Incwadi entsha ka-Ed McCaughan, Iintshukumo zobuGcisa kunye neNtlalo: Izopolitiko zeNkcubeko eMexico naseAztlán (iDuke University Press, 2012), iphonononga iintshukumo ezintathu zobugcisa eMexico nase-US, kunye namagcisa aqondayo ngokwentlalo athe aphumelela emva kokubulawa ngenkohlakalo korhulumente waseMexico kwiintsuku ezilishumi phambi kwee-Olimpiki zaseMexico zowe-1968.
Phantse ukulahleka kwimbali kukubulawa kwabantu baseTlatelolco. Ngorhatya lwango-Oktobha 2, 1968, urhulumente waseMexico wabulala amakhulu-khulu abafundi, abaqhankqalazi, nabantu ababebukele kwiPlaza de las Tres Culturas kwicandelo leTlatelolco kwisiXeko saseMexico.
Kwelo xesha lesiphithiphithi kwavela intshukumo yamagcisa aseMexico naseChicano kunye neqela lezobugcisa umsebenzi wabo wawuya kuphinda ubuyele kumashumi amathathu eminyaka azayo nangaphaya. Njengoko uMcCaughan kutshanje uxelele ISan Francisco Examiner, abaculi "benze iintetho ezibonakalayo ezivumela abantu ukuba bacinge ngokwahlukileyo-njengabemi abaxhotyisiweyo okanye abafazi ababhinqileyo ... njengabantu abanamalungelo abanokumelana norhulumente wabo."
“Amagcisa ancedisa ekubumbeni ezopolitiko kunye neempawu zesizukulwana samazwe ngamazwe samatsha-ntliziyo emibutho yezentlalo eyakha kuqhanqalazo luka-1968 olwathi lwashukumisa izixeko kwihlabathi liphela, ukusuka eParis, ePrague, eTokyo ukuya kwisiXeko saseMexico, eLos Angeles naseSan Francisco,” ubhala athi uMcCaughan. .
Incwadi kaMcCaughan igxininisa kwiintshukumo ezintathu ezathi zakhula ukususela ngelo xesha: “kwisiXeko saseMexico, intshukumo yabafundi ngowe-1968 nothungelwano olusondeleleneyo lwemibutho yobugcisa yamatshantliziyo”; “e-Oaxaca, umzabalazo wezopolitiko nenkcubeko osekelwe kuluntu lwaloo mmandla wamaZapotec”; "Kwaye eCalifornia, intshukumo yamalungelo oluntu eChicano." Kuluhlu lwee-imeyile, uMcCaughan uphendule imibuzo malunga nokuhlanganiswa kobugcisa kunye neentshukumo zentlalo.
Berkowitz: Kwenzeka njani ukuba ugxininise kwiintshukumo ezintathu othetha ngazo kwincwadi yakho?
McCaughan: Ndandifuna ukuchonga iintshukumo ezithile zentlalo apho inkitha yamagcisa abonakalayo aye abandakanyeka. Ndaqalisa ukucinga ngeentshukumo endandisele ndizazi, mhlawumbi ngenxa yokuba ndandibhale ngazo okanye ndandibandakanyeke nazo ngandlel’ ithile.
Ndagqibela ngokukhetha umbutho wabafundi osekelwe kwisiXeko saseMexico ukususela ngo-1968—owavelisa imizobo edlamkileyo—kunye nentshukumo esondeleleneyo yeendibano zamagcisa ezazikho ngeminyaka yoo-1970 neye-1980. Umbutho waseCalifornia weChicano, owavelisa yonke intshukumo yobugcisa beChicano (endafika nayo ngeminyaka njengomfundi wasekholejini kunye nomlweli womzabalazo ngeminyaka yoo-1960 noo-1970); kwaye, nangona ndandingaziqhelanga kangako, ndakhetha iZapotec/ COCEI ( Coalición Obrera-Campesina-Estudiantil del Istmo-Worker-Peasant-Student Coalition of the Isthmus) intshukumo eOaxaca, leyo mna noPeter Baird sasibhale ngayo kwincwadi yethu. Incwadi yowe-1979, Ngaphesheya komda: IMexico kunye ne-US Namhlanje.
Ezi ntshukumo zintathu zavela ngexesha elifanayo lembali, zabelana ngamava afanayo okuvelisa, kwaye ziqulethe izinto ezininzi eziqhelekileyo zenkcubeko kunye nezopolitiko zaseMexico. Inyani yokuba bebesuka kwiindawo ezintathu ezahlukeneyo ezineziseko zoluntu ezahlukeneyo yandicacisela ukuba zibaluleke kangakanani na iimeko zengingqi kunye nembali yendawo elamla amava kunye nokubonakaliswa kobugcisa kwemibutho yoluntu.
Yadlala yiphi indima ukubulawa kwabantu eTlatelolco?
Indyikityha yokufa kukarhulumente yaba yeyona nto iphambili kula maqela mathathu—kunye nakweyam inkqubo yezobupolitika. Intshukumo yabafundi kwisiXeko saseMexico ngekhe ikhule ibe yintshukumo enkulu enefuthe lesizwe nelezizwe ngezizwe ukuba urhulumente waseMexico akazange abe noburhalarhume kangako ekuphenduleni kwakhe. Ucinezelo lukarhulumente lwaba ngomnye wemixholo ephambili ephononongwa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ngamagcisa egraphic wombutho.
Yaye kwakukho unxulumano olungqalileyo phakathi kwengcinezelo karhulumente ngowe-1968 nentshukumo yaseOaxaca—ngenxa yokuba abafundi baseyunivesithi namagcisa aseOaxaca bahlanganisana besabela koko kwakusenzeka kwisiXeko saseMexico nangenxa yokuba abanye abafundi babalekela eOaxaca besaba ingcinezelo. Umzobi owaziwayo kumazwe ngamazwe uFrancisco Toledo, owayephambili ekuveleni kwentshukumo yeZapotec/COCEI, wanikela ngekhaya lakhe njengendawo yokuzimela kwabanye babafundi ababalekile. Kwaye ndikhumbula ngokucacileyo ukuba uninzi lwamatshantliziyo eChicano e-UC Santa Cruz, apho ndaqala khona izifundo zam zesidanga sokuqala, babeyazi ingcinezelo kwisiXeko saseMexico.
Yayiyintoni ngobugcisa (imifanekiso, isimbo, ukwakheka, ukhetho lwemibala, ifomathi, njl.njl.) ngamaxesha eniwuxoxayo eyenze ukuba ingabinamdla kuphela kumatsha ntliziyo entshukumo, kodwa noluntu ngokubanzi? Yahluke njani kubugcisa bokuqala bezopolitiko/intlalontle?
Ubugcisa buncede ngokwenene ukuchaza i-countercultural zeitgeist yeso sizukulwana. Kwakuvuyiswa ukwaphula yonke imithetho “yokusekwa” nokuba uthetha ngamaziko alawulayo kunye neentetho zehlabathi lobugcisa okanye abaphezulu bezopolitiko nenkcubeko elo xesha. Isizukulwana solutsha esasinganelisekanga lihlabathi njengoko sasilazi sabona abantu bethu abanemvukelo, abangenambeko, abangavumelaniyo nabamelwe kumsebenzi oveliswe ngamagcisa omzabalazo.
Xa uLuis Echeverría—indoda eyayityholwa ngokuba yayalela ukuba kubulawe abantu abaninzi—wagqatsela umongameli waseMexico ngowe-1970, isilogeni sakhe sephulo sasisithi “arriba y adelante” (“phezulu nangaphezulu”). Umzobi uFelipe Ehrenberg, owayebalekele eLondon ebalekela ingcinezelo, waphendula ngokuvelisa icwecwe elingenambeko neliyintsha ngokusesikweni lomboniso weqela lamagcisa abandakanyekayo kwezopolitiko kwisiXeko saseMexico. Wasebenzisa uburharha obungendawo endaweni yokuthetha isilogeni ukuze aveze impoxo yephulo likamongameli wexesha elizayo kunye neMexico yaphinda yabamba umsitho omkhulu wezizwe ngezizwe kwiminyaka emibini kuphela emva kwendyikityha yesi-2 ka-Okthobha. Ngokusesikweni, yaphula yonke imithetho yehlabathi lobugcisa.
Xa abasetyhini baseMexico City iingqokelela zobugcisa baqala ukuthatha sexism kule ntshukumo, Maris Bustamante waphendula iqhekeza yokusebenza apho skewered ithiyori kaFreud yobudoda umona ngelixa enxibe umthondo prosthetic empumlweni yakhe. Uburharha bukaBustamante, ukungahloneli ngokwesondo, kunye nohlobo lokuqhekezwa kohlobo lwanceda ekuchazeni indlela entsha yezopolitiko kunye nobugcisa.
ECalifornia, into efanayo inokubonwa kwindlela abaculi baseChicana ababhinqileyo benza ngayo iNtombikazi yaseGuadalupe kwaye, kwinkqubo, inkcubeko yaseChicano.
Khawusixelele kancinci ukuba ungene njani kulo msebenzi uwenzayo?
Ndandingumfundi osandul’ ukutshata eUC Santa Cruz ngowe-1968 ukuqala kwam ukuva ngengcinezelo yabafundi kwisiXeko saseMexico. Eso siganeko-kunye nempendulo yabanye abafundi kunye noprofesa kwi-UCSC-yakhokelela ngokuthe ngqo kwisigqibo sam sokufunda imibutho yentlalontle eMexico nakwezinye iindawo zaseLatin America kunye nokubandakanyeka kwi-US-based Latin America movement movement movement. Ndifumene isidanga seeMasters kwiLatin American Studies eStanford ngaphambi kokuba ndisebenze iminyaka eliqela eNACLA, iqela lophando lwamatshantliziyo. Ngethuba ndise-NACLA, uPeter Baird kunye nam sabhala uluhlu lweengxelo zophando malunga nobudlelwane phakathi kokudityaniswa koqoqosho lwase-US kunye noqoqosho lwaseMexico, ukwakhiwa kweklasi yentlalo, kunye nokunyakaza kwentlalo.
Emva kwexesha le-15 leminyaka yobutshantliziyo kwiNdawo yaseSan Francisco Bay, ndabuyela kwisikolo esiphumelele isidanga ndaza ndabhala incwadi yam yobugqirha malunga nengxaki kunye nohlaziyo olunokubakho lwenguqu eshiyekileyo eCuba naseMexico. Ngoku ndingunjingalwazi wezoluntu kwiYunivesithi yaseSan Francisco State apho ndiqhubeka ndifundisa kwaye ndibhala malunga neentshukumo zentlalo zaseMexico.
Iprojekthi yam elandelayo yophando luphononongo lokuthelekisa abafazi abane abazalelwe e-US abangamagcisa-abaphembeleli bamagcisa abaphela besenza iMexico ikhaya labo lobuchwephesha nelezopolitiko-ababini kubo ngeminyaka yoo-1940 kwaye ababini kubo ngeminyaka yee-1970s.
Ukukhula kwemithombo yeendaba zentlalo kwandisa okanye ukunciphisa ubugcisa bezopolitiko?
Kwezi ntsuku amagcisa entshukumo aye andise kakhulu amathuba okuba umsebenzi wawo ubonwe. Xa amagcisa angabafundi ayesenza imizobo yesilika-screen kwimiboniso ngowe-1968, inani lemifanekiso ababenokuyiprinta ngokwasemzimbeni baze bayisasaze ngesandla—ingqolowa incamathele kwizakhiwo neebhasi, ngokomzekelo—yayinciphisa. Namhlanje, ngelixa amagcisa amancinci asesitalatweni e-Oaxaca esavelisa ubugcisa bezopolitiko ngesandla-ingakumbi ubugcisa be-stencil obugubungela izitrato zase-Oaxaca-bakha ngaxeshanye ubugcisa bedijithali kwaye babusasaza ngokubanzi kwi-Intanethi. Ndisayibona imizobo eyaveliswa nguRini Templeton ngeminyaka yoo-1970 kunye nee-1980s isetyenziswa kwiimpawu zepikethi kunye neebhena kwiimatshi ze-Occupy. Kodwa kwangaxeshanye, amagcisa ase-Oakland anjengoMelanie Cervantes kunye noYesu Barraza basebenzisa kakhulu imidiya yoluntu ukujikeleza umsebenzi wabo onamandla kwezopolitiko kunye nobuhle.
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UBill Berkowitz ngumbhali ozimeleyo.