Uphononongo lukaPeter Goodchild, Edward Teller: Oyena uGqirha Strangelove (eHarvard, 2004)
Nangona inkoliso yabantu ingathanda ukuyilibala, ukususela ekuqhushumbisweni kwebhombu yeathom kwizixeko zaseJapan ngoAgasti 1945 ihlabathi beliphila kumgama wentshabalalo yenyukliya. Kwaye akukho mntu udlale indima ebaluleke ngakumbi ekukhuthazeni ugqatso lwezixhobo zenyukliya kunye neengozi zalo ezoyikekayo njengo-Edward Teller, ingcali yefiziksi yaseHungary.
Ku-'Edward Teller: UGqr Strangelove Oyinyani, uPeter Goodchild - umvelisi kamabonwakude ophumelele ibhaso kwiBBC kunye nombhali webhayiloji kaRobert Oppenheimer - ubonelela ngenkcazo eneenkcukacha ngobomi bomntu kaTeller. Ezoba kudliwano-ndlebe alwenzileyo, izixhobo zombhalo-ngqangi, kunye nemithombo yesibini, uGoodchild uzobe umfanekiso ovezayo lo mntu unesiphiwo kwaye unempembelelo engaqhelekanga.
Nangona uTeller wazalelwa kusapho olunethamsanqa, olutofotofo, nosapho lobuchwephesha lobuJuda eBudapest, waba nobuntwana obungonwabanga. Unina wayehlala exhalabile kwaye ekhusela kakhulu kwaye, ngoko, wakhula umntwana onzima kakhulu, esoyika iimeko zemihla ngemihla. Ngokwenene, uTeller ngokwakhe wakhumbula ukuba 'ukuhambelana kwamanani' 'yayiyinkumbulo yokuqala endinayo yokuziva ndikhuselekile.' Yaye kwakukho okuninzi ekwakumele ndizive ndingakhuselekanga ngako. Ngethutyana nje elingephi, ubomi bentsapho yakwaTeller eBudapest baphazanyiswa yiMfazwe Yehlabathi I, imvukelo yasemva kwemfazwe yamaKomanisi, nokwanda kokuchasa amaYuda emva kobuKomanisi. Nangona wayeqaqambe ngendlela engaqhelekanga, uTeller wakhumbula ukuba, esikolweni, wayengenabahlobo phakathi kwabantwana afunda nabo, wayegculelwa ngootishala bakhe, yaye 'wayengumntu ongafunwayo.' Akumangalisi ukuba, 'wafikelela kwishumi elivisayo esengumntwana ozimiseleyo nongenaburharha.'
Njengoko uTeller waya eJamani ukuya kwiiklasi zaseyunivesithi kwaye enze uphando lwefiziksi, ukwamkelwa kwakhe kwezentlalo kunye nezakhono zentlalo zaphucuka ngokuphawulekayo. Ejulwe kunye nezinye izazinzulu ezikrelekrele, uninzi lwazo zingalunganga njengoko wayenjalo, uTeller waba nobubele bokwenene, uburharha kunye nomtsalane. Nangona kunjalo, ubunzima bakhe bobuntwaneni babuphawule ngokunzulu umsebenzi wakhe olandelayo. UGoodchild uxoxa, ngokuqinisekileyo, ukuba 'ukunxanelwa kukaTeller ukwamkelwa - ngokwenzakala kunye nomsindo awakuvayo xa waliwe' - kwaba 'luphawu olucacileyo' lobomi bakhe.
Ngokuphakama kwamaNazi kulawulo, uTeller wemka eJamani esiya eBritani kwaye, kungekudala, waya e-United States, apho wazinza ngokukhululekileyo kwimfundo. Ngo-1939, kunye nezinye iifiziksi ezimbini zaseHungary, uLeo Szilard kunye no-Eugene Wigner, wadibana no-Albert Einstein kwaye wamnceda ukuba alumkise uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt ukuba urhulumente waseJamani unokuphuhlisa ibhombu yeathomu. Oku kwaba sisiqalo seProjekthi yaseManhattan, inkqubo efihlakeleyo yebhombu yeathom yexesha lemfazwe. UTeller wasebenza kule projekthi, edibanisa uninzi lwezazinzulu ezathi, kwiminyaka yamva, zingqubane kumgaqo-nkqubo wezixhobo zenyukliya. Elindele ukuqeshwa njengentloko yecandelo lethiyori eLos Alamos, uTeller waphoxeka kakhulu xa engasifumananga isikhundla.
Wacaphuka kwakhona xa izicwangciso zakhe zokusebenza kwi-'Super' H-bhombu zaphazamiseka. Kolu kuphazamiseka, watyhola umlawuli welebhu yaseLos Alamos, uRobert Oppenheimer, ingcali yefiziksi enempembelelo yakhe, ukuthandwa, kunye nokuziphatha okuhle awaqala ukuyicaphukela. Xa u-Szilard ecela u-Teller ukuba ajikeleze isikhalazo e-Los Alamos ekhuthaza ukuba ibhombu ingasetyenziselwa ukulwa neJapan, uTeller wayekulungele ukuyenza, kodwa wayenqatshelwe ngu-Oppenheimer. Enyanisweni, u-Teller unike ingxelo ku-Szilard ukuba, ngenxa yesidingo sokuqinisekisa uluntu ukuba 'imfazwe elandelayo ingaba yingozi,' 'ukusetyenziswa kwangempela kokulwa' kwesixhobo 'kunokuba yinto engcono kakhulu.' Yayiluphawu lokuqala lobuqhetseba bakhe kunye, kwakhona, nobudlelwane obunzima kunye no-Oppenheimer, obubonakalisa ubomi bakhe kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo.
Ukuphela kwemfazwe, uTeller - enethemba elinzulu malunga nobudlelwane basemva kwemfazwe neSoviet Union - wacinezela izazinzulu ukuba ziqhubeke nomsebenzi wazo wezixhobo zenyukliya. Ekuqaleni, ngokuqinisekileyo, wayexhasa ulawulo lwezixhobo zenyukliya kunye nemilinganiselo yokuchithwa kwezixhobo njenge-Acheson-Lilienthal Plan engafanelekanga. Kodwa, ngokunyukayo, uphumelele uphuhliso lwebhomu ye-H - iprojekthi apho wayenethemba lokudlala indima ephambili. Njengoko u-Goodchild ebonisa, ngokuphuhlisa ibhomu ye-H, u-Teller wayephendula zombini ekoyikeni kwakhe ukuba i-Soviet Union ingaloyisa ihlabathi kunye nekhwele lakhe lika-Oppenheimer, ngoko ke wadunyiswa ngokubanzi 'njengoyise webhomu ye-athomu.'
Le miba mibini, ebonakalisa ukuxhalaba kwakhe kunye namabhongo akhe, yakhawuleza yadityaniswa, kuba u-Oppenheimer kunye nesangqa sakhe sabonakala sisithintelo esikhulu sokwenza urhulumente wase-US aqhubele phambili neprojekthi ye-H-bhombu. Ngokuthe ngcembe, nangona kunjalo, uTeller wawuphumelela umzabalazo. Ngokukodwa emva kovavanyo lokuqala lwenyukliya yaseSoviet ekwindla ka-1949, abantu abanamandla kwezopolitiko, kuquka noMongameli uHarry Truman, bafola kwicala lokwakha i-H-bhombu. Ekuphela kwento ekwakufuneka ayenze uTeller yayikukujonga indlela yokuyakha. Okumangalisayo kukuba, nangona izixhobo zakhe ezinamandla zisebenza kwilabhoratri yaseLivermore, yayiyingxaki eyayimdida iminyaka. Ngaphaya koko, ingcali yezibalo uStan Ulam isenokuba noxanduva lokuphumelela kwengqiqo efunekayo. Nangona kunjalo, uTeller wafumana isabelo sengonyama yetyala kwaye, ekugqibeleni, waziwa ngokuba 'nguyise we-H-bhombu' - isixhobo esinamandla aphindwe kaliwaka njengebhombu eyabhangisa iHiroshima.
Kwaye yayingekokuphela koloyiso lwe-H-bhomb Teller phezu kweentshaba zakhe ezibekekileyo. Ngo-1954, wadibana nezinye iintshaba ze-Oppenheimer (kunye nolawulo lwezixhobo zenyukliya) ukutshabalalisa umsebenzi kunye nefuthe lembangi yakhe. U-Oppenheimer wenze isicelo kwiKomishoni yaMandla e-Atomic ukuba abuyisele imvume yakhe yokhuseleko, kwaye oku kwabangela ukuviwa okumangalisayo, okubhengezwe kakhulu ngokunyaniseka nokhuseleko. Nangona abahlobo bakaTeller babembongoza ukuba anganikeli ubungqina, waligatya icebiso labo. Ngaloo ndlela, ebudeni bokuchotshelwa kwetyala, wathi, ngokusekelwe kwizenzo zika-Oppenheimer ukususela ngowe-1945, wayecinga ukuba kubalulekile ukuba ukhuseleko lwelizwe lwale imvume kuye. Oku kukwaba sisigqibo sebhodi, eyamqhawula u-Oppenheimer kwiinkqubo zikarhulumente awayekhe waziyalela kwaye yaphelisa impembelelo yakhe kubo.
KuTeller, yabonakala iluloyiso olukhulu. Xa i-AEC yamothusa ngokupapasha umbhalo wokuchotshelwa kwetyala lokuthembeka, uninzi lwabalingane bakaTeller bezenzululwazi - bothuswe yinto ababeyigqala kukungcatsha kwakhe isidima somntu - bamnqamla naye. UTeller wayekhathazekile yimpendulo yabo. Njengoko wakhumbulayo: 'Ukuba umntu uyalishiya ilizwe lakhe, alishiye ilizwekazi lakhe, ashiye izalamane zakhe, ashiye abahlobo bakhe, ekuphela kwabantu abaziyo ngabasebenzi asebenza nabo. Ukuba ngaphezulu kwamashumi alithoba eepesenti kubo beza kumthatha njengotshaba, umntu ogxothiweyo, kuya kuba nesiphumo. Inyaniso yeyokuba ibe nempembelelo enkulu.'
UTeller, nangona kunjalo, uye wazenzela abahlobo abatsha, ngakumbi phakathi kwezixhobo zomkhosi-zemizi-mveliso, owazixabisayo izikhundla azithabathileyo kwaye waqaphela usetyenziso lwakhe njengentshatsheli yeenkqubo ezintsha zezixhobo zenyukliya. Yaye wangqineka elutyalo-mali oluhle. Ebongoza iCongress kunye noMongameli ukuba ayichase imbono yesivumelwano sokuvalwa kovavanyo lwenyukliya, uTeller wathi 'kuya kuba lulwaphulo-mthetho ebantwini' ukumisa uvavanyo lwenyukliya xa yena kunye nezinye izixhobo zenzululwazi bemi kumda wokwenza ibhombu 'ecocekileyo'. . 'Iziqhushumbisi zenyukliya ezinoxolo,' uxelele uMongameli uDwight Eisenhower, zingasetyenziselwa ukutyhila idiphozithi yeoli, ukuguqula imilambo, kwaye 'mhlawumbi nokuguqula imozulu.' U-Eisenhower wachukumiseka kakhulu, kwaye wacebisa ukuba inokuba licebo elilungileyo ukwabelana 'ngokucoceka'; iibhombu kunye namaRashiya, ingcamango yokuba uMthethi, ngokwemvelo, waxhathisa. Phantsi kolwalathiso lukaTeller, oogxa bakhe eLivermore baqulunqa amacebo e-wider ahlala ebonisa ukuba uvavanyo lwenyukliya lunokufihlwa kwaye, ngenxa yoko, ukuvalwa kovavanyo kwakungenakwenzeka. Oku kuquka ukudubula kwezixhobo kwimiqolomba enzulu, ukwakha ikhaka elikhulu lokufihla ii-x-reyi kubabukeli bomhlaba, kunye nokucwangcisa uvavanyo lwenyukliya kwicala elikude lenyanga. Nangona uninzi loluntu lwalukhula lunenkxalabo malunga nokuwa kwenyukliya ekuvavanyeni, uTeller waqinisekisa abantu baseMelika ukuba ukuwa 'akufanelanga ukuba nexhala.' Uvavanyo lwemitha yenyukliya 'akufuneki lube yingozi,' watsho, kwaye 'kusenokwenzeka ukuba luncedo.'
Elinye lamaphulo e-zanier akhuthazwa nguTeller abandakanya ukusetyenziswa kweebhombu ze-H ukuqhushumba izibuko lamanzi anzulu kumantla eAlaska. Ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yee-1950, ingcali yefiziksi enempembelelo yakhuthaza imisebenzi equka ukusebenzisa iziqhushumbisi zenyukliya ekudaleni idayimani, ukumba ioli, kunye noncedo lwezixhobo zenyukliya ezingama-26 ukwenza umjelo omtsha okufuphi nePanama Canal. Wade wathi kwakuya kuba nzima โukuxhathisa isilingo sokudubula enyangeni. . . ukubona ukuba sisiphi na isiphithiphithi esisibangelayo. Ekugqibeleni, ezi mbono zinkulu zathatha ukuma kwiProjekthi yePlowshare.
Ukuphumeza icandelo layo lokuqala, iProjekthi yeChariot, iTeller yabhabha yaya eAlaska ukuya kuphakamisa amathuba anomdla aquka ukusebenzisa iziqhushumbisi zenyukliya ukwakha amadama, amachibi kunye nemisele. Ekugqibeleni, uTeller wehlisa i-Alaskan venture ekusebenziseni izixhobo zenyukliya ukudubula izibuko elikhulu kufuphi neCape Thompson. Nangona umdla wezorhwebo eAlaska wawuthanda lo mbono, izazinzulu zalapha zazigxeka kwaye abantu base-Inuit basekhaya - iikhilomitha ezingama-32 ukusuka kwindawo yeziqhushumbisi zenyukliya ezicwangcisiweyo-babengazimiselanga kwaphela ukuba uluntu lwabo lujike lube yindawo eyinkunkuma yenyukliya. Ukuphendula kuqhanqalazo oluchasene neProjekthi yeChariot, abalawuli baseKennedy bayilahlile. Noko ke, uGoodchild utyhila ukuba la maqhinga abonakala engekho ngqiqweni ayenengqiqo efihlakeleyo, kuba 'inqwelo yokulwa yayicetywe ngumkhosi.' Ejongene nethemba lokuvalwa kovavanyo lwenyukliya, uTeller wayekhuthaza 'uxolo' ukudubula kwenyukliya njengendlela yokuqhubeka novavanyo lwezixhobo zenyukliya.
Ukukholelwa okunzulu kukaTeller kwizixhobo zenyukliya kwabonakala ngakumbi ngeminyaka yee-1960 neyee-1970. Unike ubungqina phambi kweNkongolo ngokuchasene neSivumelwano soVavanyo lweSivumelwano soVavanyo kwaye wathetha ngokuphandle ngaso nakumabonakude. Ukongeza, uye walwela uphuhliso lwenkqubo ye-ABM eya kusebenzisa iziqhushumbisi zenyukliya ukutshabalalisa imijukujelwa engenayo, yabamba uvavanyo lwenyukliya oluphantsi komhlaba kwiSiqithi i-Amchitka esathi saqalisa ugqabhuko-dubulo olunamandla oluphantsi komhlaba kwimbali yaseMelika, kwaye lwabhenela ngamandla ngokuchasene nezivumelwano ze-SALT zooMongameli. URichard Nixon kunye noJimmy Carter. 'Yena . . . UMarvin Goldberger, omnye wabafundi bokuqala bakaTeller, wakhumbula oku, 'kangangokuba kwakungekho bani wayemfuna ngaphandle kwabo banenzondelelo yempambano kwiPentagon.'
Ukungena kukaTeller kwi-extremism kuqhubekile kwingxoxo malunga neengozi zamandla enyukliya. Xa kusondele ukunyibilika kwesixhobo senyukliya seThree Mile Island kwenzeka, kukhulula izixa eziyingozi zokusebenzisa i-radioactivity, uTeller waqinisekisa ikomiti yeCongress ukuba, 'i-zero linani leemeko eziqinisekisiweyo zomonakalo kwimpilo ngenxa yeziko lenyukliya kwihlabathi elikhululekileyo.' Ngosuku olusemva kokuvela kwakhe kwi-congressional, uTeller walaliswa esibhedlele ngenxa yesifo sentliziyo, kwaye le nto yaba buhlungu kumatshini wakhe wokusasaza. NgoJulayi 1979, phantsi kwesihloko esinamaphepha amabini kwi Wall Street Journal ukufunda 'NDINDINDEYE KUPHELA IXHOXA LESIQITHI SAMATHATHU,' kwavela ifoto enkulu kaTeller, kunye nengcaciso yakhe yokuba unobangela wengxaki yempilo yakhe 'yayingeyiyo i-reactor. YayinguJane Fonda. Izixhobo zombane aziyongozi.' UGoodchild ke uhlabela mgama athi: 'Inqaku lomhleli kwi ENew York Times utyhola uMbhexeshi wepropagandaโฆ Emva koko yabonisa into angazange ayikhankanye uTeller: ukuba umxhasi wesibhengezo, iDrescer Industries, wenze ivalve ethe yahlala ivulekile kwaye yaqalisa imeko kaxakeka.'
Nangona uTeller wayenempembelelo enkulu kumgaqo-nkqubo woluntu wase-US ngee-1970s-ukukhuthaza ibhombu ye-H ngexesha leminyaka ye-Truman, ukuhlambulula i-Oppenheimer kunye nokonakalisa isivumelwano sokuvalwa kovavanyo ngexesha le-Eisenhower iminyaka, ngaphandle kovavanyo lwenyukliya olungaphantsi komhlaba kwisivumelwano sokuvalwa kovavanyo ngexesha leKennedy iminyaka, ukukhusela ukuthunyelwa kwenkqubo ye-ABM ngexesha leminyaka kaJohnson, kunye nokugcina urhulumente wase-US exakekile kugqatso lwezixhobo zenyukliya ngexesha leNixon, Ford, kunye neCarter iminyaka - weza kweyakhe emva koloyiso lukaRonald Reagan luka-1980. UTeller walungiselela ukuqeshwa kommeli wakhe njengoMcebisi wezeSayensi kamongameli, waba lilungu leBhunga lezeNzululwazi leWhite House, wadibana nomongameli kwi-White House malunga nemiba yenyukliya, kwaye wenza njengaye nawuphi na omnye umntu ukumqinisekisa ukuba. ukuyilwa kwenkqubo yokulwa nemijukujelwa yeStar Wars kwakubalulekile kukhuselo lwesizwe. UTeller waxelela uReagan ukuba, abantu baseRashiya babesele beza kubeka 'izixhobo ezinamandla ezalathiswayo' emajukujukwini, ngaloo ndlela bekwazi 'ukulawula ngomkhosi isibhakabhaka nomhlaba, nto leyo eguqule ngokupheleleyo amandla ehlabathi.' Ngoko ke, 'inyathelo elingxamisekileyo' lalifuneka ukuze kwakhiwe inkqubo yokuthintela imijukujelwa eyayiza kusetyenziswa luqhushumbo lwezixhobo zenyukliya kwaye yayiza kuthunyelwa kwiminyaka embalwa.
Njengoko kusaziwa, uReagan waginya le hook yokulwa ne-missile, umgca, kunye ne-sinker nangona, eneneni, amabango kaTeller ayenobudlelwane obuncinci nobunyani. Umlandeli kaReagan, uGeorge HW Bush, wayethandabuza ngakumbi ngale projekthi, kodwa uye wavuma uguqulelo olulungisiweyo, iBrilliant Pebbles, ekwaxhaswa nguTeller. Abantu baseRiphabhlikhi kwiCongress nabo baxhasa ingcamango yokuzikhusela kwimijukujelwa, kwaye ngexesha leBill Clinton iminyaka - basebenzise amandla abo amatsha kwelo qumrhu lowiso-mthetho ukugcina iprojekthi iphila kunye nolwabiwo oluya kubaxhobi baseMelika. Emva koko, uGeorge W. Bush, ethatha isikhundla, wayalela ukusasazwa kwenkqubo entsha kwaye, kwiveki ngaphambi kokufa kukaTeller ngo-2003, wamwonga ngeMbasa kaMongameli yeNkululeko, elona bhaso liphezulu loluntu kwesi sizwe. Endleleni, ingqondo kaTeller yanceda ukonakalisa isivumelwano e-Reykjavik sokuphelisa izixhobo zenyukliya ezicwangcisiweyo, yabangela ukutshitshiswa kwesivumelwano se-ABM, kwaye yakhokelela kwinkcitho engaphezulu kwe-100 yeebhiliyoni zeedola. Kwaye akukabikho nto ibonisa ukuba iyasebenza.
Ngokubanzi, incwadi kaGoodchild inika umdla, iphandwe kakuhle, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha isifundo esinovelwano somntu ongaqhelekanga. Ngelishwa, nangona kunjalo, umbhali ubuqonda ngcono kakhulu ubomi bukaTeller kunamaxesha akhe. Ngaloo ndlela, wenza iimpazamo ezicacileyo zembali. Phakathi kwazo kukho namabango okuba, ngaphambi kokuba iJapan inikezele, urhulumente waseUnited States waqinisekisa urhulumente waseJapan ngokhuseleko lomlawuli nokuba โimikhosi yeSoviet yahlasela iCzechoslovakiaโ ngoFebruwari 1948. UEdward Teller yincwadi ekufanele ukuba ifundwe. Iyaxhokonxa kwaye iyaqinisekisa, iqaqambisa ukubaluleka kobuntu - kubandakanywa neuroses zomntu - kwimbali yogqatso lwezixhobo zenyukliya.
ULawrence S. Wittner yiNjingalwazi yezeMbali kwiYunivesithi yeSizwe yaseNew York/Albany. Incwadi yakhe yamva nje ithi, 'Isinge ekubhangiseni iNyukliya: Imbali yeHlabathi yeNyukliya yeNyukliya, ngo-1971 ukuza kuthi ga ngoku' (iStanford University Press, 2003).
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