In Umthetho weFederal Anti-Indian: Ukufakwa ngokusemthethweni kwabantu bemveli, UPeter d'Errico ubhenca ukungabinangqondo kunye nobutshaba apho iUnited States isebenzisa umthetho ukusebenzisa - okanye ukukhanyela - ubulungisa kubantu bokuqala beli lizwe.
"Xa singena kwindawo ebizwa'singena kwihlabathi le-semantic elidalwe yi-United States ukulawula abantu bomthonyama nokubanga imihlaba yabo,โ ubhala watsho u-d'Errico, igqwetha kunye nonjingalwazi ophumayo kwiYunivesithi yaseMassachusetts-Amherst.
Ngaphandle kokudideka kunye nokuchasana, umthetho wobumbano waseIndiya - ngokwemigaqo ye-d'Errico,"umthetho ochasene namaIndiyaโ โ kudala unenjongo engaguqukiyo. Ngokutshabalalisa abemi bomthonyama kunye noluntu, iye yanceda izityebi nabanamandla baqokelela imihlaba nobuncwane. Oku kuhluthwa komhlaba kufezekiswa ngokuyinxenye kuba oko kubizwa ngokuba ngumthetho womanyano waseIndiya ayiloqela lemithetho ecwangcisiweyo. Endaweni yoko, ngokuka-d'Errico, yintoni phakathi20thKwinkulungwane yenkulungwane yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States, uFelix Frankfurter wabiza iNkundla Ephakamileyo"i-hodge-podge enkuluโ kwaye iquka zonke iinkalo zobomi beMveli kunye nomsebenzi ngothotho lwezigqibo zenkundla yaseMelika, imithetho, imiyalelo yesigqeba kunye nemimiselo yearhente eye yafumba ukutyhubela iminyaka ngendlela engafanelekanga nephuculweyo.
UKent McNeil, unjingalwazi ophuma eOsgoode Hall Law School kwiYunivesithi yaseYork eToronto, ubiza i-d'Errico's. Umthetho weFederal Anti-Indian โ"uhlaselo oluthe ngqo kulo lonke icandelo lomthetho waseMelika malunga nabemi bomthonyama. " Uyincoma njenge"imele ifundweโ kwabo bafuna ukuqonda ukuba yintoni ephembelela nawaphi na amabango okuba ukuhluthwa kwabantu boMthonyama bekuvakala ngokusemthethweni. Ngokufanayo, uRobert Maxim, igosa eliphezulu lophando kwi-Brookings Institution kunye nommi wesizwe saseMashpee Wampanoag, uyayincoma le ncwadi njenge"ibalulekile kwaye ikhanyisela bonke abantu, abeMthonyama nabangengabo aboMthonyama ngokufanayo. โ
Ngalo lonke eli xesha lesiphithiphithi, ukusetyenziswa komthetho wase-US kubantu boMthonyama kube nenjongo engagungqiyo: ubusela.
Ngokujongela phantsi abantu boMthonyama kunye namalungelo abo phantsi kwezivumelwano zabo - kwaye, ukusukela 1924, njengabemi abapheleleyo baseUnited States - umthetho we-anti-Indian federal uye wakhonza izityebi kunye nabanamandla. Ezi ziquka iinkokeli zokuqala zaseMelika. UGeorge Washington, uThomas Jefferson kunye nabanye abaninzi benze inzuzo entle. Kwaye babesazi ukuba kufuneka basebenze ngokukhawuleza: NgokukaWashington, nabani na"olityeshelayo ithuba elikhoyo lokuzingela imihlaba elungileyo ... soze alifumane kwakhona.โ
I-United States, ubhala u-Errico, i"ishishini leofisi yomhlaba,โ yonke into imalunga nokwenza inzuzo ngomhlaba. Okanye, njengoko iWashington yalumkisa: Uyasnuza, ulahlekelwe.
Lo mgaqo kamongameli wethu wokuqala useyinyaniso nanamhlanje. Xa ndibhala"Urhulumente wase-US UNcedisa Njani Iinkampani Eziphanga Umhlaba Womthonyama"ngenxa Ngale maxesha in 2016, eli nqaku lalithetha ngentsapho yamaNavajo eyayitsala nzima ukuvala umbhobho weoli owawunqumla emhlabeni kangangamashumi eminyaka. Ngeli xesha, iinkampani ezingengobemi bomthonyama kunye nabantu abakulo lonke ilizwe laseIndiya babefumana ingeniso kumhlaba woMthonyama ukuya kutsho kwiibhiliyoni zeedola njengoko besitya izilwanyana, betyala izityalo, begawula amaplanga, bemba izimbiwa, bekhupha ioli negesi nokunye.
Ukubhala kuka-D'Errico kwaziswa ngamava akhe aqala ngasekupheleni 1960njengegqwetha labaxumi abangamaNavajo benkonzo yezomthetho engenzi nzuzo, Dinรฉ be'iinรก Nรกhiiลna be Agha' diit'ahii, eyayikwiSizwe samaNavajo ngelo xesha. Usaqhubeka unanamhla ukumangalela amatyala eMveli, kuquka egameni lenkululeko yonqulo yamabanjwa eNative, amalungelo okuloba kaMashpee Wampanoag kunye namalungelo omhlaba we-Western Shoshone. Wathweswa isidanga kwiYale Law School, waseka isebe lezifundo zomthetho eMass-Amherst kwaye wafundisa apho 30 minyaka.
INkundla ePhakamileyo kudala ibonelela ngokhuseleko lwasemthethweni kwabo banqwenela ukuhlutha umhlaba kunye nezibonelelo kubantu boMthonyama. Ekuqaleni 1800s, inkundla yabhengeza ngokwezimvo ezintathuโJohnson v. McIntosh, Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia kwaye Worcester v. State of Georgiaโyokuba eneneni abemi bomthonyama babengenamhlaba wabo kodwa babengabantu nje abaqhelekileyo"abahlala kuzoโ ukuba amaKristu"yabhaqaโ; ukuba izizwe zomthonyama zazi"iiwadiโ zaseUnited States; kwaye iUnited States yayinayo"ubukhosi bokugqibelaโ kuwo onke amazwe aboMthonyama nezizwana.
Umbhali ophambili wezimvo yayinguJaji oyiNtloko uJohn Marshall. NjengomKrestu ozinikeleyo, akazange asikhathalele isinyanzelo soMgaqo-siseko sokwahlula icawa norhulumente. Walatha kubuKristu njengesizathu sokulawula kwaye-emva kokuguqulwa kwenkolo"abahedeniโ Natives โ imbuyekezo yelahleko yabo.
UMarshall wayesazi ukuba ukwindawo engcangcazelayo. UD'Errico umcaphula evuma ukuba amabango oluvo olunye aye"imibonisoโ eyayikho"akukho kwenye indawo.โ Lo yayingengomthetho oqhelekileyo, kodwa ukunqunyanyiswa komthetho, utshilo u-Errico. UMarshall wayekhuphe umthetho ochasene nomthetho wepropathi, evakalisa ukuba abantu bomthonyama, njengabantu abaphantsi, babenomthetho wepropathi."amalungelo anciphayoโ: Basenokuba bahlala emhlabeni kodwa babengenawo.
Iimbono zazinomzekelo wembali. Iincwadi zikapopu zenkulungwane ye-XNUMX zalathisa ookumkani abangamaKristu ukuba"bahlasele, boyise, balwe, boyiseโ imihlaba yabantu abangengomaKristu baze banciphise abemi balapho ukuba bahlasele."ubukhoboka obungenasiphelo.โ Iinkunzi zachaza ubukoloniyali njengentengiselwano: ukusindiswa kwaloo maKristu anikela ngemali okanye izakhono zokulwa kunye nokugxothwa kwabo bafunyenwe bethatha nantoni na."ngaphandle kweendleko nemivuzo.โ Ezi nkunzi zikwachaza ulungelelwaniso lweemephu ezibonisa ukuba zeziphi izizwe ezingabanini bento efunyenweyo, okanye"kude kube ngoku ayikafunyanwa,โ umhlaba.
NgoMatshi 2023, iVatican yazama ukurhoxa ekuphenduleni ngemiphumo eyonakalisayo neqhubekayo yokwenziwa kwamathanga kubantu bomthonyama. Amasebe amabini aseVatican - leNkcubeko kunye neMfundo kunye nokuKhuthaza uPhuhliso oluDibeneyo loLuntu - abhengeze kwingxelo edibeneyo ukuba iinkunzi zikapopu."zazisetyenziselwa iinjongo zobupolitika ngokukhuphisana kwamagunya obuthanga ukuze kuthethelelwe izenzo zokuziphatha okubi nxamnye naBemi Bomthonyama.โ
Hayi indlela, uthi u-Errico:"Iinkunzi zenkomo zaziyimiyalelo yokumatsha ecacileyo yokuba zoyise kwaye ziguquke. Nangona kunjalo, wamkela ingqalelo kwiNgxelo eDityanisiweyo eziswe kwimiba yeMveli-ngaphandle kwamabango ayingxaki.
Iofisi yeendaba yaseVatican yaphendula Kwelamaxesha isicelo sezimvo neengcaciso ngokukhomba a Iindaba zeVatican udliwanondlebe apho uKhadinali uMichael Czerny wavakalisa usizi ngemiphumo eqhubekayo yobukoloniyali, esithi"uBawo Oyingcwele ugwetyiwe kwi yomelele ngokwemiqathango ikhona ukunyanzeliswa yinkcubeko ethile phezu kwenye.โ UCzerny ukwalukhabile ulwimi lwecawe olunobundlobongela malunga nabemi boMthonyama njengelinokuthelekiswa nento eyayithethwa yicawa ngelo xesha ngabafazi, amaYuda nabanye.
Abantu bomthonyama baye bayigxeka ngamandla imfundiso kaMarshall. Kwi 2019 Ukufayila enkundleni, iSizwe saseYakama, kwiLizwe laseWashington, sayibiza ngokuba lucalucalulo, lubulala uhlanga kunye nobuhlanga"igunya elenziweyo.โ Kwi 1996 imfutshane ebhalwe ngu-d'Errico, iWestern Shoshones ithe yayi"akukho ndawo ivunyiweyo kuMgaqo-siseko waseUnited Statesโ kwaye"ingqubana ngokupheleleyo nemigaqo esisiseko yamalungelo abantu.โ
Nangona uMarshall wavuma ukuba izimvo zakhe zazilungile"ngokuchasene nelungelo lendalo, โwaphinda wababiza"iyimfuneko,โ ubhala u-d'Errico. Urhulumente wobumbano wayexhomekeke ekuchasโ umthetho okwakugunyaziswa ziimbono ukuze alitshise igunya lakhe kumhlaba nabemi boMthonyama.
Abemi besizwe basweleke ngamawaka emva kokuba iNkongolo ipasise uMthetho wokuSuswa kwamaIndiya we 1830, eyalela izizwe ezithile ukuba zihambe ukusuka kumazwe azo ziye kuMmandla wamaIndiya kwindawo ngoku eyiOklahoma. ICongress's 1887 UMthetho woLwabiwo Jikelele uye waqhawula iindawo ezininzi ezigciniweyo kwaye wadlulisela iinxalenye zabo kubemi, utshabalalisa iindlela zakudala zoluntu kunye nezenzo zokusetyenziswa komhlaba zamaxesha onyaka. Embindini-1800s ukuya emva kwexesha 1900yayinolunye uhlobo lwembubhiso: Ulutsha loMthonyama kwafuneka luye kwizikolo ezihlala kwindawo ekuhlalwa kuzo ezazidume ngogonyamelo apho abasebenzi babezama ukoyisa iilwimi nezithethe zabo.
Kumashumi eminyaka emva kweembono zikaMarshall, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock kunye nezinye izigqibo zenkundla ephakamileyo zaya nangaphezulu, zibhengeza ingqungquthela yeCongress - okanye ngokupheleleyo - amandla phezu kwabantu bomthonyama. Ngenxa yoko, abantu bomthonyama babengekho nje phantsi korhulumente wobumbano kodwa baxhomekeke kwiinjongo zezopolitiko ezingalindelekanga kunye nokwenza isivumelwano. Oku akubangelwa kukuba izivumelwano zabo okanye uMgaqo-siseko utsho njalo, kodwa kungenxa yokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza njalo.
UMarshall wayengumhloli womhlaba kunye nejaji, ngokutsho kuka-Errico. Enkosi kwisicatshulwa malunga neKentucky kwenye yeembono zikaMarshall, yena nosapho lwakhe baseka ubunini be 600,000 iihektare apho. Igqwetha leNavajo uRoberta Carol Harvey ujonge ukusetyenziswa ngokungenalusini kolawulo kwizixhobo zamaplanga kwenye incwadi epapashwe 2022, Unxantathu we-Iron: UShishino, uRhulumente, kunye nokuhluthwa kwaBahlali bamaKoloni kwiTimberlands yaseIndiya kunye neTimber.. Iphandwe ngobuchule, incwadi kaHarvey ichaza uluhlu lwezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho - ubuqhetseba, ubuxoki, ukunyoba, ukudibana, ukubulawa kwabantu, iimfazwe zabucala zokutshabalalisa nokunye okuninzi-ezo zoshishino kunye neenkokeli zezopolitiko zazenza njengoko zaziqokelela imali eninzi ngokugawula amahlathi amakhulu.
"Urhwaphilizo lwaluyinxalenye yohanahaniso olugqithisileyo lokufunyanwa kobuKristu,โ ubhala watsho u-d'Errico. Enye indlela onokucinga ngayo: Abatshintshi bemali bamkelekile kule tempile!
Iinkululeko ziye zalangazelela njengabagcini bokusebenzisa iimbono zikaMarshall zolawulo kunye nesiphumo sokuhluthwa kwabantu bomthonyama. Ongasekhoyo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-US u-Ruth Bader Ginsberg wabhekisela kwi-Marshall canon ngokubhala a 2005 uluvo ngomcimbi weSizwe we-Oneida. Njengabagwebi abaninzi bexesha langoku, wayishiya inkcazo yokuqala kaMarshall yokuba ubuKristu buyisizathu sokuhluthwa. I 15th Iziseko zenkolo zenkulungwane yobunini base-US bemihlaba yayo ngoku"iintloniโ kwaye ngokuqhelekileyo"ifihlweโ ziijaji namagqwetha, ubhala watsho u-d'Errico.
INkundla ePhakamileyo isekhona, ngokutsho kuka-d'Errico. Ubalisa ngesigqibo senkundla sakutsha nje McGirt v. Oklahoma, ingxabano malunga negunya lolwaphulo-mthetho olwenzeka kwiSizwe saseMuscogee, esiphakathi kwemida yase-Oklahoma. Urhulumente wabanga ukuba unegunya ngenxa yokuba, ngokokubona kwawo, iUnited States yathatha iminyaka ukubhangisa isizwe samaNative, yasophula ubunini bomhlaba bawo boluntu ukuze ithande ubunini bomntu ngamnye, ishenxise iinxalenye zorhulumente wayo nokunye. Isizwe saseMuscogee saphendula ukuba siye sabandezeleka"izithukoโ kodwa zazisekho.
Ityala lenze indlela yalo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, eyafumanisa, ngo 2020, ukuba iSizwe saseMuscogee sabakho kodwa ngenxa yokuba iCongress ayizange iyitshitshise ngokucacileyo. Ngoko, uhlanga lwesizwe lwalunegunya phezu kolwaphulo-mthetho kuthethwa ngalo. Okumangalisayo kukuba, ingxelo d'Errico,"abantu abaninzi babevuya.โ Kuyabonakala ukuba babengayiqondi loo nto McGirt yayingelolo uloyiso kulawulo lomthonyama kodwa yayisisilumkiso: Isizwe saseMuscogee sasikho ngenxa yokuba iCongress yayingekawasebenzisi amandla ayo apheleleyo ukuyidiliza.
"ICongress inokwenza isenzo esimdaka nanini na xa ifuna, โubhala u-Errico.
Ngamaxesha athile, kuvela inkqubo ebonakala ixhasa abantu bomthonyama kodwa endaweni yoko inokuba"Ukucima kuguqulwe njengoncedo,โ ngokutsho kwe-d'Errico. Umzekelo, ukusuka 1946 ukuba 2006, iKomishoni yamaBango yaseIndiya ivumela abantu bomthonyama ukuba bamangalele iUnited States ngembuyekezo ngomhlaba othatyathwe kubo ngokuchasene nezivumelwano zabo nezinye izivumelwano. Le nkqubo yayijoliswe ekusombululeni amakhulu-khulu amabango okubiwa komhlaba okubuyela emva kwiminyaka emininzi eyadlulayo. Ikomishini yamabango inikezele ngexabiso le-$1.3 iibhiliyoni kwisithuba seminyaka engamashumi amathandathu ibisebenza. Ngeso sixa sincinci, xa kujongwa ubungakanani bendawo enkulu ebandakanyekayo, ikomishini yaphucula ulawulo lwase-US kwimihlaba ekuthethwa ngayo.
IKomishini yayingumzekelo obalaseleyo we"ukubanjiswa ngokusemthethweniโ kumxholo ongezantsi wencwadi ka-d'Errico. I-United States yayiyile inkqubo apho izizwe zezizwe zaphulukana nobutyebi obungenakubuyiselwa- umhlaba, izixhobo, iindawo ezingcwele kunye nesazisi senkcubeko-ngokuthatha inxaxheba.
Ngoku, izizwe zezizwe zilindele uluvo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo malunga nomngeni kuMthetho weNtlalontle yaBantwana baseIndiya (ICWA). Ipasiswe yiCongress 1978, ICWA yayijonge ukugcina abantwana boMthonyama kwiindawo abahlala kuzo. Ngelo xesha, isinye kwisithathu sabantwana bomthonyama sasithatyathwe kwiintsapho zabo saza bahlaliswa neentsapho zabamhlophe okanye kumakhaya eqela labamhlophe ngenjongo yokuba baphulukane nezizwe zabo nonxulumano.
Namhlanje, amazwe amaninzi asasusa amanani angalinganiyo abantwana bomthonyama, ngokutsho kweNational Indian Child Welfare Association. Emva koko 16 Iijaji zeNkundla yeSibheno yeSekethe yeSihlanu zaphulaphula ityala le-ICWA zaza zalikhupha 325 amaphepha eembono eziphikisanayo kunye nezidlulanayo, umcimbi waya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, u-d'Errico ubhala. Ukuxhasa i-ICWA phambi kwenkundla ephakamileyo phantse 500 izizwe zezizwe kunye nemibutho emininzi yoMthonyama, amazwe, imibutho yentlalontle yabantwana kunye nabanye.
Abachasi be-ICWA bathi lo mthetho usekelwe kukhetho lobuhlanga olunxamnye nomgaqo-siseko. INgxowa-mali yamaLungelo eNative American (NARF), ifemu yomthetho weMveli, ayivumelani noko. Abachasi be-ICWA abazikhathaleli izizwe zezizwe njengemibutho yezopolitiko, hayi ezobuhlanga, i-NARF ibambelele kuyo; abachasi nabo bayawuhoya umonakalo owenziwe kubantwana abakhula ngaphandle kolwimi, inkcubeko, usapho kunye noluntu lwabo. Kuxoxwe ngoNovemba 2022, ityala liya kugqitywa kweli hlobo.
Kwisahluko sokugqibela sika-d'Errico, ujonga a 2021 ityala efakwe yi Red Lake Chippewa kunye White Earth Ojibwe. Isuti ijolise ekukhuseleni amalungelo kaManoomin (okanye irayisi yasendle, isiseko sabo sokomoya kunye nokutya)"zikho, zichume, zihlaziye kwaye zivele. " Uchaza lo mzamo wokuseka amalungelo endalo njengenxalenye yeMveli"Bizela ezingqondweni.โ Ngotshintsho lwemozulu oluqhubekayo kunye nomhlaba omninzi wase-US, amanzi kunye nezibonelelo zonakaliswe yi-oyile, igesi kunye namanye amashishini akhuphayo, ukuthobela izigxeko zeMveli zanamhlanje zamakholoniyali, ukucinga okuphenjelelwayo akusekho ukukhetha, u-Errico ubhala.
Isimangalo sokuseka amalungelo kaManoomin, umzabalazo weStanding Rock Sioux Tribe ukukhusela amanzi oMlambo waseMissouri kunye neenzame ezininzi ezifaniswayo zoMthonyama zinika ithuba elibalulekileyo, ngokutsho kwe-d'Errico. Iingcinga ezisemva kwazo zinokusinceda sonke sakhe uhlobo olutsha lomthetho olunganyanzelwanga kodwa oluvela kumalungelo kunye nezibophelelo zommi obandakanyekayo, onoxanduva.
Oku, u-D'Errico ubhala, kuya kusivumela ukuba siphumelele"silungelelanise ubudlelwane bethu omnye nomnye kunye nesijikelezi-langa esabelana ngaso nayo yonke iNdalo.โ
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โBulala umIndiya, sindisa indodaโโฆkanjaloโฆAndizange ndiyiqonde kwasebuntwaneni ukuba yintoni kanye kanye ezuzayo abantu abamhlopheโฆsonke singabantuโฆasinakusuka nje siphile ngolo hlobo?