Imigaqo-nkqubo yokuQala, ukuBandakanya koLuntu kunye nobuthathaka beZiko
Unyulo lukaHugo Chávez njengomongameli waseVenezuela ngo-1998 njengomntu wangaphandle kwezopolitiko kunye neepesenti ezingama-56 evoti ingqina ubukhulu becala kwisibongozo sakhe phakathi kwabo bangabandakanywanga kubomi besizwe bezopolitiko, uqoqosho kunye nenkcubeko. Uninzi lwaba bantu babizwa ngokuba "bajongelwe phantsi" baseVenezuela basebenza kuqoqosho olungekho sikweni, ngelixa abanye bengabasebenzi basemaphandleni. Indima yabo ebalulekileyo yezopolitiko ibalulekile kuba incede ukubumba iinkqubo zentlalo eziphunyezwe ngurhulumente waseChávez, ngakumbi imiba yabo yokuqalisa kunye neyokulinga.
Amaqela ahlelelekileyo kuyo yonke indawo ngokwesiko ayayeka ukuvota.1 Uninzi lwabasebenzi abasebenza ngaphandle koqoqosho olusemthethweni abanawo amava ombutho, ukuzithemba kunye nokuziphatha kwabantu abaphakathi nabasebenzayo. Aba bamva, umzekelo, bangamalungu emibutho yabasebenzi kwaye ke ngoko baya rhoqo kwiintlanganiso kwaye bathathe inxaxheba kuqhankqalazo, kwimisebenzi efuna uqeqesho nezakhono zombutho. EVenezuela, ukukholisa amalungu amaqela ahlelelekileyo ukuba aye kuvoto, ekhuthaza ukuthatha kwabo inxaxheba kwezinye iindawo kunye nokugcina inkxaso yabo esebenzayo ekuhambeni kwexesha kumela imiceli mngeni emikhulu kurhulumente weChavista, kunye nokoyisa amathandabuzo kunye nokungakhathali. Impendulo yalo yayikukuzalisekisa iinkqubo zentlalo ngokuguquguqukayo kunye nokuphepha imithetho enzima kwaye ekhawulezayo.2
Ichaza inkqubo yezopolitiko yesizwe “njengedemokhrasi ethatha inxaxheba” kumgaqo-siseko ka-1999, imigaqo-nkqubo yezentlalo karhulumente kaChavez yakhuthaza intatho-nxaxheba ebanzi, umanyano kunye nokuxhotyiswa kwabantu. Bobathathu baxhamle amacandelo abantu adumileyo okanye angengawo, kodwa ajolise ngokukodwa ukunceda amacandelo ahlelelekileyo. Intatho-nxaxheba yayilolona didi luncinci lusekwe ngelixa udityaniso kunye nokuxhotyiswa kwakuthetha ngakumbi kubantu ababehleleleke ngakumbi kunamaqela asele ebandakanyiwe kwaye exhotyisiwe.
UEduardo Silva kunye noFederico Rossi, kwi Ukuhlengahlengisa iNdawo yezoPolitiko eLatin America, thelekisa amacebo okudityaniswa koorhulumente benkulungwane yamashumi amabini ananye “bepinki tide” kunye nabo basandul’ ukusekwa kwiidemokhrasi zaseLatin America kwisiqingatha sokuqala senkulungwane yamashumi amabini. Ngelixa le yokugqibela ibandakanya abasebenzi kubomi bezopolitiko nenkcubeko yesizwe, abo bangaphambili baye bazama ukubandakanya amacandelo angabandakanywanga nacandekileyo.3
Uvavanyo lweenzame zoorhulumente be-Chavista zokufikelela kumanyano luvelisa iziphumo ezixubeneyo. Ngalo mgca, kuluncedo ukuphonononga izigxeko ezisebenzayo ezenziwe ngamalungu omabini eqela eliphikisayo kunye nabaxhasi abathile bakarhulumente kuba akukho nokubaxwa kwempumelelo okanye izigwebo ezitshatyalaliswayo ezivakaliswe ngamaqela aphikisayo eVenezuela zisixelele ukuba kwenzeke ntoni kwaye kutheni. Kuphela luviwo olungakhethi buso olunokubonelela ngezifundo ezinokuphembelela zombini umgaqo-nkqubo wentlalontle ukuya phambili eVenezuela kwaye zikhanyise malunga nento eyenzekayo okanye enokwenzeka kwamanye amazwe apinki okanye ngaphaya. Ngenene, ukudityaniswa kwabo babekhutshelwe ngaphandle nababekelwa bucala ngokuphakathi kuthatha intsingiselo eyodwa phakathi komanyano lwamazwe ngamazwe, oluthe kuyo yonke indawo lwavelisa ezinye iindlela ngokuyinxenye okanye ngokupheleleyo ngaphandle koqoqosho olusesikweni kunye namathuba okuphila angamkelwanga ngokusemthethweni.4
Umthetho Wokuba bhetyebhetye
Ukuguquguquka kubalulekile ekuphunyezweni kweenkqubo zentlalo ezenzelwe amacandelo angathathi hlangothi-kwaye kungekhona nje kumazwe asakhasayo. Abakhutshiweyo nabangabandakanyiweyo nabo bayinxalenye ebalulekileyo yabemi behlabathi eliphuhlileyo. EUnited States, abasebenzi abavela kwibala elincinane nelobuhlanga ngokuqhelekileyo “ngabokugqibela abaqeshwayo nabagxothwa kuqala,” njengabo basuka kwamanye amazwe. Abanye babo baziva bengabandakanywanga kuqhanqalazo olukhulu olunje ngeOccupy Movement kunye neBlack Lives Matter Movement.
E-Venezuela, uninzi lweenkqubo ezininzi ezintsha eziye zasetyenziswa phantse kumashumi amabini eminyaka yolawulo lwe-Chavista ziye zaziswa kukuzinikela kukarhulumente ekubeni bhetyebhetye. Kodwa ekusebenzeni, irekhodi ligqitywe ngokuxutywa. Kwelinye icala, umgaqo-nkqubo wokuba bhetyebhetye wawukhuthaza ukuthatha inxaxheba. Kwelinye icala, kwezinye iimeko yayikhuthaza ubudlelwane bobutata kunye nolwabaxhamli olukhokelele ekuchithweni kwezibonelelo kuba abafumana inkxaso-mali karhulumente benezikhuthazi ezimbalwa zokuzalisekisa isiphelo sesivumelwano - njengakwimeko yolwabiwo lokudala iinkampani ezincinci. Umgaqo-nkqubo wokuguquguquka nawo wawusoloko ukuthintela ukumiselwa kweenkqubo zentlalontle, ebeziyithutyana kwaye zingaphandle kwezakhiwo zesebe ezilawulayo ezikhoyo.
Ezi nkqubo zikaRhulumente zilandelayo kunye namanyathelo okuqala eVenezuela ayenentsingiselo ingakumbi kwiblokhi yabemi ababevinjwe amathuba ngenxa yokuphunyezwa kwabo okuguquguqukayo.
AmaBhunga oLuntu
UMthetho weBhunga loLuntu owaphunyezwa ngo-Epreli ka-2006 wanceda ukuqalisa ukuyilwa kwamabhunga oluntu kulo lonke elaseVenezuela. Abameli boMphathiswa woPhuhliso lweNtlalo kunye nokuThatha iNxaxheba edumileyo (okwathi kwi-2009 yaba nguMphathiswa weeCommunes) bathumela oonontlalontle (“abaxhasi”) to communities to encourage them to organize communal councils. These designated promoters told community members that about 60,000 US dollars (in bolívares) would be allotted to each community for infrastructural and social projects, but that the money had to be channeled through communal councils. This procedural tactic generated enthusiasm and momentum for the creation of communal councils, which proliferated throughout the nation. By early 2007, about 20,000 communal councils had been formed.5
Amabhunga enzelwe ukuba abe nantoni na ngaphandle koluhlu lwemigangatho. Abo baphethe izigqibo zebhunga loluntu mihla le bayabizwa voceros (“spokespeople”). Equal in rank, all perform their duties free of charge and belong to just one of various communal council commissions— including an electoral commission, a “social controllership” that monitors spending, and an employment commission that enlists and seeks hiring preferences for qualified community members. All decisions are ratified in an “assembly of citizens,” which represents the communal council’s “maximum instance of decision-making” (Article 6 of the 2006 law).
Iinkqubo zenkxaso-mali ezinde zamabhunga oluntu zenzelwe ukuthintela ukuchithwa kwemali-ingxaki kwiimbumba ezininzi zabasebenzi ezikhuthazwa ngurhulumente we-Chavista ngaphambi kwe-2006 (jonga ngezantsi). Urhulumente udla ngokunikezela ngemali kumabhunga ngeentlawulo ezimbini okanye ngaphezulu kwaye ahlole iziphumo kwinqanaba ngalinye, ethatha iifoto phakathi komsebenzi. Ngaphandle kokunika iingcebiso, i abaxhasi abaqeshwe lirhuluneli okanye i-ofisi ye-Fundacomunal ye-Ofisi yoBuphathiswa be-Communes ihlola umsebenzi weprojekthi ukuqinisekisa (ukusebenzisa indlela "yentlalontle") ukuba inceda inani elilindelekileyo leentsapho. Amanye amasebe aqhuba uhlolo lwendalo yobugcisa. Ukuphumelela olu hlolo kwenza ukuba ibhunga lifumane inkxaso-mali eyongezelelweyo ukuze ligqibezele iprojekthi okanye liqalise umsebenzi omtsha. I-Fundacomunal kunye ne-Consejo Federal del Gobierno (efumana ipesenti esisigxina yohlahlo lwabiwo-mali lwesizwe eyaziwa ngokuba ibekwe ukuxhasa ngemali iprojekthi karhulumente, kamasipala kunye neeprojekthi ezixhaswa libhunga loluntu) zombini zigcina iirejistri zamabhunga oluntu apho urhuluneli kunye nezinye ii-ofisi zikarhulumente zinokujongwa ukuze kuthintelwe inkxaso-mali kumabhunga kwimeko embi.
Ngaba le nkqubo yokuhlola nokulawula iyasebenza? Usoyikiso lokunqunyanyiswa kwenkxaso-mali yoluntu lunomthwalo omkhulu voceros kunye namanye amalungu oluntu atyale ixesha elininzi neenzame ekusekweni kwebhunga. Ezi nkqubo, nangona kunjalo, azikhange zingqineke zisebenza ngokupheleleyo ngokuyinxenye ngenxa yokuba khange kubekho nzame zokuqhuba ngokwenkundla ngokuchasene nabo banetyala lezenzo ezigwenxa.6
UMthetho weBhunga le-Organic Communal ka-2009, owathatha indawo yomthetho ka-2006, wahlengahlengisa amabhunga ukuze kuphuculwe ukwenziwa kwezigqibo ezidityanelweyo. Kwasekuqaleni kwenkqubo, amagosa anyulelwe amabhunga oluntu abizwa voceros ngenxa yokungabikho kweyona misebenzi iphezulu yobunkokeli (ngokungafaniyo noomasibambisane, nganye ikhokelwa ngumongameli). Kodwa phambi komthetho we-2009, enye ilizwi was often considered communal council “president” by virtue of his or her control of the council’s financial body—the Communal Bank.
Enye ingxaki yayikukuba iCommunal Bank, intsebenziswano ngokomthetho, yayizimele geqe. Ngeso sizathu, umthetho ka-2009 wayisusa iBhanki yoLuntu kwaye wathumela imali kumabhunga ngeebhanki eziqhelekileyo. Njengokhuseleko olongezelelweyo, iqela labathathu voceros ezisuka kwiikomishoni zamabhunga oluntu ahlukeneyo ngoku kufuneka zisayine izicelo zeeprojekthi zoluntu malunga neendleko ezibhaliweyo, nokuba yeyemathiriyeli okanye umsebenzi. Isicelo kunye namaxwebhu afunekayo asiwe kwiqumrhu likarhulumente elixhasa le projekthi ngemali, eyalela iBhanki yeBicentenario (eyakhiwe ngurhulumente ngo-2009 ukuba ithande abo bantu baseVenezuela ngokwesiko bala ikhredithi) ukuba ikhuphe itshekhi. ULeandro Rodríguez, umcebisi weKomiti yeNdlu yoWiso-mthetho malunga nokuThatha iNxaxheba kwaBemi, wabiza inkqubo entsha "idla ixesha kwaye ngamanye amaxesha inobunzima, kodwa i-100 yepesenti iyimfuneko". Umthetho ka-2009 (kwiSiqendu 57) ukwahlahle indlela yokuthatha inxaxheba koLawulo lweSizwe ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuba selubala.7
In the name of maximizing participation, the 2006 law established relatively small geographical boundaries for the communal councils. Each represents only 200 to 400 families. The notion of the “smaller the better” actually has deep roots: in the 1980s and 1990s, the Presidential Commission for State Reform (COPRE) facilitated the breakup of dozens of municipalities in order to promote decentralization.89
Isicwangciso sikarhulumente sokwaba izibonelelo kunye nokusasazwa kweempahla ngamabhunga oluntu siyakhuthaza intatho-nxaxheba. Enye into ebonisa ukuba kukho inani elikhulu labantu abeza kule minyaka idluleyo “kwiindibano zabemi” zebhunga likawonke-wonke, ezivuleleke kubo bonke abahlali. Ezi ntlanganiso zikhetha iiprojekthi eziphambili zemisebenzi yoluntu apho ibhunga liye lacela inkxaso-mali kuluntu. Kwakhona ezi ndibano zikhetha abo baza kufumana iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zezindlu ngokweemfuno zabo zobuqu. Ekugqibeleni, iindibano kulapho amalungu oluntu afunda khona iinkcukacha ezifana nemihla yokuhanjiswa kunye neendleko zokutya ezithengiswa ngamaxabiso ancitshisiweyo ngeenkqubo zikaMinisterio de Alimentación zokunciphisa ukunqongophala kokutya.
Uninzi lwabasebenzi baseburhulumenteni baseVenezuela bakholelwa, njengoko uMongameli uChávez wenzayo, ukuba ukwaba imali ngokuthe ngqo kumabhunga oluntu ukuba aqhube iiprojekthi zemisebenzi yoluntu kungcono kunokontraka kunye neenkampani zokwakha. Ngokwalo mgca wokucinga, ibhunga loluntu linokubeka iliso kwiiprojekthi ukuqinisekisa umgangatho ophezulu ngokufanelekileyo xa lilawula izibonelelo kwaye lithatha izigqibo ezibalulekileyo. Ukuza kuthi ga ngelo xesha, abasebenzi abakwimibutho yenkxaso-mali karhulumente bongeza ukuba amaqela olwaphulo-mthetho olulungelelanisiweyo azenza imibutho yabasebenzi ngokufuthi ahlala eqinile kwiifemu zokwakha izixhobo ukuze aqeshe amalungu awo, athi ekugqibeleni afumane imivuzo ngaphandle kokuba asebenze—kungekhona ingxaki kwimisebenzi kawonke-wonke eqhutywa kwaye inabasebenzi. abahlali boluntu.
Ngokubanzi, amabhunga anyanzelisa ukuba yonke imisebenzi kodwa eyona ikhethekileyo izaliswe ngabahlali, nokuba iiprojekthi zemisebenzi yoluntu ebumelwaneni ziqhutywa ziifemu zokwakha, amabhunga oluntu okanye urhulumente. Njenge voceros phawula, uninzi lwabasebenzi abanezakhono abangaphangeliyo okanye abanezakhono, kubandakanywa abatywini, abachwephesha bombane kunye neengcibi, bahlala kwezona barrios zihluphekayo.10 Ngomqondiso ofanayo, amabhunga agxininisa ukuba urhulumente ubabonelele ngezicwangciso zokwakha zemisebenzi yoluntu kwindawo yabo ukuze bakwazi ukubeka iliso kwiiprojekthi, umsebenzi obizwa ngokuba "ulawulo loluntu" (contraloría social).
Ngamaxesha athile, oorhulumente beChavista bazama ukuvuselela iinkqubo zentlalo kwaye boyise ukutyhafa ngokubonelela ngeenzuzo ezintsha kunye nokwazisa izinto ezintsha phantsi kwesilogeni. impulso (“ukutyhalela phambili okutsha”). Ukuhlaziya amabhunga oluntu kunye nokwahluka kwemisebenzi yawo kufezekise ezi njongo.
Omnye umzekelo we-“reimpulso” uphawule isihlandlo sesithathu sikaMongameli uChávez eofisini. Ukuqala kwi-2006, uChavez wakhuthaza ukudalwa "kweenkampani zemveliso yoluntu" (empresas de producción social - EPSs) under the jurisdiction of the communal councils. EPSs were formed in construction, gas distribution, public transportation and the manufacturing of cement blocks, among other sectors. During the same period, the federal government encouraged clusters of councils to form “communes” expressly to carry out large-scale projects. The Law of the Communes of 2010 facilitated this process through the “Plans of Communal Development,” whereby state planning bodies and the EPSs interface with the communes in order to allow them to become financially self-sufficient.11
With the launch of the “Great Housing Mission” in 2011, the communal councils’ mandate was expanded. As before, they picked some of the beneficiaries of new houses and renovation materials by giving priority to the elderly, pregnant single women, disaster victims, and the disabled. When the Maduro government began to emphasize the goal of “food sovereignty” in 2015, the communal councils assumed new roles. Not only did the government prioritize those communal councils with agriculture-based EPSs, but councils throughout the country participated in the state-sponsored house-to-house food distribution program.
Ngomgaqo-nkqubo kunye nomthetho, ulawulo lukaMaduro luphinde lwanika amabhunga indima ekunyanzeliseni ukulawulwa kwexabiso lezinto ezisisiseko. Ibhunga loluntu voceros began to accompany the consumer protection agency (the Super-Intendancy of Just Prices, or SUNDDE, which in 2014 replaced INDEPABIS) when it inspected commercial establishments to monitor prices— and to close down for 24 or 48 hours any stores that overcharge.
Ngamafutshane, ukwanda kweendima zamabhunga asekuhlaleni komeleza umfanekiso wawo kwaye kuvelise umdla kubantu ababameleyo. Kule nkqubo amabhunga aseke ubudlelwane bokusebenza namaqumrhu ahlukeneyo kwinqanaba lengingqi. Kunjengokuba omnye umphengululi wabhala, “Mhlawumbi eyona nguqulelo ibangel’ umdla yamabhunga asekuhlaleni kukuba ayilelwe ukumanyanisa iindidi ezininzi zeekomiti eziye zasekwa eluntwini ebudeni bexesha lobumongameli baseChávez.12
Oomasibambisane babasebenzi
Enye inkqubo ekhuthazwa ngurhulumente eneenjongo zentlalo kwiminyaka ye-Chavez yayiyintshukumo yentsebenziswano yabasebenzi. Emva kokuba lo mbutho ufumene utyando olukhulu lwetyala likarhulumente phakathi kuka-2004 no-2006, uqwalaselo olusemthethweni kunye nezinto eziphambili ziye zatshintshelwa kumabhunga oluntu. Umbutho wentsebenziswano uthathe amanani amakhulu abantu abahluphekayo abanamava amancinci kuqoqosho olusesikweni. Ngokuthelela ookopolotyeni, bafunda ubuchule bolawulo baza bachanabeka kwisimo sengqondo esitsha ngentsebenziswano nomanyano. Ukwaphula isiko lokuqeshwa kwemivuzo, amava okwabelana ngengeniso ngokuqinisekileyo ayiphembelela indlela yokucinga yamalungu entsebenziswano. Indlela entsha yokucinga neyokwenza izinto yaqiniswa umthetho ofuna amafelandawonye ukwenza umsebenzi kwiindawo abahlala kuzo, ezifana nenkonzo yolondolozo ezikolweni nokuhanjiswa kwezipho zeKrisimesi ebantwaneni. Kwikhefu elongezelelekileyo kwixesha elidlulileyo, izithethi zikarhulumente ziye zancoma ookopolotyeni, abafana nabalobi, ngokucela umngeni kulawulo lwemarike yeenkampani ezidla dwa.13
Ukuqala ngo-2005, u-Chávez wahamba kulo lonke elaseVenezuela ukuze agunyazise ngokusemthethweni iimali-mboleko zookopolotyeni. “KwiiNtlanganiso zeKhabhinethi yeNgingqi” zikamabonwakude, abafumana inkxaso-mali baxoxa ngezicwangciso zabo kwaye baphendula imibuzo ebuzwa ngumongameli. Kwangaxeshanye, urhulumente waseka inkqubo ye-“Vuelvan Caras” yokubonelela ngeeseshoni zoqeqesho zeenyanga ezi-6 ukuya kwezi-24 ukwakha izakhono zabo banomdla wokuseka ookopolotyeni. Abaninzi abathe bathabatha esi sibonelelo babethweswe izidanga kurhulumente wethutyana kwisikolo samabanga aphakamileyo nakwiinkqubo zemfundo zaseyunivesithi ezaziwa ngokuba yiRobinson kunye neSucre Missions (bona ngezantsi).
Ngaphandle koqeqesho, urhulumente ubonelela ngeekhontrakthi, iimali-mboleko kunye nenqanaba lokungahlawuliswa irhafu ukuze akhuthaze ukusekwa kwe-coop. Umzekelo, ookopolotyeni abaninzi ngoku benza umsebenzi wokulungisa oorhulumente basekhaya kunye neenkampani zikarhulumente ezifana neshishini leoli. Oko kuthethiweyo, oomasibambisane abaninzi ngokwesiseko ziinkampani zabucala ezizenza oomasibambisane ukuze bathathe ithuba kwezi nzuzo.14
Ubukho bala mathuba nangona kunjalo, bambalwa ookopolotyeni bokwenyani abakhulu ngokwaneleyo ukuba bajongane nezivumelwano ezinkulu zikarhulumente. Uninzi luqhayisa ngamalungu angaphezu kwamahlanu, elona nani liphantsi limiselwe ngumthetho. Abaninzi bangamalungu entsapho eyandisiweyo—nto leyo, enoba yintoni enye, eqinisekisa ukuthembana phakathi kwabantu esinxulumana nabo.
One of the few large cooperative enterprises, and perhaps the most publicized one, is the complex “Fabricio Ojeda” located in western Caracas on land ceded by the state oil company, PDVSA. Soon after its founding in 2004, the complex had 150 workers (all but one of them women) in the textile factory “Venezuela Advances” and 75 in a shoe factory. The complex’s health and educational facilities serve the residents in the surrounding communities. As for how this enterprise works in house, one supervisor asked about high worker absenteeism in “Venezuela Advances” stated: “If the worker has a legitimate health problem, they can get time off and will receive the same salary as everyone else. But at the end of the year our cooperative’s ‘intsalela' [ingeniso] yahlulwa yabelwa umsebenzi ngamnye ngokwenani leentsuku ezisetyenziweyo”. Ngombono apha, kunyaka ophelileyo, i intsalela abasebenzi abafunyenwe ngoDisemba baphantse balingana nomvuzo wabo wonyaka.15
Ngenxa yezizathu ezininzi, uninzi lookopolotyeni bokuqala basekwa. Ngo-2007 malunga nama-48,000 oomasibambisane abasebenzayo basala ngaphandle kwabali-140,000 ababebhalisiwe kunyaka ongaphambili.16 Ngelixa ookopolotyeni abaninzi bengazange baphume emhlabeni,17 kwezinye iimeko umongameli wekopolotyeni wayefaka epokothweni imali mboleko karhulumente okanye phantsi kweentlawulo zeekhontrakthi.18
To turn the situation around, the Ministry of the Popular Economy sought greater control over the surviving cooperatives. From 2007 on, cooperatives were required every three months to gain approval for a Certificate of Fulfillment of Responsibilities issued by the Ministry. The paperwork, which included a balance sheet signed by a certified accountant, proved to be time-consuming. Cooperatives also had to demonstrate that they met their financial obligations to government agencies, including the social security system, the housing authority and the national job-training institute INCE. Often, cooperatives asked each member to handle one or two of the required documents so no individual would get too bogged down.
Ezi mfuno zintsha ibiyinzame eneenjongo ezilungileyo zokunqanda ukusetyenziswa gadalala kunye nokungabikho kokuzinikela, nto leyo ekhokelele kwinkcitho yobutyebi boluntu. Kodwa amalungu amaninzi entsebenziswano kunye namatshantliziyo asekuhlaleni amgxeka urhulumente ngokukhathalela ukusuka kwelinye ukuya kwelinye, ukusuka ekuyekeleni okugqithisileyo ukuya kwiimfuno ezinzima.19
IiNkqubo zeMishini
Ngo-2003, urhulumente wayila inkqubo “yeMishini”, ngokuyinxenye ngaphandle kwabaphathiswa kunye nemibutho yezomthetho. Kuqale kwavela iinkqubo zempilo nezemfundo emva koko, ngo-2011, ukwakhiwa kwezindlu. I Barrio Adentro Imishini, enabasebenzi abaninzi ngoogqirha baseCuba, ibonelela ngenkonzo yonyango yasimahla, kubandakanya nokhathalelo lwamazinyo kunye namayeza, amanye avela eCuba. Barrio Adentro yaqala xa oogqirha baseCuba beza eVenezuela emva kwezandyondyo zemvula ngoDisemba 1999 ezatshabalalisa iphondo laseVargas eligudle unxweme. Imvelaphi yenkqubo ebunzimeni ingumzekelo wendalo esebenzayo yemishini ngokubanzi kwaye ikwagxininisa imfuneko yokuguquguquka. Emva konogumbe, malunga ne-12,000 oogqirha baseCuba, abanye bamagqala esikhukula sika-1999, baqalisa Barrio Adentro Umnqophiso ngokuseka iindawo zokuhlala kunye neeofisi zokubonisana kuzo zonke iindawo ezihluphekayo zaseVenezuela.
The educational mission programs range from literacy classes (Mission Robinson) to high school education (Mission Ribas, which is largely funded by PDVSA) and university education (Mission Sucre). Some students in these programs receive a modest stipend tantamount to a scholarship. The Robinson and Ribas Missions use video cassettes (mainly produced in Cuba) and “facilitators” in lieu of teachers. Mission Robinson II, started later, enables literacy program graduates to enroll in primary school.
Njengezinye iimishini, zonke zijoliswe eluntwini. Phantse yonke isemester, umzekelo, abafundi be-"Sucre Mission" kwisayensi yezentlalo bathatha iikhosi "zeeProjekthi" apho basebenza kunye namabhunga oluntu ukuyila izindululo ezithi ngamanye amaxesha zingeniswe kwimibutho yezemali karhulumente.
Amaphulo emfundo asebenza ngohlahlo lwabiwo-mali olukhawulezayo. Ukuphumeza oku, urhulumente unika amalungelo obuninzi ngaphezu komgangatho ukuze inkcitho yomfundi ibe mncinane kunaleyo yenkqubo yemfundo esekiweyo. Ukusebenzisa iikhasethi zevidiyo kunye “nabaququzeleli” endaweni yootitshala kunciphisa iindleko, kodwa nomgangatho. Ngaphaya koko, iRibas kunye neSucre Missions ayinazo iziseko zophuhliso zezikolo zikarhulumente eziqhelekileyo. Ngaphandle kwalapho iikhampasi zakhiwe khona, imishini yemfundo ibamba iiklasi kwizikolo zikarhulumente ebusuku nakwiziseko zomkhosi, ngoncedo lobufundisi oluncinane.20
Xa kujongwa imigangatho ethotyiweyo kwizikolo zobuthunywa, abafundi kwezi nkqubo basengozini yokuba izidanga zabo zinganakwa. (Ngomqondiso ofanayo, inkqubo yonyango yoluntu "I-Medicina Integral Comunitaria” uzaliswe yingqumbo yezopolitiko ngakuogqirha baseCuba abasebenza njengabafundisi-ntsapho.) Ekubeni ingozi yokufumana izidanga ezingenaxabiso ngokungathandabuzekiyo yayiza kukhula yayiyinkcaso yezobupolitika yokubuyela kulawulo, urhulumente uye wafikelela kwizivumelwano zokwamkelwa kwabafundi kunye neeyunivesithi zikarhulumente eziphantsi kolawulo loMphathiswa. weMfundo ePhakamileyo. Ngaphantsi kolu lungiselelo, eziye zakhatywa iiyunivesithi ezizimeleyo, iiyunivesithi zikarhulumente zilawula iimviwo kunye neethisisi kwaye zikhuphe iidiploma kumagama azo ngaphandle kokubhekisa kwi-Sucre Mission.
Ithemba lesidanga saseyunivesithi egameni leyunivesithi esekiweyo litsale amakhulu amawaka abantu abatsha abangathathi ntweni kwinkqubo yeSucre Mission, kodwa ikwayimpikiswano. Abaninzi kwiqela eliphikisayo bathi ukunika abafundi bemishini oko abantu baseMntla Melika bakubiza ngokuba sisidanga sekholeji yoluntu (eyaziwa eVenezuela njenge "técnico superior") endaweni yesidanga saseyunivesithi kuya kufaneleka ngakumbi. Esi siphakamiso ngaphandle kwamathandabuzo siya kwenza inkqubo ingabi nomtsalane kwaye inciphise kabukhali ubhaliso. Ukunikezelwa kwesidanga esiqhelekileyo saseyunivesithi kwabo baphumeleleyo sisigqibo esibaliweyo esithathela ingqalelo ukubaluleka kokubandakanywa kwamacandelo ebefudula engabandakanywa oluntu, ngakumbi abantu abatsha.
Iimpawu ezimbini zeenkqubo zobuthunywa zomeleza izicwangciso ezixoxwe ngasentla malunga namabhunga oluntu kunye neminye imigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente yezentlalo. Okokuqala, njengoko iinkqubo bezizezethutyana kwaye bezilingwa ngandlela ithile, kwaye bezisoloko ziphelelwa zizakhiwo ezinxuseneyo (njengakwimeko yemishini yezemfundo, ebingaphandle kokuphathwa buPhathiswa bezeMfundo), iimfuno zolawulo bezinganzima kangako. . Oku kubenze banomtsalane ngakumbi kumaqela angabandakanywanga nalawo angabandakanywanga. Okwesibini, imisebenzi eyahlukahlukeneyo ngokuthe ngcembe iye yadlulela ngaphaya kweenjongo zayo zangaphambili. Abanye baye bangena kumanqanaba amatsha. Barrio Adentro, ngokomzekelo, waqala wongezelela unyango olukhethekileyo, emva koko wavula amaziko okuxilonga, emva koko asebenza kwizibhedlele ezikhethekileyo. Ezi nkqubela phambili kunye nohlengahlengiso lweenjongo zibonisa Chavista isicwangciso-qhinga sokuqhubeka sisenza nzulu “inkqubo yenguqu” ngokuzisa iinkqubo ezintsha, iziqubulo neenjongo. Zikwabethelela impulso ngokuhlaziya umdlandla wabathathi-nxaxheba.
Igalelo elisuka Ezantsi
Iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo eziphunyezwe nguChávez zavela kwiziphakamiso ukusuka kwinqanaba kunye nefayile yentshukumo yeChavista okanye yavela kumava asezantsi. Ngokomzekelo, tamabhunga oluntu ngokuyinxenye akhule kwiiKomiti zaManzi (Mesas Técnicas de Agua) eyavela ngo-1993 ukuya ku-1996 kwiibhari kulo lonke elaseCaracas ngexesha lolawulo lukasodolophu wexesha elizayo inkokeli yeChavista kunye nosekela-mongameli uAristóbulo Istúriz. I imiyalezo isebenze ngokusondeleleneyo neofisi kasodolophu ukuphucula unikezelo lwamanzi kwimizi yebarrio. Njengomnye umzekelo, ii-communes ngokwenene zavela ngenxa yamanyathelo asekuhlaleni ngaphambi koMthetho we-Communes owapasiswa kwi-2010, njengoko kubhalwe ngoososayensi bezentlalo uGeorge Ciccariello-Maher noDario Azzellini.21
Another proposal that emerged from the Chavista movement’s ranks led to the formation of the Comités Locales de Abastecimientos y Producción (Local Supply and Production Committees – UKUQHAWULAs), which deliver basic food items house to house at subsidized prices. The idea came out of the attempt by Chavistas to analyze the causes of their sweeping defeat in the December 2015 National Assembly elections. The Chavistas attributed the disappointing outcome to scarcity of basic commodities and the deficient system of food distribution. Members of the Chavista party, the United Socialist Party (I-PSUV), and its allies were placed in charge of the UKUQHAWULAs.
Was this step in keeping with the principles of inclusion and participation? Government supporters justified the move on grounds that UKUQHAWULAs are basically adjuncts of the state. In addition, politically, the UKUQHAWULAs’ function was to combat the alleged “economic war” waged by the government’s enemies in the private sector so the Chavistas were loath to trust them to run the committees, particularly because large sums of money were involved. Nevertheless, the distinction between the UKUQHAWULAs as an arm of the state and as a social movement was blurred, especially since in many communities some of the organizations’ participants belonged to the opposition and thus did not consider themselves to be government representatives.22
Izigxeko kunye neZifundo
Omnye umba onzima kukungafuni kukarhulumente weChavista ukuthatha amanyathelo okohlwaya abenzi bobubi, ngakumbi kumaqela amkela imivuzo ephantsi. Njengoko umcebisi weCongressional uLeandro Rodríguez ebonisa, amatshantliziyo asekuhlaleni atyhola amalungu ebhunga lasekuhlaleni ngokuyisebenzisa kakubi imali ahlala ekhalaza ngolibaziseko olude kwiinkqubo zenkundla, nto leyo ebandakanya ukumiswa kwenkxaso-mali eyongezelelweyo yebhunga. Ngaphaya koko kukungabikho konxibelelwano olusesikweni phakathi kwekomishini “yolawulo loluntu” yebhunga loluntu kunye noMlawuli weSizwe, ekufuneka ngokomthetho ebonelele uluntu ngolwazi lwezomthetho. Konke okuthethiweyo, ii-arhente zikarhulumente ziphumeze iinkqubo zokuhlola ezicokisekileyo kunye neendlela zokuthintela ukunika inkxaso-mali kumabhunga oluntu angakhange agqibe ngokwanelisayo iiprojekthi zangaphambili.23
Ngokubanzi, i-polarization ebukhali yesizwe ibambezela ukumiselwa kweenkqubo zentlalo ye-Chavistas kunye namanye amanyathelo. Ungquzulwano oluqhubekayo lwezopolitiko lucinezela urhulumente we-Chavista ukuba aphephe ukomeleza amaziko ngokumisela imithetho yeziko, imimiselo kunye nemiqobo, enokuthi inqumle isiseko sakhe sentlalo senkxaso.
Inqaku lesibini lesicwangciso sikarhulumente sentlalontle, ukudityaniswa okukhulu kwabantu abafumana imivuzo ephantsi baseVenezuela kwiinkqubo ezahlukeneyo, kwezinye iimeko kubonisa umdlalo oyiziro othanda amaqela athile ngeendleko zabanye. Kwimeko ye-Sucre Mission, umzekelo, "abalahlekileyo" baphumelele kwiidyunivesithi zemveli ekufuneka bakhuphisane kwiimarike zemisebenzi egcwele abafundi abaphumeleleyo abaqhuba imivuzo nangona iidiploma zabo zinokuba lula ukuzifumana. Ngokufanayo, ngokwembono yeendleko-inzuzo kuphela, ukwaba imali ngokuthe ngqo kumabhunga oluntu kubangela ingxaki. Ukusebenza kweekontraka zabucala kunye namava abo kunye netekhnoloji ngokuqhelekileyo kuphezulu, kodwa amava afunyenwe ngamabhunga aqhubela phambili injongo yentatho-nxaxheba ethandwayo.
Popular participation and mobilization embody the concept of majority rule (or “radical democracy”), which underpins the discourse and some of the policies of the Chavista government and bolsters its democratic credentials. Radical democracy in the tradition of Rousseau is often criticized by liberal thinkers for holding back institutional checks and balances while failing to distinguish clearly between “civil society” and the state. Certainly, that happened in the case of Venezuela’s UKUQHAWULAs.
Iinkqubo zentlalo zikarhulumente weChavista zingqina ukungavisisani phakathi kokuhlolwa kweziko kunye nedemokhrasi emandla. Njengoko kuphawuliwe apha, umthetho-siseko wokuguquguquka ukhokele iinkqubo zikarhulumente zentlalontle ezijolise ekubandakanyweni okudumileyo - ngakumbi kumacandelo ahlelelekileyo - kwiinkqubo ezifana nemibutho yentsebenziswano kunye nemishini yezemfundo. Enyanisweni, umgaqo-nkqubo woguqulo usebenze ngeyona ndlela ingcono kumacandelo ethutyana asebenza kumda wamaziko asele emisiwe.24
Inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nokulinganisa, nangona inxulunyaniswe nedemokhrasi yenkululeko, yisine-qua-non yokumisela amaziko Chavista imodeli ngendlela ephepha i-bureaucratic socialism ukuba IiChavistas ngoko yala ngokuqinileyo. Ngokubanzi, idemokhrasi ebukhali kunye nokuhlolwa kweziko (njengokwahlulwa kwamagunya) akufanele kuthathwe njengokungahambelaniyo. Ngokwenene, uxolelwaniso lwabo lubalulekile ukuba iinkqubo zentlalo kufuneka ziqhutywe ngokufanelekileyo nangokunyaniseka kwaye, ngokulinganayo, ukuba ziza kuphumelela.
- 1. Ngeminyaka yoo-1960 noo-1970, unyulo lwaseVenezuela lwaluphawulwa ngamazinga aphezulu okuthatha inxaxheba naphakathi kwabahluphekileyo ngenxa yeemfuno ezisinyanzelo zokuvota. Le pateni yatshintsha ngeminyaka yoo-1980 neye-1990 xa uthatho-nxaxheba kunyulo lwehla kakhulu.
- 2. USidney Veba kunye noNorman H. Nie, Ukuthatha inxaxheba eMelika: iDemokhrasi yezopolitiko kunye nokuLingana kweNtlalo, 1972 (eNew York: iHarper kunye noRow)
- 3. UEduardo Silvia kunye noFederico M. Rossi, Ukuhlengahlengisa iNdawo yezoPolitiko eLatin America: Ukusukela ekuchaseni i-Neoliberalism ukuya kuManyano lweSibini., 2017 (Pittsburgh: IYunivesithi yasePittsburgh Press)
- 4. URoger Burbach, uOrlando Nuñez kunye noBoris Kagarlitsky, Ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kunye nokungoneliseki kwayo: Ukunyuka kweSocialism yasemva kwemodern, 1997 (London: Pluto Press)
- 5. UGeorge Ciccariello-Maher, Ukwakha uLuntu: iDemokhrasi eRadical e Venezuela, 2016 (London: Verso), 107 kunye noGregory Wilpert “Uvavanyo lweVenezuela kwiNtatho-nxaxheba yeDemokhrasi,” eThomas Ponniah noJonathan Eastwood (eds.), Inguquko eVenezuela: Utshintsho lweNtlalo nezopolitiko phantsi kweChávez, 2011 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press), 110
- 6. UCristobal Valencia, SinguRhulumente! I-Barrio Activism kwi-Bolivarian Revolution yaseVenezuela, 2015 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), 147-153
- 7. ULeandro Rodriguez, udliwano-ndlebe lomntu, ngo-2011 (Caracas, ngoSeptemba 15)
- 8. USteve Ellner, "Ukuzinzisa iDemokhrasi kwiSimo seNgxaki: uHlaziyo lwezoPolitiko kunye neNkqubo yoNyulo eVenezuela." Ijenali yezifundo ze-Interamerican kunye neMicimbi yeHlabathi no.4, (1993-94), 1-42.
- 9. Ngokwenyani, oomasipala abatsha abaye bavela bebemele uninzi lwabantu abazizityebi. Kwaba njalo ngesixeko esilikomkhulu saseCaracas, esahlulwa saba ngoomasipala abahlanu. Olu phuhliso, njengolunye uhlaziyo oluyilelwe ukukhuthaza ukunatyiswa kwamagunya ebudeni baloo minyaka, lwakhuthazwa yingcinga eyayigquba ngelo xesha yeniyoliberalism.
- 10. Inkqubo yaseVenezuela apho imibutho yentlalontle yenza "iingcebiso" kwiinkampani zokuqeshwa kwabasebenzi zibuyela emva kwexesha. Ikhontrakthi yabasebenzi be-oyile yowe-1973 yavumela iinkampani zeekontraka ukuba ziqeshe ama-80 epesenti yabasebenzi bazo kuluhlu olubonelelwe yimanyano, ipesenti eyagcinwa kwizivumelwano zengxoxo ezihlangeneyo ezalandelayo.
- 11. UGeorge Ciccariello-Maher, Ukwakha uLuntu: iDemokhrasi eRadical e Venezuela, 2016 (London: Verso), 84-99
- 12. UGregory Wilpert "Uvavanyo lweVenezuela kwiDemokhrasi yeNxaxheba," kuThomas Ponniah noJonathan Eastwood (eds.), Inguquko eVenezuela: Utshintsho lweNtlalo nezopolitiko phantsi kweChávez, 2011 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press), 109-110
- 13. Lucena, Héctor, “Sindicatos cooperativas: encuentros y desencuentros,” eLucena (umnxibelelanisi), Cooperativas, empresas, estado y sindicatos: una vinculación necesaria, 2007 (Barquisimeto: Universidad Centroccidental Lisandro Alvarado kunye ne Universidad de Carobobo), 74-76
- 14. Lucena, Héctor, “Sindicatos cooperativas: encuentros y desencuentros,” eLucena (umnxibelelanisi), Cooperativas, empresas, estado y sindicatos: una vinculación necesaria, 2007 (Barquisimeto: Universidad Centroccidental Lisandro Alvarado kunye ne Universidad de Carobobo), 215-216
- 15. USteve Ellner, "Uvavanyo (kunye neempazamo) zikaHugo Chávez." Ngale maxesha 31, 2007, no. 9 (Septemba): 26
- 16. Kumsebenzi opapashwe kwi-2013, uDario Azzellini wathi urhulumente waseChávez uye wakhuthaza ukudalwa kwe-70,000 "intsebenziswano yokubambisana" ("Economía solidaria en Venezuela: del apoyo al cooperativismo tradicional a la construcción de ciclos comunales." Revista Idelcoop, Hayi. 210: (2013), 29).
- 17. Iphulo likarhulumente lonke lokukhuthaza ukusekwa kookopolotyeni lisenokuba lelenziwe ngokungxama kwaye lingekafiki ixesha. Ikhuthaze abantu abaninzi baseVenezuela ukuba benze kwaye babhalise intsebenziswano nangona bengenalo ingcamango ecacileyo yemingeni echaphazelekayo, okanye ukuzinikela kwexesha elide kumsebenzi. Ingxaki yandiswa ngokungabikho kwesithethe sokubambisana eVenezuela (Azzellini, 2013: 22).
- 18. USteve Ellner, "Uvavanyo (kunye neempazamo) zikaHugo Chávez." Ngale maxesha 31, 2007, no. 9 (Septemba): 26
- 19. Angel Rodríguez, “Cooperativas de mantenimiento y servicio de Enelbar,” eLucena (umnxibelelanisi), Ii-Cooperativas, i-empresas, i-estado y sindicatos: una vinculación necesaria, 2007, (Barquisimeto: Universidad Centroccidental Lisandro Alvarado kunye neUniversidad de Carobobo), 217-249
- 20. Kirk A. Hawkins, I-Chavismo yaseVenezuela kunye nePopulism kwiiNdlela zokuthelekisa. Cambridge, 2010 (eNgilani: Cambridge University Press), 200-205
- 21. UGeorge Ciccariello-Maher, Ukwakha uLuntu: iDemokhrasi eRadical e Venezuela, 2016 (London: Verso) kunye Dario Azzellini, Ulawulo lwee-Communes kunye noLawulo lwaBasebenzi eVenezuela: Ukwakha i-21st Century Socialism ukusuka ngasezantsi, 2017 (Brill: Leiden kunye neBoston), 245-246
- 22. Ityala le CLAPS as well as the community councils puts in evidence the ongoing and perhaps inevitable tension between governments favoring far-reaching structural change and social movements, which attempt to assert a degree of autonomy. Since 2014, when the price of oil sharply declined and pressing economic difficulties set in, the political opposition has made inroads in numerous community councils that the Chavistas had originally dominated.
- 23. ULeandro Rodriguez, udliwano-ndlebe lobuqu, ngo-2011 (iCaracas, ngoSeptemba 15), kunye noMargarita Lopez Maya noLuis E. Lander “Idemokhrasi yokuThabath’ inxaxheba eVenezuela: Imvelaphi, Izimvo, nokuPhunyezwa,” kuDavid Smilde noDaniel Hellinger (eds.), Idemokhrasi yaseVenezuela yaseBolivarian: Ukuthatha inxaxheba, iPolitiko kunye neNkcubeko phantsi kweChávez, 2011 (Durham NC: Duke University Press)
- 24. bona ingxoxo kaDavid Smilde "Intshayelelo: Ukuthatha inxaxheba, iPolitiko, kunye neNkcubeko - Amaqhekeza asakhulayo weDemokhrasi yaseVenezuela yaseBolivarian" kwi-Smilde kunye noDaniel Hellinger (eds.), Idemokhrasi yaseVenezuela yaseBolivarian: Ukuthatha inxaxheba, iPolitiko kunye neNkcubeko phantsi kweChávez, 2011, (Durham NC: Duke University Press), 3-18.
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