Amandla, Ubandlululo kunye neNtlupheko: Uphuhliso lokuCinga kwakhona
Abstract:
Iingxoxo zophuhliso bezisoloko zigxile kumda 'wabanamandla nabangenawo amandla' kwaye ziye zibhideke ngakumbi xa ezi zimbini ziphenjelelwa lucalucalulo lophuhliso. Kwinkqubo yophuhliso iingcali zale mihla zixoxa zixhasa isiseko esivumelanayo apho wonke umntu uyaxhamla kwizinto zala maxesha. Kwelinye icala, i-anti modernists ibeka iimbono zabo ngendlela eyahlukileyo: nokuba i-moderization ilungile okanye ayilunganga. Ngamanye amazwi, ukuba ukwenziwa kwezinto ngokwala maxesha kuzisa umhlaba omnye kubo bonke ngokwahlulahlula ukwahlulwahlulwa kwamagunya phakathi kwesini, udidi kunye nobuhlanga okanye ngokuchaseneyo. Ngaphandle kokubaluleka kwenkqubo yangoku yokwazisa impucuko yabantu kwihlabathi, iinkxalabo ezibaluleke kakhulu kukulingana kunye nokuxhotyiswa. Imingeni ke ngoko kukuqinisekisa inkululeko yoluntu njengendlela kunye nesiphelo ukuze kulinganiswe ubunakho bomntu kwintlalontle yomntu wonke.
_______________________________________________________________________________
1. intshayelelo
Ukuqala kuMarx ngokuchasene nenkcaso yeklasi phakathi koohlohlesakhe kunye ne-proletariat, i-Durkheim kwi-organic vs. 1998). Intetho yophuhliso igxile kakhulu kwi-paradigm yamandla. Amandla okuphucula ukuzisa ihlabathi kuluntu oluhambelanayo kuxoxwa ngokuchasene namandla alo okudala uluntu olungalinganiyo olunegalelo kukungalingani kwezoqoqosho, ezopolitiko kunye nezentlalo (Abdo, 1984; Frank, 1989; Ruffin, 1996). I-Ethos ngokulingana phakathi kwesini, ubuhlanga kunye nodidi kuye kwaxoxwa ngokuchasene nokwahlulwa kwamandla phakathi kwezinto ezifanayo (Ikeo, 1966; Levine, 1990, Phillips, 2003). Ingqiqo yesayensi kunye neteknoloji iye yabuzwa ngokunciphisa ixabiso lentlalo kunye nenkcubeko, kunye nokungahoywa kweendleko ezinkulu zentlalo yenguqu (iGranato, Inglehart, neLeblang, 1998; Facio, 1999; Smith, 1998). Ngaphezu kwako konke, inkqubela yezoqoqosho 'yophuhliso loluntu' okanye 'inkululeko yomntu' ibe yeyona nto ibalulekileyo ekuphuculweni kwamaxesha kade (Chamber, 2004; Friedman, 2005; Sen, 2005).
UMarx waxoxa ngokwandiswa kwenkululeko yomntu (inkululeko yokufumana awona mandla apheleleyo) njengenye yemilinganiselo esisiseko yenkqubela phambili yoluntu (ecatshulwe kuBlackwell, Smith noSorenson, 2003: 153). Kwi IManifesto yamaKomanisi UMarx ukhangele phambili kuluntu "apho uphuhliso lwamahhala ngamnye luyimeko yophuhliso lwamahhala kubo bonke" (uMarx noEngels 1998: 41). Nangona kunjalo, oku kufuna umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokukhulula umntu kwizithintelo ezikhoyo ukuze kuguqulwe ubudlelwane babo nendalo kunye naphakathi kwabo. Imizabalazo enjalo iyaqhubeka nokubakho kunye neminqweno yokulingana kwabantu kunye nobulungisa kwezentlalo, nto leyo efuna ukufezekiswa ngokupheleleyo kwamandla oluntu avumela ukukhula kwengqondo kunye nobutyebi bezinto eziphathekayo (uMarx et.al.,1998; Blackwell, et.al) ., 2003).
U-Amartya Sen (1992, 1999) ingcali yezoqoqosho yanamhlanje izisa indlela yakhe yokukwazi, ehambelana neembono zikaMarxist ngenkululeko yomntu. USen uthi inkululeko yokwenyani yabantu yokukhokela ubomi obuxabisekileyo isekelwe kubuchule babo bokonwabela imeko entle yobomi enjengokubandakanyeka kwezopolitiko, ukuba sempilweni okanye ukufunda. Izakhono zimele 'into abantu abanokuyenza okanye abanokuba yiyo', ingeyiyo into abanokuyisebenzisa okanye kwimivuzo yabo (Sen, 1992: 50; Sen, 1999: 18). Ezi zamva ke, ziyindlela yokuphila kakuhle. USen akavumelani nezigwebo zokusetyenziswa kwentlalo-ntle yomntu esekelwe kuphela kwimithombo, kodwa ayihoyi izakhono zangaphakathi zokusebenzisana nabantu (Deneulin, 2006; Ingrid, 2003; Sen, 1992). Izakhono zabantu zokuguqula izixhobo zibe zesakhono ziyahluka ngokusekwe kwizinto zobuqu, zezopolitiko nezentlalo ezifana nokukhubazeka ngokwasemzimbeni nasengqondweni, isithethe, izithethe nezithethe zasekuhlaleni, iziseko zophuhliso zelizwe, imozulu njalo njalo (Deneulin, 2006; Robeyin, 2003; Sen. 1999; ). Ezi zinto zinegalelo elikhulu ekungalinganini kwezakhono kunye nokuba sempilweni.
2. IParadigm yamandla kunye neModernization
Njengoko amandla enxulumene namandla omntu, izibonelelo, namagunya, agqalwa njengesixhobo esomeleza okanye esomeleza amandla omntu phezu kwelinye. Ngokuchanekileyo, amandla anokusetyenziswa ngulowo unamandla okulawula abanye (Dean, 2006; Chambers, 2005). Isebenza kuwo onke amanqanaba phakathi koluntu; kwihlabathi jikelele, ukuya kwindawo nakwinqanaba lomntu ngamnye (Dean, 2006: 69). Ekubeni uluntu luvela kumntu ngamnye, kuluntu kunye nesizwe, amandla asebenza kwinqanaba elahlukileyo. UFriedmann (1992: 32) kwindlela yakhe yophuhliso eyenye wazisa iindidi ezintathu zamandla: ezentlalo (ukufikelela kulwazi kunye nezibonelelo kunye nemibutho), ezopolitiko (ufikelelo kwinkqubo yokwenziwa kwezigqibo) namandla engqondo (amandla okuzixabisa ukuze akwazi ukufikelela. kumandla ezentlalo nezopolitiko). Ukuxhotyiswa njengenye isicwangciso sophuhliso, wagxila ekuphuculeni iimeko zobomi babantu nendlela yokuphila eqala ekhaya (Friedmann, 1992). U-Foucault (1982) ubona amandla njengendlela yokwenza izinto. Umzekelo wakhe uquka ukuqonda ukuchasana njengendlela yamandla (ecatshulwe kwiRowlands, 1997: 12). UFoucault (1977) uthi amandla akhona kubudlelwane bomntu ngamnye obuchaphazela izenzo zomntu ngaphezu komnye kwaye angena kuluntu lonke. 'Kusetyenziswa igunya kunokuba liphathwe; ayilo 'lungelo' elifunyenweyo okanye eligciniweyo, lodidi olubalaseleyo, kodwa sisiphumo esipheleleyo sezikhundla zalo zobuchule (1977:26).
UMarx wabonisa amandla ongxowankulu ukucinezela ingqiqo yabasebenzi nokubamfamekisa ekuxhatshazweni kwabo (kucatshulwe kwiDean, 2006: 71). UDurkheim (1984) ugxininise kulwahlulo 'njengobungcali' kunye 'nanjengamandla omntu ngamnye' ukuze anikele ngokufanelekileyo kwinto yonke. U-Parsons (1964) uyibethelela indima yokusebenza kwesakhiwo 'njengeqhina elisebenzayo' lokusebenzisa amandla, apho imisebenzi emine (uhlengahlengiso, ukufezekiswa kwenjongo, ukudibanisa kunye nokugcinwa) ivakalelkile. Kwangokunjalo, uHabermas (1989) wagxininisa kuluntu njengendlela yokuzisa amandla nenkululeko ebantwini ngengxoxo-mpikiswano esengqiqweni.
Ecaleni kwezi mini, uFrank (1966) waxoxa ngamandla ongxowankulu kwi
Kwintetho yophuhliso, uphuhliso kwiindlela zalo ezahlukeneyo (imodernization okanye i-globalization) ibonwa njengolawulo lwasentshona kunye nokuphakamisa ukungqubuzana kwamandla phakathi kwezizwe (Huntington, 1993; Mehmet, 2001; Rowland, 1997). Ukuphuhliswa 'kwabambalwa' kubonwa njengokuxhaphaza 'kwabaninzi' kunye negalelo 'kungquzulwano lwempucuko' (Huntington, 1993; Ikeo, 2003; Weede, 1998). Nangona kunjalo, ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kube negalelo elikhulu kwihlabathi ngorhwebo, uhambo, ukufuduka, iimpembelelo zenkcubeko kunye nokusasazwa kolwazi kunye nobuchwepheshe (Sen, 2002). USen uqhubeka exoxa ukuba inkqubela phambili kwisayensi kunye nethekhnoloji ayinyanzelekanga ukuba ibe sentshona. Umzekelo, inkqubo yedesimali yaqalwa yaze yaphuhliswa
Kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu edlulileyo, amazwe kwi
Ngaphezu kwako konke, impucuko yasentshona eye yaziswa kwihlabathi lanamhlanje ngokudityaniswa kwehlabathi ayinakujongelwa phantsi ukuze kukhululwe abemi behlabathi kwingcinezelo yezentlalo, yezopolitiko, nezoqoqosho (Rajaee, 2002; Stigtilz, 2002). Ngokujonga ezi mpikiswano, umntu akanakugxininisa ukuba ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi okanye ukuguqulwa kwangoku njengonyanzeliso olubi oluvela kwihlabathi lasentshona. Ukongezelela, ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi ngokwako akusosiphumo kodwa yinkqubo.
3. Ukuphuculwa kunye noPhuhliso
Iingqikelelo zethiyori yophuculo zezi: a) ukukhula koqoqosho kuluncedo kuwo onke amalungu oluntu ngokuhla, b) imigaqo-nkqubo yoqoqosho olukhulu ayithathi cala ngokwesini, kwaye c) itekhnoloji yale mihla iphakamile kuneyemveli (uConneley, uLi, uMac Donald, kunye no. Inxalenye, 2000). Umgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho wamaziko emali ehlabathi (i-IMF, iBhanki yehlabathi, i-USAID) ilawulwa yile ngcamango.
Ngokunjalo, izinto ezintathu ezisisiseko zophuhliso lwenguqu yala maxesha kule minyaka ingamashumi amane ibandakanya ukwenziwa kongxowankulu kwezolimo lwehlabathi (utyalo-mali kwimihlaba emikhulu enemveliso esusa amasimi okuziphilisa), uphuhliso lobuchwephesha (ukwandisa amandla okuguqula ubutyebi bomhlaba bube bubutyebi obusebenzisekayo: i-industrialization) kunye nophuhliso lweziko (ugxininiso lwemibutho yamaziko karhulumente kunye nequmrhu: inkqubo ye-bureaucratization) (Wallerstein, 1998: 288). Uphuhliso olunjalo lujonge olunye uhlobo lophuhliso. Umzekelo, amafama alimela ukutya asuka kwindawo enkulu yehlabathi agxile kwiindawo zasezidolophini ukuze asebenze: ukufudukela ezidolophini, izibonelelo zikholisa ukujolisa kwiindawo ezingundoqo ukuze zisetyenziswe ngokunemveliso nangengeniso kwaye zishiya imida ukuba ihlale ingaphuhliswanga (Wallerstein, 1998).
Ngokuchaseneyo nenkcazo-bungcali yotshintsho, uFrank (1966) wacacisa ukuba kukusetyenziswa kwentshiyekela yezoqoqosho (ethe yabekwa embindini ukusuka kwiisathelayithi ukuya kwimetropolis), okubangele uphuhliso kunye nophuhliso oluphantsi. Ngenxa yobume bemonopoly inkqubo yobungxowankulu behlabathi, amazwe ongxowankulu akwazile ukuhlutha intshiyekela kumazwe angaphuhliswanga kakuhle ngeli lixa ewathintela ukuba abone intsalela. Wabonisa oku kuhamba kwekhonkco lentsalela ukusuka kwilali yaseLatin America ukuya kwidolophu enkulu
Njengesiko lethiyori yokuxhomekeka, amazwe anelungelo adla ngokufaka isandla ekuphuhliseni ukuze azuze ngolungelelwaniso lwezoqoqosho lwamazwe ngamazwe (Chilcote1984; Robinson, 1979; Weede, 1998). Umzekelo, ukuvalwa kwazo zonke iifektri zamalaphu
Nangona isetyenziswa njengesicwangciso esitsha sophuhliso, iniyo-liberalism isalandela indlela yongxowankulu yophuhliso ingahoyi iimeko ezahlukeneyo zophuhliso (Brohman, 1995; Mehmet, 1995; Wylie, 2000). Umzekelo, imodeli ye-neo-liberal igxininisa 'ukukhula okukhokelwa yimarike, ukongiwa okwandisiweyo kunye notyalo-mali lwabucala olusekelwe kwingeniso ephezulu, imivuzo ephantsi; uphuhliso lwemizi-mveliso ngokuthe ngcembe, kunye nophuhliso olujonge ngaphandle' (Brohman, 1996:31). Ezi seti zemigaqo-nkqubo zilawulwa ngamaziko ahlangeneyo, asebenzisa ulawulo lwehlabathi ngaphandle kokuqwalasela iimeko zentlalo nenkcubeko yamazwe afumanayo (Brohman, 1996; Hartwick and Peet, 2003). Ngokunjalo, ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kubangele ukwanda kobungxowankulu behlabathi kwaye amaziko ezizwe ngezizwe afumene amandla aphezulu kwezoqoqosho nakwezopolitiko kumaziko esizwe nawengingqi (Berberoglu, 2005; Dean, 2006; Applebaum and Robinson, 2005). Imodeli yeneo liberal yophuhliso yenza lula inkqubo entsonkothileyo yophuhliso, nangona kunjalo, ikhuphela ngaphandle uninzi lwelizwe elisaphuhlayo, elisekelwe kuqoqosho lokuziphilisa, okanye abasebenzi basemaphandleni abangenamhlaba kunye nenani elikhula ngokukhawuleza labasebenzi basezidolophini (Friedmann, 1992:14).
4. Ukuphuculwa ngokubhekisele kwiLingano:
Ngaphandle kwempembelelo entle yokudityaniswa kwehlabathi ngakumbi phakathi kwezizwe eziphuhlileyo, kukho izinto ezixhalabisayo (
Ukungalingani kuyanda kungekuphela nje kwinqanaba lamazwe ngamazwe kodwa ngaphakathi kuzwelonke. Ngokomzekelo, ngowe-1992, iZizwe Ezimanyeneyo zafumanisa ukuba ama-83 ekhulwini obutyebi behlabathi afumaneka kuMantla azuzisa ama-20 ekhulwini abemi behlabathi. Ukusasazwa kobutyebi ngaphakathi kwamazwe kubonisa ukuba i-20 ekhulwini labantu abacebileyo behlabathi bamaxesha angama-150 acebileyo kunawona mahlwempu angama-20 ekhulwini (uBlackwell, Smith noSorenson, 2003: 88).
Ulawulo lwehlabathi ngokwenene, ludale ukungquzulana komgangatho wombuso ovumela ukukhula kwabasebenzi ngenxa yemveliso eninzi kunye nobugcisa, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo wemivuzo ephantsi (Berberoglou, 2005; Ruffin, 1990; Levine, 1998). amazwe amaninzi kwihlabathi lesithathu ezifana
Ukungalingani okusekelwe kwisini kunoko kwanda ngenxa yokwanda kwendima ephantsi yabasetyhini kwikhaya nakwibala lemarike, njengoko bengene kubasebenzi abaninzi kwihlabathi letekhnoloji (Agrawal, 1985; Bracke, 2004; Mies, 1986). Ukuphuhliswa kobuchwepheshe bale mihla kukhokelele ekujongeleni phantsi ulwazi lwemveli, lwemveli nobuchule obuphuma kubasetyhini njengesicwangciso sokuphila kwabo (Imoto kunye noSandhu, 1988).
Ipolitiki yesazisi yenze ihegemony phezu kwezizwe zeyantlukwano enkulu efana nobuhlanga, inkolo kunye nenkcubeko (Philips, 1999; Jacobs, 2004). Nangona i-multiculturalism ivunyiwe, izazisi zenkcubeko zezizwe eziphantsi, uluntu, kunye nabantu abanjengamaSilamsi basephantsi kosoyikiso kunye nomngcipheko
5. IiNdlela zokuBumbana kwabaseTyhini malunga nokuphuculwa kwamaxesha:
Indlela yokuphucula imeko yezoqoqosho igxininise kukhuphiswano lwemalike kunye nokusebenza kakuhle, kwaye ibona konke ukubandezeleka kwabantu njengeendleko zotshintsho (Mies, 1986; Nelson, 2005). Inkxalabo yabasetyhini kuqoqosho lweniyo-classical ibikwimodeli ye-GDP (iMveliso yeGross yasekhaya), ethi ithobe umsebenzi wokuziphilisa noqoqosho olungekho sikweni, kunye nomsebenzi wasekhaya ongahlawulwayo owenziwa ikakhulu ngabasetyhini. Ukongeza, imodeli yemathematika ye-GDP ayithatheli ingqalelo ukwahluka kwamandla, indima yamasiko, amaziko, kwaye okona kubaluleke kakhulu yinto yomntu (Mies, 1986; Nelson, 2005). Ngokuchaseneyo nembono yongxowankulu ngemveliso, egxininisa kuphela kwimveliso, abasetyhini bathanda ukuhlalutya amandla emveliso ebandakanya iinkqubo, umzekelo, ubudlelwane phakathi komntu nendalo (uMies noShiva, 1993; u-Omvedt noKelkar 1995). Oku kuhambelana nembono kaMarxist yemveliso ebonakalisa uqoqosho longxowankulu njengendalo yendalo yokwanda kwenkunzi (uMarx noEngles, 1998). Ezinye izazi ngentlalontle ezifana no-Weber zibonise uqoqosho olunjalo njengekheji yentsimbi, kwaye uHabermas wahlula phakathi 'kwehlabathi lobomi' lonxibelelwano kunye nokuzithoba, uxanduva kunye nebala 'lenkqubo' eqhutywa yimikhosi engazi nto (Weber, 1978; Habermas, 1989).
Uphuculo lwangoku luqalise ucalucalulo olukhulu lwesini emazantsi (Agrawal, 1994; Attanasio kunye neSzekely, 2001; Mies kunye noShiva, 1993). Umzekelo, ukufuduka kwexesha elifutshane kunye nexesha elide ngenxa yokufudukela ezidolophini kuye kwandisa amakhaya aphethwe ngabasetyhini okukhokelela kukungalingani phakathi kwamakhaya (umzekelo, indima yesini kunye nokusasazwa kwabasebenzi) (Agrawal, 1994; Attanasio and Szekely, 2001; Parrenas, 2005). Ukongeza, ukufuduka okunjalo kwabasebenzi basezidolophini kunye nabasebenzi behlabathi kuye kwachaphazela kakhulu intlalontle yabasetyhini nabantwana (Parrenas, 2005; Pyle, 2005). Ukuveliswa kobuninzi kunye nobugcisa obukhethekileyo kwimveliso bunike abafazi kubasebenzi abaninzi njengabasebenzi abangenazakhono kwaye indima yabo emibini iye yanda (Agrawal, 1994; Mies and Shiva, 1993). Ukwahlukaniswa kwabasetyhini kubuchwephesha bale mihla kuthathwa njengemveliso yolwakhiwo lwetekhnoloji yezembali nenkcubeko njengamadoda (uCockburn no-Ormund, 1993; Wajcman, 1991). Umzekelo, iinguqu kwimizi-mveliso yanamhlanje, efana neGreen revolution iye yacinezela abasetyhini ngokugxothwa kwabasetyhini ngenxa yomatshini kwezolimo (Agrawal, 1985: 112). Ukuhamba kweChipko ngaphakathi
Ngelixa abafazi basentshona besebenza ngokulinganayo njengamadoda, nangona kunjalo, abalingani kangako ekwabelaneni ngoxanduva lwasekhaya (Bracke, 2004: 98). Kumazwe aphuhlileyo e
6. Ubuni kunye nokuphuculwa kwamaxesha
Abachasi bexesha lanamhlanje baye baphinda baphonononga izenzo apho izizwe zaseNtshona ziye zanyanzelisa ukuphuculwa, kwaye zasebenzisa ulawulo kuMzantsi kwixesha lasemva kobukoloniyali. Ezi nkqubo ziquka ukuleyibheli, okufana, 'umva' kwaye 'abaphuhliswanga; kunye nokulungiselela iingcaphephe, iiprojekthi, kunye neenkqubo zophuhliso lwazo ukuze zihlanganiswe kwizinto zala maxesha (Conneley, Li, Mac Donald, and Parpart, 2000). Njengoko kubonisiwe ngaphambili, inkqubo yongxowankulu yophuhliso ithande ukuba negalelo ekubhalweni 'ngasemva' kunye 'nokungaphuhliswanga ngokwaneleyo' ngesicwangciso-qhinga sabo sokusasaza ngokutsha intsalela esuka kwisathelayithi ukuya kwi-metropolis (uFrank, 1966; Robinson, 1979; Ruffin, 1990). Oku kufakwa kweeleyibhile kuqinisekisa ukungafani kobutyebi namandla phakathi kwezizwe eziphuhlileyo nezingaphuhliswanga (uBlackwell, Smith noSorenson, 2003).
Ngokukodwa kwinqanaba lomntu ngamnye, xa zibhalwe 'njengomzali omnye', 'abahluphekayo' okanye 'abakumgangatho ophantsi', bahlala bethotywa ukusuka kumntu wendalo (uConneley, uLi, Mac Donald, kunye noParpart, 2000; Howard, 1995) . Inkqubo yokwahlulwa komntu ibaluleke kakhulu kuba ihlala ibandakanya izinto ezingezizo ezendalo. UHoward (1995: 166) wachaza ukuba 'olona phawu luthoba isidima umntu anokuba nalo kuluntu lwanamhlanje lwaseMntla Merika kukuba yinxalenye yodidi lwamahlwempu ngokusisigxina' njengoko bebizwa ngokuba 'ngabantu abangenasidima'. Inkcubeko yobukhapitali ilinganisa ubume bomntu ngokukwazi kwabo ukuvelisa ubutyebi, kodwa ayizikhathaleli iinkqubo, ekuthi ngazo, inkululeko yabantu (ekhokelela kwizakhono zabo) ithintelwe (Howard, 1995; Sen, 1999). UHoward ugqabaza ngokubhekele phaya ukuba imiba yesakhiwo kuluntu lobukapitali ithintela ubukhulu becala ukuba abantu basebenze ngokufanelekileyo, ngelixa loo maxhoba ongxowankulu etyholwa ngekamva lawo. USen (1999) ukwagxininisa ukuba ukungabikho kwenkululeko yezoqoqosho, yezopolitiko nezentlalo kuqhuba ukungalingani kwezentlalo phakathi kwesini, ubuhlanga kunye nobuhlanga.
I-hegemony yesazisi esixhaphakileyo esiye sathethelelwa kwihlabathi eliphuculweyo iye yaxoxwa kakhulu ngabaphengululi abavela emantla nasezantsi (Bannerji, 1995; Jacobs, 2004; Simpson, 1998). U-Bannerji (1995) ubonisa ukuba ubuwena ibe 'sisigama sezopolitiko esixhaphakileyo' kuluntu lwaseMntla Melika kwaye inkqubo yokusichaza idlulela ngaphaya komntu ngamnye, ukuya kwinkqubo 'yembali kunye nentlanganisela'. Nangona kunjalo, iinkxalabo ezininzi zikhutshiwe kunokwenza uluntu. Ngokomzekelo, kwi
UMcCarthy (1997) uchaze ukuba izazisi zamazwe ngamazwe zinokubunjwa ngokudityaniswa kwehlabathi ingakumbi ngokwandisa unxibelelwano lobuqu nonxibelelwano. Nangona kunjalo, unxibelelwano olunjalo lunokomeleza ubuzwe okanye ubuzwe, kunye nezazisi zamatsha ntliziyo ezifana nabanqolobi bamaSilamsi (1997: 248). Unxulumanisa ubuni bezizwe ngezizwe nobutshantliziyo bamazwe ngamazwe, obufuna umthombo wenkuthazo yobutshantliziyo. UJacobs (2004) ubona indima yokudibanisa ukubonelela ukufikelela kumaqela amancinci ukuba athathe inxaxheba kumaziko aqhelekileyo oluntu kunye nolawulo. Nangona kunjalo, ukudibanisa okunjalo kunokubangela ukuhlukahluka okusongela ubuni babo benkcubeko (2004: 131). Intetho yesazisi sesizwe inokujongela phantsi ukuba semthethweni kweempawu zenkcubeko ezifana 'nabemi bomthonyama' kwi.
7. IParadigm yoPhuhliso kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo weNtlalo
Uphuhliso kwixesha langoku luzise utshintsho olumandla njengoko kubonisiwe kwiNgxelo yoPhuhliso loLuntu (ecatshulwe kwiChambers, 2005). Ngokungafaniyo nangaphambili, uphuhliso luphawu lokukhula koqoqosho oluguqula 'uphuhliso olungaphuhlisiyo ukuya kuphuhliso' ngotshintsho lwemizi-mveliso, lujolise kuphuhliso lwabantu luvumela abantu ukuba bafezekise impilo yabo ngoqoqosho ngokubanzi, intlalo kunye nenkcubeko. inkqubela (Amagumbi, 2005; Denuelin, 2006). UChambers (2005: 193) kumbono wakhe wophuhliso ugxininisa 'kwindlela yokuphila kunye nobuchule' njengeziphelo kunye neendlela, kunye 'nentlalontle' njengesiphelo esiphezulu. Ukuphila kusekelwe kwimithetho-siseko emibini: ulingano kunye nozinzo olufaneleka ukuba ubomi bukhuselwe kwaye bube noxanduva (IiChambers, 2005).
USen (1999) ubona uphuhliso 'njengokususwa kweentlobo ngeentlobo zenkululeko ezishiya abantu benokhetho oluncinane kunye namathuba amancinane okusebenzisa ingqiqo yabo' (1999: xii). Ugqaliselo lukwimilinganiselo yomntu ebumba izakhono zomntu kunye nempilo yakhe (Sen, 1992; Sen, 1999). Ngaloo ndlela kuluntu olufanelekileyo kufuneka kwenziwe umzamo wokulinganisa amandla omntu (oxhomekeke kwiinkululeko zombini njengendlela kunye nesiphelo) kwaye kungekhona impahla nganye (De Martino, 2000; Deneulin, 2006; Sen, 1999).
Kutshanje, uphuhliso loluntu lube yithiyori entsha yophuhliso egxininisa kuphuhliso lwentlalo yoluntu kunye noluntu. I-OECD (uMbutho weNtsebenziswano yoQoqosho kunye noPhuhliso) igxininise kuphuhliso lwentlalo njengesicwangciso sophuhliso lwamandla kwindawo, kwingingqi kunye nelizwe (iDikoni, i-Hulse kunye ne-Stubbs, i-1997; i-Gomez, i-1999). Ingcinga esisiseko kukuba uphuhliso lwentlalo yoluntu (amandla equmrhu elihlangeneyo ukwenza izigqibo ezifanelekileyo) kunye nobutyebi bomntu (amandla omntu ngamnye ukwenza izigqibo ezifanelekileyo) kwenza ukuba kuqiniswe amandla abantu, amaqela kunye noluntu lonke ukufunda, ukulungelelanisa kunye nokusebenzisana (Gomez , 1999). Ukulandela iNgqungquthela yeHlabathi yoPhuhliso lweNtlalo (i-WSSD), i-UN igxininise kumgaqo-nkqubo wentlalo ugxininisa ekuqhelaneni nemilinganiselo, iinjongo kunye nezinto eziphambili ngokubhekiselele kwintlalontle yabo bonke kunye nokuqinisa amandla amaziko kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo (ekhankanywe kwiGomez, 1999). Ngaloo ndlela iimpembelelo ezimbini zomgaqo-nkqubo wophuhliso lwentlalo: a) imodeli yentlalontle yentlalontle ayifanelekanga kumazwe amaninzi ukuhlangabezana neemfuno zentlalo, b) ubuhlwempu buyingxenye yengxaki kuphela (Gomez, 1999).
I-ZNetwork ixhaswa ngemali kuphela ngesisa sabafundi bayo.
Nikela