Kwiinyanga ezininzi ezidlulileyo kwinqaku elicatshulwe ngokubanzi, igqala laseBoston Globe intatheli uCharlie Savage eneenkcukacha ezichazwe nguBush, ezibhalwe kwinto ebizwa ngokuba "yingxelo yokutyikitya," ibanga "igunya lokungathobeli imithetho engaphezulu kwe-750" epasiswe yiCongress, ekuthiwa kungenxa ungquzulwano nengcaciso kamongameli yoMgaqo-siseko [1]. Ingxoxo enkulu kawonke-wonke, ebifudula inikezelwe kwiingcali zomthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMelika, emva koko yaqhambuka kwilizwe liphela nakwamanye amazwe malunga neempembelelo zomthetho kumalungelo abucala, imithetho yenkululeko yoluntu, iinkcazo zentuthumbo, imida kumandla kamongameli, nokunye okuninzi ngaphandle koko. Inkonzo yoPhando lweCongressional (CRS), kwingxelo ebikhelwe abaqulunqi bomthetho, yalumkisa kwinyanga ephelileyo ukuba "inani elikhulu lemingeni equlathwe kwiingxelo zokutyikitya ... libonisa ukuba uLawulo lwangoku lusebenzisa esi sixhobo sikamongameli ... amalungelo kamongameliโ kwilinge loku โinure Congress, kunye nabanye, kwinkolelo yokuba umongameli eneneni unamandla abanzi kwaye akhethekileyoโ [2], isiphelo esichazwe ngabahlalutyi bezomthetho nezopolitiko [3,4]. Isigqibo esikhutshwe kwinyanga enye ngaphambili yiAmerican Bar Association (ABA) siye saya phambili kakhulu, sigxeka
โngokuchaseneyo nomthetho kunye nenkqubo yethu yomgaqo-siseko yokwahlulwa kwamagunya, ukukhutshwa kweengxelo zomongameli ezibanga igunya okanye ezichaza injongo yokungahoyi okanye ukwala ukunyanzelisa yonke okanye inxalenye yomthetho uMongameli awusayineyo, okanye ukutolika. umthetho onjalo ngendlela engahambelani nenjongo ecacileyo yeNkongoloโ [5].
Ngaphandle koqhanqalazo olunjalo, umkhuba ophikisanayo uyaqhubeka, imimiselo engamashumi amathathu anesithoba yeSebe lezoKhuselo kunye neSebe lezoKhuseleko lwezeKhaya IMithetho iphikisiwe kwiingxelo ezisayinwe ekuqaleni kwale nyanga zizisa inani elipheleleyo lemithetho egqithwe ngulawulo lukaBush ngaphezulu kwewaka lenqaku [ 6,7]; bonke abanye abongameli bedibene, kwiminyaka engaphezu kwama-200 yembali, bakhupha ngaphantsi kwama-600 ezo ngxaki.
Iingxelo zamva nje zibonelela ngesampulu eveza iisampulu zemiba esemngciphekweni kwingxoxo-mpikiswano. Ngolwimi lwangoku, uBush uthi "igunya likaMongameli elikhethekileyo lomgaqo-siseko, njengentloko yesebe elilawulayo elihlangeneyo kunye noMlawuli oyiNtloko," ukubamba ulwazi lokhuseleko lwesizwe, ukuqhuba imicimbi yangaphandle, ukuthatha inxaxheba kwiingxoxo zamazwe ngamazwe, ukutyeshela imithetho ye-affirmative action, kunye angawahoyi amalungiselelo atyhoboza ngayo nayiphi na indlela igunya lakhe. Ephendula kwiimfaneleko ezifunwa ngumalathisi omtsha weFederal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), uBush uphawula ukuba imida elolo hlobo โikhupha inxalenye enkulu yabo bantu bafaneleke ngakumbi ngamava nolwazi lokuzalisa iofisi,โ yaye ngenxa yoko usenokungahoywa. [7]. KwiCandelo le-503 (c) (4) (iii) loMthetho, iCongress icebisa ukuba "uMlawuli [we-FEMA] angenza izindululo ezinjalo kwiNkongolo enxulumene nolawulo olungxamisekileyo njengoko uMlawuli ebona kufanelekile" [8], ingcebiso uBush uthi iya kucacisa
โngendlela engqinelana negunya lomgaqo-siseko likaMongameli lokufuna izimvo zeentloko zamasebe kunye nokongamela isebe lolawulo olumanyeneyo. Ngako oko, isebe elichaphazelekayo kunye ne-arhente iya kuqinisekisa ukuba naziphi na iingxelo okanye iingcebiso ezifakwe kwiNgqungquthela ziphantsi koqwalaselo olufanelekileyo lwesebe lolawulo kunye nokuvunywa ngaphambi kokungeniswa "[7].
Imicelimngeni yokunika ingxelo ngqo kwiimfuno ezibekwe yiNkongolo igxininisa isiseko esisisiseko apho impembelelo yesigqeba yandisa kwaye yandisa umda wayo. Eminye imizekelo ibandakanya inkcaso kwimimiselo yokongamela yenkongolo yoMthetho wePatriot, ukwala ukukhuselwa kwempempe kubasebenzi bakarhulumente, amabango olawulo olukhethekileyo kuphando olwenziwe nguMhloli Jikelele weGunya loLungiselelo loManyano eIraq, kunye nokwala ukukhupha ulwazi kwimiba ecingelwayo. "ukuphazamisa" iinkqubo zengxoxo zesebe lesigqeba [5]. Njengoko kuphawuliwe kwingxelo yeCRS,
"Kubonakala kucacile ukuba ukutyikitya iingxelo ezichasa iimfuno zokunika ingxelo ngokuthe ngqo zimele umzamo wokwazisa abasebenzi abaphetheyo kwiminqweno kaMongameli kunye nokumisela ingcamango ebanzi yamandla kamongameli phambi kwemithetho yeCongress" [2].
Isityhilelo sokuba uSekela Mongameli uDick Cheney kunye nomcebisi wakhe uDavid Addington bahlala bejonga iziqendu zomthetho ngaphambi kokuba bafike kumongameli, becinezela amagqwetha e-White House kunye neSebe lezoBulungisa ukuba bafake iflegi ngononophelo izibonelelo ezinciphisa amandla anjalo, bangqine ngakumbi ukonyuka koxinzelelo kunye nokufikelela kulawulo lwesigqeba. [9].
Nangona ingxelo yotyikityo ngokwayo - inkqubo egwetywa "njengokuchasana nomthetho" yi-ABA - iya kubonakala, kwidabi lokunciphisa loo mpembelelo, ibe yinto ekujoliswe kuyo ngokwendalo, ubungqina bembali bukhomba kwenye indawo. ULaurence Tribe, enye yeengcaphephe eziphambili kumgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, uthi ukuchasa amazwi anjalo โkukhonkotha umthi ongazaliyo ngokomgaqo-siseko,โ ecacisa ukuba:
โUkucela umngeni kwiingxelo ngokwazo โฆ akumeli kwayona ndlela ibambekayo yokuphikisa isigqibo salo mongameli esibonakala singaphononongwa sokutyikitya endaweni yokuvalela nawuphi na umthetho othile, noko kunjalo eso sigqibo sisenokuba sikrokrela nokuba iingcaciso zakhe azikholelekiโ [10].
U-Neil Kinkopf, unjingalwazi wezomthetho womgaqo-siseko kunye nowayesakuba ligqwetha kwi-Ofisi yase-US yeGqwetha lezoMthetho (OLC), uthatha indawo efanayo, egxininisa ukuba โ[t]apha akukho nto ngokwemvelo ingalunganga okanye impikiswano malunga nokusayina iziteyitimentiโ [11]. Inyaniso yokuba isiphelo se-ABA sibubuxoki, uNjingalwazi woMthetho uCurtis Bradley no-Eric Posner bayagxininisa, ngaphezu koko, "yaziwa kakuhle ngabaphengululi bomthetho womgaqo-siseko kwaye, umntu uthatha, kubaphathi besikolo somthetho sangoku kunye nabangaphambili kwi- [ABA] task force" [12 ].
Ngaphandle kwesiseko sayo somthetho esithandabuzekayo, isicwangciso-qhinga sokuhlasela isitatimende sokutyikitya ngokwaso asiphumeleli ukuqwalasela uluhlu lwezinye "izixhobo zamandla" ezazisetyenziswa ngokwembali ngoomongameli ekulandeleni iinjongo zomgaqo-nkqubo ofanayo kunye. Umyalelo wesigqeba, isixhobo somgaqo-nkqubo esasetyenziswa kuqala nguMongameli Washington ngo-1789, sixhomekeke kwiziseko zomgaqo-siseko ezimfiliba ngokulinganayo. Njengoko kusenziwa iziteyitimenti zokutyikitya, imiyalelo yesigqeba yenza ukuba isebe lesigqeba libe nolawulo phezu kwee-arhente eziphantsi, amaxesha amaninzi isebenzela ukubhukuqa ngokufanelekileyo umthetho wenkongolo. UPhillip Cooper ubhala ukuba "ii-arhente zibanjiswe phakathi kwezibophelelo ezibekwe kubo ngummiselo ... kunye noxinzelelo lwe-White House, olunyanzeliswa ngemiyalelo eyahlukeneyo yesigqeba, ukulibazisa okanye ukurhoxisa imithetho" [13], iithagethi eziphawulekayo ezibandakanya "izindululo ze-EPA zokwenza umthetho. malunga nokulahlwa kwenkunkuma yenyukliya kunye nokuveliswa kunye nokusetyenziswa kwe-asbestos, kunye nezindululo zokulawula ze-OSHA malunga nemida yokuvezwa kwexesha elifutshane kunye neelebhile ezilumkisa ngezinto ezinobungozi emsebenzini" [14]. Akuncedi ukuba, kanye ngendlela iziteyitimenti zokutyikitya ezichaza ngayo amagunya omgaqo-siseko agqugqisayo, โimiyalelo yolawulo isoloko ikhutshwa phantsi kwebango elingaqondakaliyo legunya endaweni yenkcazo ecacileyo yesiseko nenjongo njengoko kufunwa kumthetho wolawulo,โ iphosa wonke umgaqo-nkqubo โ kwindawo ethandabuzekayo ngokusemthethweniโ [15].
Nangona iphelela nje kwimibutho engaphantsi kwesigqeba esilawulayo, imiyalelo yesigqeba eneneni ineziphumo ezifikelela kude. Umzekelo obuhlungu uphathelene nomyalelo wesigqeba se-12807 esijoliswe kwi-Coast Guard ekhutshwe yi-Bush yokuqala yolawulo (kwaye kamva yandiswa nguClinton) ngonyaka emva ko-1991 US-backed coup eHaiti. Njengoko uPaul Farmer eyichaza: "Kuqikelelwa ukuba i-1500 yabantu baseHaiti esele befile kwiiveki ezintandathu kunye nengcinezelo yomkhosi ibetha i-throttle epheleleyo, ulawulo lukaGeorge Bush lubhengeze ukuba luqala ukubuyiswa ngenkani" [16, p. 221], besakha "udonga lwaseBerlin oludadayo" olwathi lwabamba iimbacu ezingama-34,000, uninzi lwazo lwalugcinwe kwinkampu yogcino lweempuku eGuantanamo [17]. UCooper uthi: โUmyalelo wokubaleka waseHaiti usenokuba ukhutshelwe uMlindi woNxweme, kodwa ngokuqinisekileyo wabachaphazela abantu baseHaiti, imeko yasekhaya kweso siqithi, kunye noluntu lwaseMzantsi Floridaโ [13].
Nangona kunjalo, umyalelo wesigqeba kuphela owona mzekelo ubonakalayo kwiseti ebanzi yezixhobo zomgaqo-nkqubo kamongameli. Izikhokelo zokhuseleko lwesizwe (NSDs), ezazisetyenziswa kakhulu nguReagan ukukhokela iCIA ukuba ixhase kwaye igaye abavukeli beContra kwiinzame zokubhukuqa urhulumente onyulwe ngedemokhrasi eNicaragua, ihlelwe kakhulu kangangokuba noluhlu lwemiyalelo ngesihloko okanye ngesihloko alufumaneki. Izivumelwano eziLawulayo, isixhobo esililinye icala lediplomacy yamazwe ngamazwe elinani laso liye landa kakhulu kunezivumelwano ezisemthethweni, zenza ukuba umongameli asayine ngokuzimeleyo izivumelwano ezibandakanya iindawo ezifana norhwebo, imigangatho yokusingqongileyo, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo wokufudukela kwelinye ilizwe. Ukuba inkcaso yoluntu okanye ye-congressional inyuke ngokuchasene nesixhobo esithile somgaqo-nkqubo, abongameli banokukhetha nje ileyibhile entsha engachazwanga kuMthetho we-Federal Register - njengoko abaninzi benzile - kwaye bawugqume wonke umsebenzi ekusithekeni. Ekugqibeleni, amagunya kamongameli anjalo awahambi ngokusulungekileyo, okanye ngokuyintloko, kwimithetho emiselweyo, evela endaweni yoko, uWilliam Howell ubhala, โukusuka kwizinto ezithile eziluncedo kwiziko ngaphakathi kwe-ofisi kamongameli ngokwayo: ubume bayo, izibonelelo, kunye nendawo kwinkqubo. wamagunya ahlukeneyoโ [18, p. 16]. Nayiphi na impendulo enzulu ekusetyenzisweni kweengxelo zokutyikitya kufuneka ijongane nemvelaphi yembali yezi nzuzo.
Iqela leengcambu ziyadibana kwingcinga eyayifudula isaziwa kancinane ebizwa ngokuba yi โUnitary Executive Theory,โ kutsha nje inyuswe yaduma njengesihloko seengxelo zokutyikitya ezingama-82 ezikhutshwe ngexesha lekota yokuqala yolawulo lukaBush [19], ulawulo lokuqala ukukhankanya ngokucacileyo. ixesha [20]. Njengoko uChristopher Kelly echaza: "Umzekelo weSigqeba soBumbano uxoxa ukuba umongameli, njengesebe elilungelelanisiweyo likarhulumente, unokutolika uMgaqo-siseko ngokuzimeleyo," kubangwa ukuba umongameli unoxanduva olukhethekileyo, ngendlela ephunyezwa ngayo imithetho [21, p. . 12]. Nangona abaxhasi beyilandelela ngasemva, njengengcamango, "isigqeba esihlangeneyo" sisuka kwiinguqu zezopolitiko kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu edlulileyo, zivela ekuphenduleni ukuhlaselwa kukamongameli yiCongress kunye noluntu ngokubanzi olulandela i-quagmire yaseVietnam kunye nehlazo likaMongameli. I-Watergate. UKelly uyabhala:
"Isigqeba esimanyeneyo sixhaswe kakhulu ngamalungu aseka 'i-Federalist Society,' iqela lamagqwetha angama-conservative phantse onke asebenza eNixon, Ford, kunye neReagan White Houses kwaye abaqondayo uhlobo lwemozulu yezopolitiko umongameli asebenza kuyo. kwaye uqonde into efunekayo ukuze uphumelele "[20].
Enyanisweni, izifundiswa ezibhale kakhulu ekukhuseleni isigqeba sobumbano nabo bangaphambili ngamalungu eqela lezomthetho laseReagan, iqela elijongene nokuqonda iqhinga, eliqale labonwa ngulawulo lweNixon, elijoliswe ekuhlanganiseni ulawulo lolawulo kwii-arhente zikarhulumente. USteven Calabresi, ilungu eliphambili leli qela kunye nommeli ocacileyo wamandla okulawula, kwiphepha elibhalwe kunye noChristopher Yoo kunye no-Anthony Colangelo, uchonga izixhobo ezintathu ezichaza esi sicwangciso:
"amandla kamongameli okususa amagosa okwenza umgaqo-nkqubo ophantsi ngokuthanda kwakhe, amandla kamongameli okulawula indlela amagosa angaphantsi asebenzisa ngayo amandla okulawula okunokuzikhethela, kunye negunya likamongameli lokuvotela okanye ukutshitshisa loo magosa" โข ukusetyenziswa kwamandla okulawula okunokuzikhethelaโ [22].
Ingxaki echazayo yethiyori yolawulo olumanyeneyo kukufumana iindlela zokuthethelela, ngokomgaqo-siseko, ngokusemthethweni, nangokuziphatha, amandla amakhulu afunekayo ukuze kuphunyezwe lo mbono. Amagatya amabini kwiSiqendu sesi-II soMgaqo-siseko achongiwe kwangethuba njengasenokuthi abambe isitshixo solu lungelelwaniso: igatya elithi โIsifungoโ, apho uMongameli afungela โukugcina, ukukhusela nokukhusela uMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States,โ kunye igatya elithi โThathaโ, elithi โuya kunyamekela ukuba imithetho iphunyezwe ngokuthembekileyoโ [23]. Kuthatyathwe xa lilonke, ulwimi oluntsonkothileyo lweSiqendu II luchaza "indima echaphazela amandla ayo," inika inkuthazo "yenkqubo yomgaqo-siseko," igama elisetyenziswa nguRyan Barilleaux ukuchaza "i-conundrum kamongameli - ukuba uMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo uyayikhuthaza. oomongameli bavavanye imida yoMgaqo-sisekoโ [24]. UTerry Moe noWilliam Howell bayacacisa:
โ[T]ikhontrakthi engagqitywanga yoMgaqo-siseko iseka isiseko esilawulayo esimema ama impiriyali kamongameli. Oomongameli, ngokukodwa kula maxesha, bashukunyiselwa ukufuna igunya. Kwaye ngenxa yokuba uMgaqo-siseko ungatsho ngokuchanekileyo ukuba yintoni na imida eyiyo yamandla abo, nangenxa yokuba ukubamba kwabo imisebenzi yolawulo karhulumente kubanika iingenelo ezibalulekileyo kumzabalazo wezopolitiko, baneenkuthazo ezinamandla zokutyhala igunya elongeziweyo ngokufudukela kwimimandla engwevu. ngomthetho, bemela amalungelo abo, bewenzaโ [25].
Ulwimi olungacacanga loMgaqo-siseko aluzenzekelanga, kodwa luzalwa kukungavisisani phakathi kwabaSeki bawo: uMadison, owathanda igunya elilinganiselweyo likamongameli, kunye noHamilton, owatyhala ukuba andise. UHamilton ubukhulu becala uphumelele eli dabi, kodwa amathuba awawafumanayo kulwimi lwakhe lokuqhubela phambili umdla wolawulo aye axhaswa ngokwenene ngeminyaka yoo-1980. U-Edwin Meese, ngelo xesha igqwetha jikelele likaReagan, wayengomnye wabokuqala ukuqaphela ukubaluleka kokubhalwa kwezimvo zikamongameli malunga nomthetho weCongress njengendlela yokufezekisa oku, ephawula ukuba โukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko ayingomsebenzi weNkundla kuphela, kodwa kwakhona. ngokufanelekileyo ishishini lawo onke amasebe karhulumenteโ [20, p. 11]. Kwimemo yomhla we-5 kaFebruwari 1986, owayeligqwetha leSebe lezoBulungisa, uSamuel Alito, owayesebenza phantsi kweMeese, wachaza isicwangciso-qhinga "sokuphucula ukusetyenziswa kweengxelo zokutyikitya zikaMongameli," ebona kwangaphambili ukuba ukusetyenziswa okunjalo "kuya kwandisa amandla eSigqeba sokubumba umthetho." โ [26]. Kwangalo nyaka, uMeese wangena kwisivumelwano sokubandakanya iingxelo ekupapashweni kweKhowudi yase-US yeCongressional and Administrative News, njengoko uCooper ebhala,
โNgelinge lokudala uhlobo lwesiseko sokuxhasa ukusetyenziswa kwekamva leengxelo zokutyikitya ukuxhasa amabango omongameli kwigunya okanye ukunciphisa iCongress ukuze, emva kwexesha, ngawaphi amabango abanzi kumagunya abonakale ngathi indlela yomthetho engaphezulu okanye encinciโ [19].
Njengesixhobo sokusebenzisa ukungacaci kuMgaqo-siseko, loo mizekelo ibaluleke ngokukodwa xa kujongwe ukuchasana komthetho omiselwe ngokomthetho, ngokukodwa ngokwentsingiselo yesolotya elithi โThathaโ. UMoe noHowell babonisa ukuba โ[ngelixa] kubonakala ngathi ukuqhambuka kweemfuno zowiso-mthetho kungabophelela umongameli ngamaqhina, impembelelo edibeneyo iyakhulula,โ ngenxa yokuba imithetho โixhomekeke omnye komnye kwaye iyangqubana phakathi. iindlela eziqingqiweyo zomntu ngamnye ezingaqapheliyo, "ukuze "into abayifunayo kuye ibe yinto engaqondakaliyo" [25]. Ngokubanzi, ngokusombulula oku kungacaci, "ukuqokelelwa kwezinto ezilandelwayo (nokuba kusemthethweni okanye kwezopolitiko) kuthanda ukusebenza ngokuxhasa igunya elibanzi likamongameli" [24]. Iingxelo zokutyikitya, ekuboneleleni ngeendlela zokuseka kunye nokubhengeza imizekelo enjalo, idlala indima ephambili kule nkqubo.
Kwingxelo yabo, esinye sezigqibo ezisembindini weAmerican Bar Association kukuba iziteyitimenti zokutyikitya zime ngokuchaseneyo โnenkqubo yethu yomgaqo-siseko yokwahlulwa kwamagunya,โ oko kukuthi, โinjongo yantlandlolo yabaqulunqiโฆ mhlawumbi usayine okanye uvale umthetho oyilwayo owenziwe yiCongress ngokupheleleyoโ [5]. Nangona kunjalo kulapha apho ingxelo ye-ABA ibonakalisa kakubi ubunyani benkqubo yezopolitiko yase-US kunye nerekhodi yayo yembali. Njengoko uMoe noHowell becacisa:
"Nayiphi na ingcamango yokuba iCongress yenza imithetho kwaye umsebenzi kamongameli kukuyenza - ukulandela imiyalelo, ngokwenene - ayihoyi intsingiselo yokwahlulwa kwamagunya. Umongameli unegunya elilelakhe, elilingana neCongress, kwaye alikho ngaphantsi kwalo โ[25].
Ngokucenga ukwahlulwa kwamagunya, i-ABA ngokuxakayo ithatha isikhundla esingqamana nabaxhasi bamandla omongameli akhethekileyo. Ngokuchaseneyo nabo babona uMgaqo-siseko njengofuna ngokusisiseko umgangatho othile wegunya kwelinye isebe phezu kwelinye, eli qela lifuna ukwahlula amandla abe ngamacandelo ahlukeneyo, azimeleyo empembelelo. UKinkopf uyacacisa, eqaphela ukuba:
โNgokucacileyo, [ukukhetheka] kugxininisa amandla eCongress kunye nomongameli, kodwa eneneni iphakamisa umongameli kwiCongress. Ngokwenyani, umbono wokuzikhethela uya kwenza ukuba isenzo kuwo wonke amasebe obumbano kube nzima kwaye kuthintele iinkqubo zobumbano ezinamabhongo kwaye kunyanzelise abantu baseMelika ukuba baxhomekeke kwicandelo labucala ukubonelela ngezinto eziyimfuneko ezifana nokhathalelo lwempilo, indawo ecocekileyo, kunye neemveliso ezikhuselekileyo kunye neendawo zokusebenzaโ [27].
Ukuxabisa ukulahlwa okugqithisileyo โkokwahlulwa kwamagunyaโ okukhethekileyo kufuna ulwazi lwezixhobo zombutho zolawulo, ezakhiwe kwiminyaka emininzi, ethi ibethelele amandla olawulo kunye nokuqhutywa kwayo kwingeniso yeshishini. Oku kubandakanya, phakathi kwezinye izinto, ukuqonda izixhobo zomgaqo-nkqubo, amaziko olawulo, kunye neengcamango ezilawulayo ezixhasa iinzame zangoku zokwandisa igunya likamongameli. Ifuna ulwazi oluntsonkothileyo lothungelwano lwabadlali bezopolitiko, ubukhulu becala ukuthwala ukusuka kwiminyaka yeReagan, abathe beza nesicwangciso esiyimfuneko sokuphuhlisa esi sixhobo. Kwaye kunyanzelisa ukwamkelwa ukuba izikhuselo zemveli ezichasene nolawulo olucalanye, iNkongolo kunye neNkundla, azisebenzi, zixhomekeke ekuphathweni, kwaye ngeendlela ezininzi ziyavelana namabhongo kamongameli.
Xa kujongwa le meko, ulwazi lukawonke-wonke luba ngumba othatha isigqibo ekumiseleni ubungakanani bombono โwesigqeba esimanyeneyoโ โ esicaciswa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ekusayinweni kweengxelo โ sisetyenziswa. Ugqaliselo olumxinwa kwiingxelo ngokwazo, nangona kunjalo, lufihla into yokuba ekugqibeleni zizenzo zalo rhulumente, kwaye kungekhona amabango akhe, okuya kuba nemiphumo.
UChris ungumfundi onesidanga kwiYunivesithi yaseTokyo, eJapan
IZALATHISO
[1] UCharlie Savage, โuBush ucela umngeni kumakhulu emithetho,โ iBoston Globe, Epreli 30, 2006.
[2] TJ Halstead, "IiNkcazo zokuTyelwa koMongameli: Iimpembelelo zoMgaqo-siseko kunye neziko," iNgxelo yeNkonzo yoPhando lweCongressional yeCongress, Septemba 20, 2006.
[3] UCharlie Savage, "Ukusayinwa kukaBush kubize umzamo wokwandisa amandla," IBoston Globe, Oct. 5, 2006.
[4] James Podgers, "Iwotshi iTicking: Indlu ithatha isigqibo sokuba ixesha lilungile lokuchasa 'ukusetyenziswa kakubi' kweeNkcazo zokuTyaniswa kukaMongameli," i-American Bar Association Journal, Oct. 2006.
[5] I-American Bar Association, iNgxelo yoMsebenzi woMsebenzi kwiiNkcazo zokuTyaniswa kukaMongameli kunye nokwahlulwa kweMfundiso yaMagunya, ngo-Agasti 2006.
[6] Ingxelo kaMongameli ngo-HR 5631, โuMthetho woLwabiwo lweSebe lezoKhuselo, 2007โ, Oct. 4, 2006.
[7] Ingxelo kaMongameli ngo-HR 5441, โuMthetho weSebe lezoKhuseleko lweLizwe loLwabiwo-mali, ka-2007โ, Oktobha 4, 2006.
[8] "UMthetho weSebe lezoKhuseleko lweLizwe, i-2007," i-Oct. 4, i-2006.
[9] UCharlie Savage, "uCheney Aide uHlola uMthetho," iBoston Globe, ngoMeyi 28, 2006.
[10] ULaurence Tribe, โ'Iingxelo zokuTshayina' yiPhantom ekujoliswe kuyo,โ iBoston Globe, ngo-Agasti 9, 2006.
[11] uNeil Kinkopf, โIingxelo zokutyikitya kunye neGunya likaMongameli lokwala ukuNyanzelisa uMthetho,โ uMbutho woMgaqo-siseko waseMelika, ngoJuni ka-2006.
[12] UCurtis Bradley kunye no-Eric Posner, โIingxelo zokusayina: Lilungelo likaMongameli,โ iBoston Globe, ngo-Agasti 3, 2006.
[13] UPhillip J. Cooper, "Izixhobo zamandla kuMongameli oSebenzayo kunye noBuxanduva," uLawulo kunye noMbutho 29 (5): 529-556, Nov. 1997.
[14] UPhilip J. Cooper, "Amandla kaMongameli kunye noRhulumente weRiphabhlikhi: Ingcamango kunye nokuSebenza kwe-OMB yokuPhononongwa kweMithetho ye-Arhente," I-Journal yezoPolitiko 50 (4): 864-895, Nov. 1988.
[15] UFilipu J. Cooper, "NgoMyalelo kaMongameli: Ulawulo ngokuLawulwa kweSigqeba kunye neSibhengezo," uLawulo kunye noMbutho 18 (2): 233-262, Aug. 1986.
[16] UPaul Farmer, "Ukusetyenziswa kweHaiti," iCommon Courage Press, ngo-1994.
[17] UDavid G. Savage, "Umgaqo-nkqubo we-Haitian Intercept Uxhaswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yokuFudukela," i-Los Angeles Times, ngoJuni 22, i-1993.
[18] UWilliam G. Howell, "Amandla ngaphandle kokuNcedisa," i-Princeton University Press, i-2003.
[19] UFilipu J. Cooper, "uGeorge W. Bush, u-Edgar Allan Poe, kunye nokusetyenziswa kakubi kweeNkcazo zokuTyaniswa kukaMongameli," i-Presidential Studies Quarterly 35 (3): 515-532, Septemba 2005.
[20] Christopher S. Kelley, โUkucinga ngokutsha Amandla kaMongameli ? ISigqeba soBumbano kunye noMongameli weGeorge W. Bush, "iNtlanganiso yoNyaka yoMbutho weNzululwazi yezoPolitiko yaseMidwest, ngo-Epreli 7-10, 2005.
[21] UChristopher S. Kelley, "Isigqeba soBumbano kunye neSitetimenti sokuSayina sikaMongameli," i-PhD dissertation engapapashwa, iYunivesithi yaseMiami, i-2003.
[22] UChristopher S. Yoo, uSteven G. Calabresi, kunye no-Anthony J. Colangelo, "I-Uninity Executive kwi-Modern Era, i-1945-2001," i-Iowa Law Review 90 (2): 601-731, 2005.
[23] Isiqendu II soMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States.
[24] URyan J. Barilleaux, "I-Venture Constitutionalism kunye noKwandiswa kwe-Ofisi kaMongameli," ekusebenziseni uMgaqo-siseko: Ukubuyisela uMongameli kuMgaqo-siseko, ehlelwe nguChristopher S. Kelley, i-State University New York Press, i-2006.
[25] UTerry M. Moe noWilliam G. Howell, "Isenzo se-Unilateral kunye namandla kaMongameli: Ithiyori," i-Presidential Studies Quarterly 29 (4): 850-873, 1999.
[26] USamuel A. Alito, Omnci., โUkusebenzisa iNgxelo yokuTyonwa kukaMongameli ukuze ayisebenzise ngokuzeleyo indima kaMongameli eyabelwe nguMgaqo-siseko kwiNkqubo yokuMiswa koMthetho,โ iSebe lezoBulungisa lase-US, iOfisi yeNgcebiso yezoMthetho, ngoFebruwari 5, 1986.
[27] uNeil Kinkopf, โuGeorge onomsindo,โ iMicimbi yezoMthetho, ngoSeptemba wama-2005.
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