzinza nemimoya emidala. Yintoni efunekayo kukuphulukiswa kwengqondo yaseMelika kunye nokugxothwa kwetyala elimhlophe.
Le nto ndithetha ngayo ingaphezu kwembuyekezo yokungabikho kokusesikweni kwixa elidluleyoโngaphezu kokuphiwa imali, imbuyekezo, imali ethe cwaka, okanye isinyobo esingafuniyo. Le nto ndithetha ngayo lubalo lwesizwe oluya kukhokelela kuhlaziyo lwasemoyeni. Imbuyekezo ingathetha ukuphela kokukrazulwa kwehot dogs ngomhla weSine kuJulayi ngelixa sikhanyela iinyani zelifa lethu. Ukubuyiselwa kuya kuthetha ukuphela kokukhwaza "ukuthanda izwe" ngelixa uwangawangisa iflegi ye-Confederate. Ukubuyiselwa kuya kuthetha uguquko kwingqondo yaseMelika, ukulungelelaniswa komfanekiso wethu njengedemokhrasi enkulu kunye neenyani zembali yethu.
X. โAkusayi Kubakho 'Imbuyekezo' evela eJamaniโ
Asingabo abokuqala ukubizelwa kucelomngeni olunjalo.
Ngowe-1952, xa iNtshona Jamani yaqalisa inkqubo yokulungisa ukuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo, yakwenza oko phantsi kweemeko ezazifanele zisifundise. Inkcaso yayinogonyamelo. Ambalwa kakhulu amaJamani awayekholelwa ukuba amaYuda anelungelo layo nantoni na. Kuphela sisi-5 ekhulwini sabemi baseNtshona Jamani ekwenziwa uhlolisiso kubo abathi baziva benetyala ngokuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo, yaye ngama-29 ekhulwini kuphela awayekholelwa ukuba amaYuda ayenembuyekezo evela kubantu baseJamani.
"Abanye," umbhali-mbali uTony Judt wabhala kwincwadi yakhe ka-2005, Emva kwemfazwe, โzahlulwa phakathi kwabo (abanye ababini kwabahlanu kwabo baphendulayo) babecinga ukuba kuphela ngabantu โabenze into ethileโ ababemele bahlawule, nabo (ngama-21 ekhulwini) ababecinga ukuba โngamaYuda ayebekekโ ityala ngoko kwenzekayo. kubo ebudeni boLawulo Lwesithathu.' โ
Ukungafuni kweJamani ukujongana ngqo nembali yayo kudlulele ngaphaya kokuvota. Iimuvi ezicebisa uxanduva loluntu lokuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo ngaphaya kukaHitler zavalwa. โIjoni laseJamani lalwela ilizwe lalo ngenkalipho nangembeko,โ watsho njalo uMongameli Eisenhower, exhasa intsomi yelizwe likaTeutonic. UJudt wabhala wathi, โKuyo yonke iminyaka yamashumi amahlanu igosa laseNtshona Jamani lalikhuthaza imbono etofotofo ngembali yaseJamani apho iWehrmacht yayingamagorha, ngoxa amaNazi ayembalwa yaye ohlwaywa ngokufanelekileyo.โ
UKonrad Adenauer, ingqonyela yaseJamani emva kwemfazwe, wayethanda imbuyekezo, kodwa iqela lakhe lahlulwa, kwaye wakwazi ukufumana isivumelwano esipasiswe kuphela ngeevoti zeqela eliphikisayo leSocial Democratic.
Phakathi kwamaYuda akwaSirayeli, impindezelo yabangela ukuba kubekho izenzo zogonyamelo neziyingozi ezisusela ekugxekweni ukusa kumayelenqe okubulala. NgoJanuwari 7, 1952, njengoko iKnessetโipalamente yakwaSirayeliโyahlanganisana ukuze kuxutyushwe ngethemba lesivumelwano sembuyekezo neNtshona Jamani, uMenachem Begin, owayesakuba yinkulumbuso yakwaSirayeli, wema phambi kwesihlwele esikhulu, esenza uhlolisiso nxamnye nelo lizwe. Uphange ubomi, umsebenzi, nezinto zabantu bakhe. Uqale wathi onke amaJamani ayengamaNazi kwaye enetyala lokubulala. Ukugwetywa kwakhe kwanwenwela nakwimeko yakhe yobutsha. Ubongoze isihlwele ukuba siyeke ukuhlawula irhafu kwaye wathi ilizwe lakwa-Israel elisandulโ ukuvela liwuphawulile umlo wokuba uyakwamkela na ukuhlawulelwa โnjengemfazwe yokufa.โ Xa waxelelwa ukuba amapolisa awayebukele loo ndibano aphethe izintywizisi, ekuthiwa zezenziwe eJamani, uBegin wadanduluka wathi, โKwaezo gesi zaphefumla abazali bethu!โ
Uqalise ngoko ukukhokelela isihlwele kwisifungo sokungaze siwalibale amaxhoba eShoah, hleze โisandla sam sokunene siphulukane nobuqhophololoโ size โulwimi lwam lunamathele ekhuhlangubeni lam.โ Wathatha isihlwele esityhutyha ezitratweni esiya eKnesset. Ephezu kwezindlu, amapolisa agxotha loo zihlwele ngezintywizisi neziqhushumbisi zomsi. Kodwa umoya waguquka, yaza irhasi yabuyela umva isiya ngaseKnesset, ibhuqa ngeefestile eziqhekezwe ngamatye. Kwisiphithiphithi, uQalisa kunye noNdunankulu uDavid Ben-Gurion batshintshiselana ngezithuko. Amakhulu amabini abemi kunye namapolisa ayi-140 enzakala. Bamalunga nama-400 abantu ababanjiweyo. Ishishini leKnesset lamiswa.
Uqale emva koko wathetha nendlu ngentetho evuthayo egxeka izenzo ezaziza kuthatyathwa ngundlu yowiso-mthetho. โNamhlanje nibambe amakhulukhulu,โ watsho. โNgomso ningabamba amawaka. Kungakhathaliseki, baya kuhamba, baya kuhlala entolongweni. Siza kuhlala nabo apho. Ukuba kuyimfuneko, siya kubulawa kunye nabo. Kodwa akusayi kubakho 'mbuyekezo' evela eJamani. โ
Abasindileyo ekuBulaweni Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo boyika ukurhwaphiliza igama laseJamani ngemali, kunye nokubambisa inkumbulo yabafileyo babo. Ngaphandle koko, kwakukho incasa yokuziphindezela. UMeir Dworzecki, owayesinde kwiinkampu zoxinaniso zase-Estonia wathi: โUmphefumlo wam ubunokuphumla ukuba bendisazi ukuba kuza kufa abantu baseJamani abazizigidi ezi-6 ukuze balingane namaYuda azizigidi ezi-6.
UBen-Gurion wayichasa loo nto, kungekhona ngokugatya impindezelo kodwa eqiqa ngelithi: โUkuba bendinokuthabatha indawo yamaJamani ngaphandle kokuhlala phantsi nomzuzu nje omnye kodwa ndingene ndiphethe iijeep nemipu ndize ndiyise koovimba, bendiya kuyenza loo nto. ukubaโukuba, ngokomzekelo, besinokukwazi ukuthumela ikhulu lezahlulo size sithi kuwo, โYithabatheni.โ Kodwa asinakuyenza loo nto.โ
Incoko yembuyekezo yaqalisa ilinge lokuzama ukuqhushumba ngabavukeli bakwaSirayeli. Enye yayijoliswe kwisebe lezangaphandle eTel Aviv. Enye yayijoliswe kuChancellor Adenauer ngokwakhe. Kwaye enye yayijoliswe kwizibuko laseHaifa, apho iimpahla ezithengwe ngemali yembuyekezo zazifika. I-West Germany ekugqibeleni ivumile ukuhlawula u-Israel 3.45 billion deutsche marks, okanye ngaphezulu kwe-7 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kwiidola zanamhlanje. Kwalandela amabango okubuyisela umntu ngamnyeโukwenzakala ngokwasengqondweni, ngenxa yokwaphula imbeko kumaYuda, ukunqumamisa imisebenzi yezomthetho, i-inshorensi yobomi, ixesha elichithwe kwiinkampu zoxinaniso. Ishumi elinesixhenxe leepesenti leemali liye laya kuthenga iinqanawa. Umbhali-mbali wakwaSirayeli uTom Segev ubhala athi: โNgasekupheleni kowe-1961, ezi nqanawa zembuyekezo zazisele zisisibini kwisithathu senqanawa yabarhwebi bakwaSirayeli. Isigidi sesixhenxe. โUkususela ngowe-1953 ukusa kowe-1963, imali yembuyekezo yaxhasa ngemali emalunga nesinye kwisithathu sotyalo-mali lulonke lwenkqubo yombane yakwaSirayeli, oluphindaphindeke kathathu umthamo walo, yaye phantse isiqingatha sotyalo-mali lulonke koololiwe.โ
I-GNP yakwaSirayeli iphindwe kathathu ngexesha leminyaka eli-12 yesivumelwano. IBhanki yakwaSirayeli yathi i-15 pesenti yolu lwando, kunye nemisebenzi engama-45,000 XNUMX, ibangelwe lutyalo-mali lwembuyekezo. Kodwa uSegev uxoxa ngelithi impembelelo idlulele ngaphaya koko. Ukuhlaziya โkwakunokubaluleka okungenakuphikiswa ngokwasengqondweni nakwezopolitiko,โ ubhala watsho.
Imbuyekezo ayizange ikwazi ukuhlawulela ukubulawa okwakusenziwa ngamaNazi. Kodwa baye baqalisa ukubala kweJamani, kwaye mhlawumbi banikezela ngemephu yendlela yendlela impucuko enkulu enokuthi izenze ilifanele ngayo igama.
Evavanya isivumelwano sembuyekezo, uDavid Ben-Gurion uthe:
Ngokokuqala ngqa kwimbali yobudlelwane phakathi kwabantu, umzekelo wenziwa apho uRhulumente omkhulu, ngenxa yoxinzelelo lokuziphatha yedwa, uthatha ukuhlawula imbuyekezo kumaxhoba karhulumente owandulelayo. Okokuqala kwimbali yabantu abaye batshutshiswa, bacinezelwa, baphangwa kwaye baphangwa kangangamakhulu eminyaka kumazwe aseYurophu, umtshutshisi kunye nomphangi uye wanyanzeleka ukuba abuyisele inxalenye yempahla yakhe kwaye uye wazama ukwenza imbumba. imbuyekezo njengembuyekezo eyinxenye yelahleko yezinto eziphathekayo.
Into engaphezulu koxinzelelo lokuziphatha ibiza iMelika kwimbuyekezo. Asinakuyibaleka imbali yethu. Zonke izisombululo zethu kwiingxaki ezinkulu zokhathalelo lwempilo, imfundo, izindlu, nokungalingani kwezoqoqosho zikhathazwa koko kumele kungahambi kuthethwe. "Isizathu sokuba abantu abamnyama basemva kakhulu ngoku asikho ngenxa yangoku," uClyde Ross wandixelela. "Kungenxa yoko." Ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-2000, uCharles Ogletree waya eTulsa, e-Oklahoma, ukuya kudibana nabasinde kugqatso logqatso luka-1921 olwatshabalalisa โiBlack Wall Street.โ Ixesha elidluleyo lalingekudalanga kubo. โKwakumangalisa ukubona aba bafazi bantsundu kunye namadoda aziziqhwala, iimfama, ekwizitulo ezinamavili,โ wandixelela uOgletree. โNdandingazi ukuba ngoobani nokuba kutheni befuna ukundibona. Bathi, 'Sifuna ukuba usimele kweli tyala.' โ
Ikomishoni egunyaziswe lipalamente yase-Oklahoma yavelisa ingxelo eqinisekisa ukuba olu dushe, nolwazi lwalo kangangeminyaka, lwenzekile. Kodwa isimangalo sasilela ekugqibeleni, ngo-2004. Izimangalo ezifanayo ziye zatyhalela phambili kumaqumrhu afana no-Aetna (owayefake amakhoboka kwi-inshorensi) kunye ne-Lehman Brothers (ababengabanini bomlingane wabo) nabo baye basilela ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Ezi ziphumo ziyadimaza, kodwa ulwaphulo-mthetho abatyholwa ngalo ilizwe ngabatshayeli bembuyekezo luchaphazela iidolophu okanye amaqumrhu ambalwa nje. Ulwaphulo-mthetho lubeka abantu baseMelika ngokwabo, kuwo onke amanqanaba, kwaye phantse kulo lonke ulungelelwaniso. Ulwaphulo-mthetho oluchaphazela bonke abantu baseMelika lufanele ukuviwa kumbutho wowiso-mthetho omele bona.
UJohn Conyers's HR 40 sisithuthi sokuxoxwa kwetyala. Akukho mntu unokwazi ukuba kuya kuvela ntoni kwingxoxo enjalo. Mhlawumbi akukho nani linokuthimba ngokupheleleyo ukuphangwa kweenkulungwane ezininzi zabantu abamnyama eMelika. Mhlawumbi inani likhulu kangangokuba alinakucingelwa, singasathethi ke ngokubalwa nokusasazwa. Kodwa ndiyakholelwa ukuba ukulwa esidlangalaleni ngale mibuzo kubaluleke kakhulu-ukuba akukho ngaphezu kweempendulo ezithile ezinokuvezwa. IMelika ebuza ukuba yintoni ebatyala yona abemi bayo abasesichengeni iphuculwe kwaye inobuntu. IMelika ejonge kude ayihoyi nje izono zexesha elidlulileyo kodwa nezono zangoku kunye nezono ezithile zexesha elizayo. Okubaluleke ngakumbi kunayo nayiphi na itshekhi esikiweyo nayiphi na i-Afrika yaseMelika, intlawulo yembuyekezo iya kubonisa ukukhula kweMelika kwintsomi yobuntwana yobumsulwa bayo bubulumko obufanele abaseki bayo.
Ngo-2010, uJacob S. Rugh, owayesakuba nguGqirha ePrinceton, kunye nesazi ngezentlalo uDouglas S. Massey bapapasha uphononongo lwengxaki yakutshanje yokuvalwa kwelizwe. Phakathi kwabaqhubi bayo, bafumana utshaba oludala: ucalucalulo. Abathengi basekhaya abamnyama-nangona emva kokulawula izinto ezifana ne-creditworthiness-babesebaninzi kunabathengi basekhaya abamhlophe ukuba baqhutywe kwiimali mboleko ze-subprime. Amashumi eminyaka yemigaqo-nkqubo yezindlu zocalucalulo ngurhulumente waseMelika, kunye namashumi eminyaka ezenzo zocalucalulo zezindlu ngamashishini aseMelika, benze iyelenqe lokugxila kuma-Afrika aseMelika kwindawo enye. NjengakuMntla Lawndale kwisiqingatha senkulungwane ngaphambili, ezi ndawo zazizaliswe ngabantu ababengafumaneki kumaziko emali aqhelekileyo. Xa ababolekisi be-subprime besiya kukhangela amaxhoba, bafika abantu abantsundu belindile njengamadada esibayeni.
URugh noMassey babhala bathi: โAmanqanaba aphezulu ocalucalulo adala imakethi yendalo yokubolekisa ngemali encinci, kwaye kubangele ukuba imali mboleko yezindlu ezinobungozi, kwaye ngenxa yoko ukuvalwa, kuqokelelwe ngokungafaniyo kwiindawo ezincinci ezicalulwe ngobuhlanga.
Ukuphanga kwixesha elidlulileyo kwakuphanga ngokusebenzayo ngoku. Iibhanki zaseMelika zaziyiqonda le nto. Kwi-2005, u-Wells Fargo wakhuthaza uluhlu lweesemina zeSicwangciso soKwakha uButyebi. Izibiza ngokuba โngumsunguli ophambili wesizwe wemali mboleko yezindlu kubathengi abambalwa besizwe,โ le bhanki yabhalisa abantu abantsundu kwiinzame zokufundisa abamnyama ngokwakha โubutyebi besizukulwanaโ. Kodwa iisemina โzokwakha ubutyebiโ zaziphambili kubusela bobutyebi. Ngo-2010, iSebe lezoBulungisa lafaka isimangalo socalucalulo ngokuchasene no-Wells Fargo etyhola ukuba ibhanki ikhuphe abantu abamnyama kwiimali-mboleko ezikhohlisayo kungakhathaliseki ukuba banelungelo lokuthenga ngetyala. Le yayingengomlingo okanye ngamabona-ndenzile okanye ilishwa. Yayibubuhlanga buziqinisa. Ngoku ka INew York Times, ii-afidavithi zifumene amagosa emali-mboleko ebhekisa kubathengi babo abamnyama "njengabantu bodaka" kunye neemveliso zabo ze-subprime "njengemali-mboleko yeghetto."
โSisanda kubalandela,โ utshilo uBeth Jacobson, owayesakuba ligosa lemali-mboleko eWells Fargo The Maxesha. "I-Wells Fargo mortgage yayineyunithi yentengiso ejolise ngokukodwa kwiicawe zabantsundu kuba ibona ukuba iinkokeli zecawa zinefuthe elikhulu kwaye zinokuqinisekisa amarhamente ukuba athathe imali-mboleko."
Ngo-2011, iBhanki yaseMelika yavuma ukuhlawula i-355 yezigidi zeedola ukulungisa izityholo zocalucalulo kwiyunithi yayo yelizwe lonke. Kunyaka olandelayo, u-Wells Fargo walungisa isuti yakhe yocalucalulo ngaphezulu kwe-175 yezigidi zeedola. Kodwa umonakalo wawusele wenzekile. Ngo-2009, isiqingatha sepropati e-Baltimore abanini babo banikwe imali-mboleko ngu-Wells Fargo phakathi kuka-2005 kunye no-2008 babengenamntu; Iipesenti ezingama-71 zezi zakhiwo bezikwindawo ezihlala abantu abamnyama ubukhulu becala.
I-Ta-Nehisi Coates ngumnxibelelanisi wesizwe kwi the Atlantic, apho abhala ngenkcubeko, ezopolitiko, kunye nemiba yentlalo. Ungumbhali wememoir UMzabalazo Omhle.
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Nikela