Ukugawulwa kwamahlathi nokonakala ngokubanzi kwesi sijikelezi-langa kusaqhubeka kusanda. Kuhlala kuxoxwe ukuba ukugcwala kwabantu, ukuzidlalela 'ngeNtlupheko yeZizwe eziManyeneyo', ngoyena nobangela uphambili. Ayiyo. 'Intlekele yoMbutho' yintsomi eyingozi kakhulu. Isixhobo 'esisimahla kumntu wonke' sinakho kwaye sikhokelela kwiintlekele zendalo esingqongileyo. Kodwa ukutyhubela imbali, ukusetyenziswa kunye nokulawulwa komhlaba kunye namahlathi ngokufuthi kuye kwalondolozeka ngokugqithisileyo. Omnye umzekelo unokubonwa 'kwiMfazwe yabasetyhini' kwinkulungwane ye-19 ePyrenees.
Ngo-2006, kwincwadi yakhe kamantyi Ukugawulwa kwamahlathi emhlabeni, isazi ngejografi yaseOxford uMichael Williams wabhala: 'Ummandla oye wacocwa ukususela ngowe-1950 sele usondele kumlinganiselo owawucinywe ngaphambi koko.' Wayebonisa isibakala sokuba ukugawulwa kwamahlathi bekuqhubeka kangangeenkulungwane, eneneni kangangamawaka eminyaka. Umsebenzi kaWilliams wenze inkonzo enkulu ngokusibonisa ngokucokisekileyo nangokucokisekileyo ukuba kwenzeka njani kwaye nini ukugawulwa kwamahlathi kwiindawo ezahlukeneyo zehlabathi. Kodwa eyona nto ichukumisa nangakumbi kukuba oku kuthetha ukuba kwisiqingatha senkulungwane edluleyo abantu baye bagawula imithi emininzi njengoko bebesenza kuyo yonke imbali ngaphambili!
Iziqendu ezinkulu zokugawulwa kwamahlathi zenzeke ngamaxesha ahlukeneyo kwimimandla eyahlukeneyo. Kwangethuba kakhulu (ngexesha elinye) iceba elichumileyo, ebudeni bewaka leminyaka lokuqala eTshayina, kumaXesha Aphakathi nakwixesha lamandulo lanamhlanje eYurophu, ngenkulungwane ye-18 neye-19 kuMntla Merika, nakwinkulungwane yama-20 kwiindawo ezininzi zehlabathi. Alithandabuzeki elokuba ukugawulwa kwamahlathi kunye 'nempucuko' bezisoloko zihamba kunye. Okukhona ihambele phambili impucuko kokukhona iwa ngokukhawuleza imithi.
Enye intsomi ezingisayo neyingozi malunga nokonakaliswa kwemekobume ngokubanzi, kunye nokutshatyalaliswa kwamahlathi ngokukodwa, kukuba unobangela osisiseko kukuhlala ngokugqithisileyo. Ngokutsho kwesazi sebhayoloji saseBerkeley uGarrett Hardin oku kubonakaliswa okanye kudlalwa kwinto awayeyibiza Ishwangusha leeNtlanga. Kwiphepha lakhe lokuqala le-1968, uHardin wayecacile:
Intlekele ye-commons ikhula ngolu hlobo. Yiba nomfanekiso-ngqondweni wedlelo elivulekele wonke umntu. Kulindeleke ukuba umalusi ngamnye azame ukugcina iinkomo ezininzi kangangoko kumhlaba oqhelekileyo. Ilungiselelo elinjalo lisenokusebenza ngendlela eyanelisayo kangangeenkulungwane ngenxa yokuba iimfazwe zezizwe, ukuzingelwa ngokungekho mthethweni nezifo zigcina inani labantu nerhamncwa lingaphantsi komthamo welizwe. Ekugqibeleni, nangona kunjalo, kufika usuku lokuphendula, oko kukuthi, usuku apho usukelo olude olunqwenelekayo lozinzo lwentlalo luba yinyani. Ngeli xesha, ingqiqo yendalo ye-commons ngokungenakuzisola ivelisa intlekele.
Uhlabela mgama ecinga ukuba โumalusi ngamnye ufuna ukwandisa inzuzo yakheโ aze enze izibalo ezisengqiqweni. Ukuba uthe wongeza esinye isilwanyana kwi-commons uya kufumana yonke inzuzo kwaye, nangona ukongeza kwakhe izilwanyana ezininzi kunokuba negalelo ekutyisweni ngokugqithiseleyo, le miphumo emibi ayiweleli nje kuye, kwabelwana ngayo ngabo bonke. Njengoko uHardin equkumbela, ingqiqo yoku kukuba:
Umalusi oqiqayo ugqiba kwelokuba ekuphela kwekhondo elisengqiqweni amele alilandele kukongeza esinye isilwanyana emhlambini wakhe. Kwaye omnye; kunye nomnye. Kodwa esi sisigqibo ekufikelelwe kuso ngumalusi ngamnye onengqondo esabelana ngecommons. Apho kukho intlekele. Indoda nganye itshixelwe kwinkqubo eyinyanzela ukuba yandise umhlambi wayo ngaphandle komda โ kwihlabathi elisikelwe umda. Intshabalalo yindawo apho bonke abantu begxalathelana ukuya khona, ngamnye elandela eyona njongo yakhe kuluntu olukholelwa kwinkululeko yomanyano. Inkululeko kwindibano yomanyano izisa umonakalo kumntu wonke.
Injongo ephambili kaHardin yayingekokuhlola nje imbali yesiNgesi, okanye inkqubo ende yabo Ukuvalwa (oko kukuthi ushishino lwabucala). Akazange ayenze le nto kwaphela. Endaweni yoko, ukulandela ekhondweni likaThomas Malthus, inkqubo yakhe yayikukuphikisana ukuba impendulo yodwa kwi Ntlekele yayikukususa yonke imihlaba eqhelekileyo okanye amalungelo okusebenzisa umhlaba, kubunini babucala โ ngaloo ndlela kumiselwa 'amalungelo epropathi' acacileyo. Kodwa uHardin wayenenye i-ajenda ngokunjalo. Wayeyi-eugenist kwaye ngaphambili waye waxoxa ngokunyanzeliswa kokuvalwa inzala kwabantu 'abaneziphene'. Kwi Ishwangusha leeNtlanga wayecace gca ukuba kufuneka 'sincame inkululeko yokuzala:
Ekuphela kwendlela esinokuthi silondoloze kwaye sikhulise ngayo enye kunye nenkululeko exabiseke ngakumbi kukuncama inkululeko yokuzala, kwaye oko kungekudala. "Inkululeko kukuqondwa kwemfuneko"โkwaye yindima yemfundo ukutyhila kuyo yonke imfuneko yokulahla inkululeko yokuzala. Kuphela ke, sinokuthi siphelise lo mba wentlekele ye-commons.
Ukuqiniseka, yayingengobanini bezakhiwo abazizityebi ababeza kufuneka bayeke ukuzala. Wayenza yacaca gca into yokuba uxanduva luphezu kwamahlwempu, nokuba kusekhaya eUnited States okanye kwihlabathi lesithathu. Ngaphezu koko, amahlwempu kwakuya kufuneka โanyanzelweโ ukuze enjenjalo. Ngo-1997, iWall Street Journal yathi:
UMnu. Hardin uvakalise ixhala malunga 'nesizukulwana esilandelayo sabafuyi' ngoku sivelisa ngokungalawulekiyo kumazwe eHlabathi leSithathu. Ingxaki, ngokukaMnu. Hardin, ayikokuba baninzi kakhulu abantu ehlabathini, kodwa baninzi kakhulu abantu abangalungangaโฆ Kungangcono ukukhuthaza ukuzala kwabantu abakrelekrele ngakumbi kunokuba bancinci. krelekrele.
Kwesi sincoko sifutshane, ndiya kuzama ukubalaselisa izinto ezine: Oko kuthiwa Intlekele yoMbutho yintsomi; ukuba amaxesha amaninzi iintlekele zendalo ziye zabangelwa kakhulu kukusukela ngokungenalusini ukunyusa ingeniso yongxowankulu yexesha elifutshane kunokuba kunjalo ngokusetyenziswa kwamalungelo oluntu; ukuba ilifa kunye nokwamkelwa Hardin kaThixo Ntlekele ibe nemiphumo eyingozi; kwaye, okokugqibela, ukuba 'umbuzo wabemi' awulula njengoko i-neo-Malthusians inokucebisa. Ukuya esiphelweni ndiya kuphinda ndibonise 'imbali encinci' yeziganeko kummandla wase-Ariรจge we-French Pyrenees ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-19. Oku, ndiyakholelwa, kungabonisa eminye yemiba jikelele engqongileyo Ishwangusha leeNtlanga.
'Intsomi' yeNtlekele yoMbutho:
Njengomzekelo wakhe ophambili wembali uHardin wasebenzisa indawo ekucingelwa ukuba idliwe ngokugqithisileyo 'eqhelekileyo' eNgilani ngexesha elikhokelela kwinkulungwane ye-19. Iingxoxo zakhe wazisekela kumsebenzi wengcali yezibalo kunye nengcali yezoqoqosho yezopolitiko uWilliam Foster Lloyd. Kodwa, njengoko abaphengululi abaninzi baye babonisa, ii-commons zesiNgesi azizange zinike ukufikelela okungathintelwanga okanye okungathintelwanga kumhlaba oqhelekileyo okanye izixhobo. Ayizange ibe 'yesimahla kubo bonke.' I-Commons yamaNgesi yayiquka inani lamalungelo amandulo awayethi abantu kunye noluntu babewaxhamla kangangeenkulungwane okanye bakwazile ukuwakhupha - amaxesha amaninzi ngokuchasene nochaso oluqatha - kwi-feudal Lords. Iindidi zamalungelo, umzekelo ukuloba, ukukhangela imveliso yasendle, ukujonga iigusha neenkomo okanye ukutheza iinkuni okanye ukugawula imithi, kunye nobungakanani bala malungelo, akuzange kucace. Ngamanye amaxesha amalungelo ayebhalwa phantsi kodwa amaxesha amaninzi ibizizenzo zesintu ezaziwayo โ ukufumana imvelaphi yawo kumaxesha amandulo โ kodwa wonke umntu wayesazi ukuba ngubani onamalungelo nokuba yintoni na.
Yayingusoqoqosho wezopolitiko waseMelika uSusan Cox owachaza okokuqala Ishwangusha leeNtlanga njenge 'Ntsomi'. Waqukumbela isifundo sakhe esibalaseleyo ngomba wesiNgesi, Akukho ntlekele kwi-Commons, ngoqwalaselo olulandelayo:
Mhlawumbi eyona nto yayikhona enyanisweni yayingeyiyo 'intlekele yomanyano' kodwa yayiluloyiso: ukuba amakhulu eminyaka - kwaye mhlawumbi amawaka ... - umhlaba wawulawulwa ngokulandelelana luluntu.
Ngokuchaseneyo noko kwathethwa nguHardin nabanye, kucacile ukuba isiNgesi Intshukumo Ebiyelweyo Yayingelulo uhlobo oluthile lwesiganeko esiluncedo esasindisa izinto eziqhelekileyo ekubeni ziphangwe ngokupheleleyo. Enyanisweni, yayikukunyanzeliswa kokuthengiswa kwamashishini abucala, okwenzeka kwiinkulungwane eziliqela yaye ngokufuthi phezu kwenkcaso ekrakra. Yayiluhambo olulula apho oo-elite abanamandla bazama, kwaye baphumelela, ekuzibambeleni amandla angakumbi.
Ekugqibeleni, nokuba yimbali yesiNgesi kunye ne Intshukumo Ebiyelweyo, njengoko yavezwa nguGarret Hardin, yayiyinyaniso okanye ibubuxoki, isenokubonakala inomdla kubabhali-mbali belo xesha. Kodwa oku akunjalo. Wachaza ukuba ezo ntlekele zecommons zazingenakuphepheka ngokupheleleyo, kwaye zenzeke kuyo yonke imbali. Ngo-2009, ingcali yezoqoqosho yezopolitiko yaseMelika u-Elinor Ostrom (ngokudibeneyo) baphumelele iBhaso leNobel lezoQoqosho kumashumi eminyaka yomsebenzi wakhe omde, owabonisa ukuba oku bekungenjalo-okungenani ixesha elininzi. Yena namahlakani akhe baye banikezela ngemizekelo emininzi, ukuba ayingomakhulu, yembali kunye neyangoku eqaqambisa apho uluntu lukwazile ukulawula izibonelelo zoluntu ngokuzinzileyo, ngaphandle kwentlekele yokusingqongileyo. U-Ostrom ubhala ukuba 'isiphelo sikaHardin sentlekele engenakuphepheka sasitshayela kakhulu'.
U-Ostrom uyavuma ukuba into ayibiza ngokuba 'yimithombo yofikelelo oluvulelekileyo ye-common-pool' ngamanye amaxesha 'yavunwa ngokugqithisileyo'. Kodwa kuphela kwiimeko apho i-commons echaphazelekayo 'yayikhululekile kubo bonke' - okuye kwenzeka kuphela kwinani elithile leemeko. Nkqu nosoqoqosho weYunivesithi yaseColumbia uJoseph Stiglitz, naye owaphumelela iBhaso leNobel, wathi abaConservatives 'basebenzise Intlekele yoMbutho ukuxoxisana ngamalungelo epropathi, kwaye ukuba ukusebenza kakuhle kwaphunyezwa njengoko abantu babekhutshelwe ngaphandle kwe-commons'. Wongezelela ukuba oko u-Ostrom akubonisile 'bubukho beendlela zolawulo loluntu ezilawula ukusetyenziswa kwezinto eziqhelekileyo ngaphandle kokubhenela kumalungelo epropathi'. Ngoko ngelixa 'inkululeko-kumntu wonke' inokukhokelela kwiintlekele zokusingqongileyo, ubunini boluntu, ulawulo kunye nokusetyenziswa kakhulu akwenzanga njalo. Ishwangusha leeNtlanga yiNtsomi.
Ngubani ngokwenene obangela iiNtlekele?
Akukho mntu, ndinokuthi, unokukhanyela ukuba umhlaba ubonile kwaye usabona imizekelo emininzi yeentlekele zendalo okanye iintlekele. 'Ukuba ujonge intlekele', ubhala uRaj Patel, 'ungayifumana kuyo yonke indawo, ukusuka kwiindawo ezihlala imigodi ye-coltan eCongo ukuya kwizenzo ezikhulayo zamafama afaka isichumiso esingaphili emhlabeni ukuze sithathe indawo yokuchuma. ukulima kwabo bebodwa kubhuqiwe.'
Ndisebenzisa igama elithi intlekele apha kwintsingiselo yesiqhelo yemihla ngemihla, kunokuba ndisebenzise intsingiselo yakudala yesiGrike echazwa nguHardin - okt uhlobo oluthile lokudlala okunengqiqo nokungenakuthintelwa ngaphandle kwamandla angaphaya kokuqonda abalinganiswa. Njengoko sele kukhankanyiwe, ngokuqinisekileyo kuyinyani ukuba ngamanye amaxesha ezi ntlekele zineengcambu zazo kwiimeko zokugqithiswa kwabemi kunye nakwiimeko zokungathintelwa kwenkululeko kubo bonke ukufumana inzuzo kwimithombo 'yokufikelela okuvulelekileyo' -nokuba ngamahlathi, imilambo okanye iilwandle. Nangona kunjalo kwimiba yamatyala ayibanga ngamaqela oluntu lwasemaphandleni anamalungelo afanayo emhlabeni okanye emahlathini athe abangela ezi ntlekele. Eyona nto imangalisayo yeyokuba uninzi lwamagqabantshintshi ale mihla malunga nokonakaliswa kwendalo kukuba lizisusa ngokupheleleyo kumbuzo wokuba 'ngubani' kanye kanye obangele oko. Nakumbuzo wokuba, ngokwemigaqo ebambekayo, yayingoonobangela bani. Ikwenza oku ngokusebenzisa amagama angekho ngqiqweni nangacacanga njengokuthi 'abantu'. Ngamanye amaxesha ide ibethelele eli gama ku 'Bantu'. Sixelelwa ukuba ukukhula kwamanani 'abantu' kubangela umonakalo kwimo engqongileyo kunye nokuncipha kobutyebi; โabantuโ bagawula amahlathi ashinyeneyo; kwaye 'abantu' babangela ukufudumala kwehlabathi.
Ngenye indlela esi sisiphumo esinengqiqo semodeli yoqoqosho yeniyo-classical ebalaseleyo. Ukwenzela ukuba imathematika ibe lula, lo mzekelo uthatyathwe kuyo yonke imiba yejografi (isithuba), yonke imiba yembali (ixesha) nakuyo yonke imiba yentsebenziswano yeqela kunye nentshukumo. Ikwenza oku ngokwakha i-fictive super-rational super-rational single 'i-arhente emeleyo' eyenza izigqibo ezisekelwe kuphela kumaxabiso anikwe yimarike enefictive ngokulinganayo. Kwihlabathi elinjalo ngokwenene akukho ndawo yabantu, amaqela, iiklasi okanye amashishini. Ummeli okwisinye obambeleyo ngobuchule uguqulela kwisininzi 'abantu'. Njengengcali yezoqoqosho, ndingathanda ukugxininisa ukuba le modeli yezoqoqosho 'neo-classical' ayikuphela kwayo ekhoyo. Kangangeenkulungwane ezininzi iingcali zezoqoqosho ezimangalisayo ziye zavavanya kwaye zahlalutya indawo, ixesha kunye nazo zonke iindlela zokusebenzisana kweqela. Nangona kunjalo ngelishwa kuhlala kuyinyani ukuba kule mihla ezi zithethe zoqoqosho zityebileyo zisajongelwa phantsi.
Ukubuyela kumxholo wethu; kwimbali yonke kunokuboniswa, kaninzi-ninzi, ukuba yayingekuko ukuxhaphazwa ngokugqithisileyo koluntu lwasemaphandleni okukhokelela kwiintlekele zokusingqongileyo. Kunoko, kumaxesha angaphambi kobungxowankulu, yayikukuxhatshazwa ngokugqithโ emgceni kwabantu abanegunya yaye, ngamaxesha obukapitali, ukuxhatshazwa ngokugqithiseleyo kweenkampani zobukapitali, okwabangela ngokubanzi iintlekele ezinjalo kwindalo. Kwisiqingatha sesibini sesi sincoko ndiza kubonisa umzekelo omnye onjalo, ukugawulwa kwamahlathi kwenxalenye yeFrench Pyrenees ekuqaleni kwe19.th ngenkulungwane.
Njengoko uRaj Patel ephawule, ndicinga ngokufanelekileyo:
Iintlekele zokusingqongileyo ukusuka kwiDust Bowl ukuya ekutshatyalalisweni okukhulu kwamahlathi emvula kunye nolwandlekazi ziziphumo zokuziphatha kwamaqumrhu, ongxowankulu kwezolimo namahlathi kunye nokuloba. IDust Bowl yenzeka ngenxa yokuba ngelixa abantu belazi kakuhle ixabiso lomhlaba ongaphezulu, ukufakwa kwabo kulimo longxowankulu lwabajika baba ngabaxhaphazi balo mhlaba ubomi babo buxhomekeke kuwo, luguqula unxibelelwano lwabo nehlabathi elibangqongileyo ukuba libe lelexeshana elifutshane. inzuzo.
Kutheni le Ntsomi Iyingozi
Ngokucacileyo uGarrett Hardin wayengengomntu wokuqala ukuqaqambisa iziphumo ezibi ekucingelwa ukuba zibi zamalungelo oluntu kunye nezenzo. UAristotle wada wathetha ngayo ngenkulungwane yesine. Kumaxesha akutshanje, kwaye mhlawumbi ngokufanelekileyo, sinokuyibona ngokucacileyo inkampani uHardin awayeyigcina emsebenzini kaLudwig von Mises - ingcali yezoqoqosho 'yeSikole saseAustria'. Ekunye neqabane lakhe elidume ngakumbi uFriedrich von Hayek, uvon Mises wenze okuninzi ukubonelela ngesiseko sefilosofi yale mihla yaseMelika kunye neNtshona Neo-Conservatism. Kumsebenzi wakhe we-1947 Umsebenzi woLuntu, von Mises wabhala wathi:
Ukuba umhlaba awungowaye nabani na, nangona umthetho osemthethweni unokuwubiza ngokuba ngumhlaba kawonke-wonke, uyasetyenziswa ngaphandle kokujonga izinto ezingeloncedo. Abo banokukwazi ukuzenzela imbuyekezoโamaplanga nenyamakazi yamahlathi, iintlanzi ezisemanzini nezimbiwa zomhlaba ongaphantsi komhlabaโabazikhathazi ngemiphumo yamva yendlela abaxhaphaza ngayo. Kubo ukukhukuliseka komhlaba, ukuchithwa kwezixhobo eziphelelwayo kunye nokunye ukuphazamiseka kokusetyenziswa kwexesha elizayo ziindleko zangaphandle ezingangeni ekubaleni kwabo igalelo kunye nemveliso. Bagawula imithi ngaphandle kokujonga amahlumela amatsha okanye ukutshalwa kwamahlathi. Ekuzingeleni nasekulobeni abanciphisi kwiindlela zokuthintela ukuphinda kuhlaziywe kwiindawo zokuzingela nokuloba.
Kungakhathaliseki ukuba yintoni ezandulelayo, yayiyincoko kaHardin, kunye nokuqulunqa igama lakhe. Intlekele kwi-Commons, oko kuye kwanempembelelo enkulu kuzo zombini iingxoxo zemfundo kwaye, okona kubaluleke kakhulu, ekuthathweni kwezigqibo kumgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho. Le mpembelelo iye yakhohlisa kwaye iyingozi. Sele ndiyikhankanye into yokuba iHardin's Ntlekele ithande 'ukutyhola amaxhoba'. Ndicinga ukuba oku kwakubekwe kakuhle kwinqaku elinokuqonda elabhalwa kwiminyaka embalwa eyadlulayo ngu-Ian Angus waseKhanada:
Inyaniso yokuba ingxabano kaHardin ikwagxeka abahluphekileyo ngokutshabalalisa indalo yibhonasi. Isincoko sikaHardin sisetyenziswe ngokubanzi njengempendulo yeengcamango kwiintshukumo ezichasene nama impiriyali kwiLizwe leSithathu kunye nokunganeliseki phakathi kwabantu bomthonyama kunye nabanye abantu abacinezelweyo kuyo yonke indawo emhlabeni.
Kangangamashumi eminyaka, ii-arhente zamazwe ngamazwe, ezifana ne-IMF kunye neBhanki yehlabathi, ziseke imimiselo yazo yomgaqo-nkqubo kwiLizwe leSithathu, nakwezinye iindawo, ekwamkelweni okucacileyo okanye okucacileyo kobunyani beNtlekele yeMibutho. Ukucinga ukuba yinyani, i-corollary ibe yimfuneko yokuba amazwe athengise zonke iintlobo zobunini obuhlangeneyo okanye ukusetyenziswa, kunye nokuchaza ngcono nokomeleza amalungelo epropathi. Indlela enjalo iye yabangela umonakalo ehlabathini lonke.
Kutshanje, siye sabona iinzame zokusungula kunye nokwenza inzuzo kumalungelo epropathi kwilifa leplanethi yethu yemfuzo. Amashishini amakhulu ezolimo athengisa (ngamanye amaxesha anike) imbewu engavelisiyo kumafama aseAfrika. Abasenako ukubekela bucala enye imbewu kwisityalo sonyaka ngamnye ukuze balime kunyaka ozayo. Kufuneka babuye baye kuthenga imbewu kumashishini ezolimo minyaka le. Iinkampani zaseNtshona zikwabanga amalungelo epropathi kulandelelwano lwemfuza yendalo emininzi; ithathwe kwizityalo, iintyatyambo nemithi eseAmazon nakwezinye iindawo.
Ngoku ezininzi iinkampani ezinjalo azikhathali nokuba le nto ziyenzayo inokuthetheleleka ngokwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha okanye ngokwezoqoqosho โ zifuna nje ukwenza ingeniso ethe chatha. Kodwa nanini na xa kunikwa izizathu zokuthethelelwa, ziye, rhoqo njengoko zingekho, zibekwe ngokwemiqathango yeNtlekele yoMbutho.
Ingxaki Yabemi
YayinguThomas Malthus, kupapasho lwakhe luka-1798 olunesihloko esithi: An Isincoko ngoMgaqo-siseko wabemi, owaqala wavakalisa uluvo lokuba ukukhula kwabemi kuya kuthandeka ukodlula ukutya okukhoyo. Ukuba akukhangelwa, amanani abantu aya kuhlala ekhula ngokwejometri (okt ngokukhawuleza), ngelixa 'indlela yokuphila' inokunyuka kuphela ngokubala. Abemi behlabathi bebeya kusoloko betyekele ekwandeni de indlala, imfazwe nezifo ekugqibeleni ziwugcine ulungelelene. Uthethe ngelithi akufuneki kubekho iindlela zokunceda abantu abahluphekayo, kuba ezi ziyakukhuthaza ukukhula okugqithisileyo kwabemi kwaye zikhokelele kwiziphumo ezibi kwezentlalo nezokusingqongileyo.
Kwiminyaka engamakhulu amabini kamva, xa siqwalasela amanani angakumbi abandakanyekileyo kunzima ukungakhathali nokudimazeka. Inani labantu bomhlaba namhlanje lisondele kwiibhiliyoni ezisixhenxe, amakhulu amabini eminyaka eyadlulayo yayikwibhiliyoni enye kuphela, kwaye ukuba sibuyela kumaxesha amaRoma kuqikelelwa ukuba kwakukho abantu abazizigidi ezingama-231 kuphela emhlabeni wonke - malunga nesinye kwisihlanu. yabemi baseIndiya namhlanje! Kule mihla, sihlala sikhunjuzwa, nangona kabuhlungu kakhulu, ukuba siphila ngaphaya kwamandla omhlaba, ubuncwane bawo bendalo kunye nokuzinza kwe-eco-system yawo. Olona qikelelo lungcono ngoku lolokuba siya kufuna iiplanethi ezimbini ukuze sixhase ngokuzinzileyo umgangatho wethu wabemi wangoku, odla kumanqanaba angoku. Nangona zininzi ngakumbi ukuba wonke umntu utye njengamazwe atyebileyo.
Xa bejonga emva kwimbali, ababhali abaninzi kunye nabahlalutyi baye babonisa ukuwohloka kwemekobume noluntu njengento ebangelwa ubukhulu becala kukuphuphuma kwabemi. UJared Diamond yenye yezi. Ndiza kushiya kwicala elinye olunye uhlalutyo olunokuxoxwa ngalo uDayimani alunikezelayo ngenani 'lokuwa kwakhe'; kunye nenyaniso yokuba ubonakala eyamkela 'inyaniso' yengcamango ye Ishwangusha leeNtlanga hook, umgca, kunye nesinki. Kwincwadi yakhe, Ukuwa-Indlela uluntu olukhetha ngayo ukusilela okanye ukusinda, ubhala athi:
Ukukhula kwabemi kuye kwanyanzela abantu ukuba basebenzise iindlela ezomeleleyo zemveliso yezolimoโฆ kwaye kwandiswe ukulima ukusuka kwimihlaba ephambili ekhethwe kuqala ukuya kumhlaba ojongelwa phantsi, ukuze kondliwe inani elandayo lemilomo elambileyo. Izenzo ezingazinzanga zikhokelele ekonakaleni kwendalo...
Okubalulekileyo apha akukhona kakhulu ukuqinisekiswa okanye ngenye indlela yohlalutyo lwembali, kunoko yinyaniso yokuba iDayimane ibona konke ukuwa kokusingqongileyo, kwixesha elidlulileyo kwaye nanamhlanje, njengoko kuziswa ngokugqithisileyo. UGarrett Hardin naye wayekwesi sikolo sinabantu abaninzi baseMalthusian. Yiyo loo nto ebhale isincoko sakhe esinesiqingatha. Uyasixelela: 'Ingxaki yabantu yile: izithethe, ukuba zinokuthetheleleka, zinokuthetheleleka kuphela phantsi kweemeko zokuxinana kwabemi. Njengoko abantu besanda, kuye kwafuneka ukuba abantu bayekwe kwiinkalo ezithile emva kwenye.' Ke nangona inokuba imeko yakhe yonke intetho yakhe echasene ne'commons' yayiyinto ebomvu, ukukhula kwabemi kwakuyeyona nto iphambili. Njengoko sesibonile, impendulo yakhe okokuqala yayikukuba yonke into enokuthi idluliselwe kwizandla zabucala okanye zequmrhu; xa oko kwakungenzeki ngoko ke kwakufuneka ummiselo we-draconian:
Intlekele ye-commons njengengobozi yokutya ithintelwa yimpahla yabucala, okanye into efana nayo ngokusesikweni. Kodwa umoya kunye namanzi ajikelezileyo akanako ukubiyelwa ngokulula, kwaye ke intlekele ye-commons njenge-cesspool kufuneka ithintelwe ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo, ngemithetho enyanzelisayo okanye izixhobo zokurhafisa ezenza kube lula ukuba umngcolisi aphathe izinto ezingcolisayo kunokuba azikhuphe. enganyangwa.
Eyona njongo yesibongozo sikaHardin yachazwa kwicandelo elide lesincoko sakhe esibizwa ngokuba: Inkululeko Yokuzala Ayinyamezeleki. Enye yeenjongo zakhe yayikukuphelisa naluphi na uhlobo lwenkxaso yentlalontle:
Ukuba intsapho nganye yabantu ibixhomekeke kuphela kubuncwane bayo; ukuba abantwana babazali abangenabazali babulawa yindlala; ukuba, ngoko ke, ukuzala ngokugqithisileyo kuzise eyakhe "isohlwayo" kumgca wentsholongwane-ngoko bekungayi kubakho umdla woluntu ekulawuleni ukuzala kweentsapho. Kodwa uluntu lwethu luzibophelele ngokunzulu kwilizwe lentlalontle, kwaye ngenxa yoko lijongene nenye inkalo yentlekele ye-commons.
Ucebise ukuba abantu 'abahluphekayo' kufuneka banyanzelwe ukuba bayeke ukuzala. Ukuba yindoda enobulungisa, waqonda ukuba ukunyanzeliswa ngamanye amaxesha kunokuba bubulungisa:
Kufuneka sivume ukuba inkqubo yethu yomthetho yepropati yabucala kunye nelifa ayilunganga-kodwa siyayinyamezela ngenxa yokuba asiqinisekanga, okwangoku, ukuba nabani na uqulunqe inkqubo engcono. Indlela engenye yeendlela eziqhelekileyo iyoyikeka kakhulu ukuyicinga. Ukungabikho kokusesikweni kukhethwa ukutshabalalisa ngokupheleleyo.
Kwakhona, umbuzo apha ngowokusesikweni nokungekho sikweni kubani? Eneneni ayizizo izigidi zabantu abahlala โkwihlabathi lesithathuโ ababangela iintlekele zendalo esiqhubeka sizingqina namhlanje. Linqanaba elikhulu lokusetyenziswa kwabantu kumazwe aseNtshona nakwiindawo ezithile eziphuhlileyo zaseAsia. Umndilili waseMelika usebenzisa izixhobo eziphinda-phindwe kabini kunomAfrika oqhelekileyo. Kanye kummandla wokusetyenziswa kwamandla, kuye kwabalwa ukuba nyaka ngamnye umntu waseUnited States uye wasebenzisa amandla amaninzi ngentsimbi yesi-2 kusasa nge-2 kaJanuwari njengoko umntu waseTanzania ewasebenzisa unyaka wonke! Ingxaki apha ayikokunyuka kwabemi nje kuphela kodwa nokungalingani okugqithisileyo kwehlabathi ngokunjalo.
Ngokufutshane micro-imbali - La Guerre des Demoiselles
Abantu abaninzi abahlala ezintabeni zaseYurophu babambelela kumalungelo abo afanayo okusebenzisa amahlathi de kwangenkulungwane ye-19. U-Elinor Ostrom uthanda ukugqamisa umzekelo wendlela oku kwenzeka ngayo kwi-Swiss Alps - apho usetyenziso olusebenzayo kunye nexesha elide lokusetyenziswa koluntu kunye neepateni zobunini kwiindawo eziphakamileyo kunye nobunini babucala kwiintlambo. Kwakunjalo nakwiiPyrenees zaseFransi ekuqaleni kwamashumi eminyaka enkulungwane ye-19.
Eli yayiselihlabathi elinamahlathi kakhulu kwaye likude. Umbhali-mbali wasekhaya uGeorges Labouysse iyichaza ngolu hlobo: 'Iimeko zobomi zaba bantu bahlala ezintabeni zazinzima. Bahlala kwi-autarky kwiintlambo ezikude apho iindlela zonxibelelwano zazinzimaโฆ. Babengazi ukuba kwenzeka ntoni kwihlabathi langaphandle. Amaxesha amaninzi babengazazi neenguqu ezilandelelanayo zolawulo ukususela kwiRevolution: ukususela ngowe-1815 ukuya kowe-1830 ngolu hlobo lulandelayo: uNapoleon 1st, Louis XVIII, Charles X, noLouis-Philippe: abalawuli abane kwiminyaka elishumi elinesihlanu!โ Uhlabela mgama esixelela:
Ukususela kumaxesha amandulo, abantu belizwe elihlwempuzekileyo basePyrenees babesebenzisa ihlathi ngokukhululekileyo ukuze baphile: iziqobo zemithi ukuze bakhe izindlu zabo, iinkuni ezifileyo zokuzifudumeza, ukutyisa imihlambi emincinane, ukuzingela ngokungekho mthethweni nokutyisa endle nokugawula nokutshisa ukuze kwakhiwe amadlelo ambalwa. .
La malungelo oluntu osetyenziso (usufruct) adityaniswa nobunini bomhlaba obuxhaphakileyo kunye, ngakumbi, bamahlathi. Enyanisweni, ababhali-mbali baseFrentshi baye babonisa ukuba, ngokungafaniyo nemeko yelizwe lonke laseFransi, kumahlathi asePyrenees, kwiimeko ezininzi, ayephethwe ngokufanayo ngabantu basekuhlaleni ababehlala kuzo. Amanye amalungelo oluntu kunye neepateni zobunini abuyela kumaxesha amaRoma kunye neVisigoth, kodwa amanye kwafuneka akhutshwe kwiXesha eliPhakathi lokuqala kwiiNkosi zalapha - nokuba ngokuzithandela okanye rhoqo emva kokulwa ixesha elide. Ngaphezu koko, la malungelo okusebenzisa akazange amisele inkululeko yomntu wonke. Kanye njengokuba kunjalo ngesiNgesi 'commons', ezi ngingqi zisezintabeni zazi ngokuchanekileyo ukuba ngubani onelungelo lokuba yintoni kunye nobungakanani bala malungelo malunga nokuba mangaphi na anokusetyenziswa okanye athathwe. Ubukhulu becala la malungelo ayengabhalwanga phantsi, nto leyo eyayiza kubangela iingxaki kamva, kodwa ayecace gca kwaye iindlela ezingekho sikweni ziye zavela ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuba amalungelo awaxhatshazwa.
Ngokwe- Intlekele yoMbutho, ingongoma yokuqala ebalulekileyo apha kukuba kwakungekho nanye. Abahlali basekuhlaleni babesebenzisa amahlathi kangangeenkulungwane, yaye nangona babeqingqe iziza ezimbalwa zokulima iimveliso zezolimo, okanye ababeza kudlisa kuzo iinkomo zabo, kuye kwakho impembelelo engento kubungakanani bokugquma kwamahlathi nempilo yamahlathi. imithi. Uluntu olunjalo lwaluphila ubomi obuncinane ukuze uqiniseke, kodwa ngokuqinisekileyo bekunjalo, ukusebenzisa igama lale mihla, 'ukuzinza'.
Nangona kunjalo izinto zazitshintsha kwihlabathi langaphandle, kwaye kungekuphela nje ngokwemigaqo yookumkani. Ngeentsuku zokuqala zeNguquko yaseFransi, uluntu lwaguqulwa lwaba 'ziindawo zokuhlala', kodwa ezi ndawo zahlala zingabanini bamahlathi. Izinto zakhawuleza zatshintsha xa uNapoleon waqalisa ukulawula elo lizwe. Wabiza i-Ariรจge, ummandla wasePyrenean endiya kukhathazeka ngawo ngokuyintloko, 'ilizwe lentsimbi kunye nabantu'. Wayezifuna zombini - amadoda emikhosi yakhe, kunye nemigodi yentsimbi ukuze abonelele ngamashishini akhe. Wayekwadinga amahlathi asePyrenean ukuze abonelele ngamalahle ale mithi. Ngoko ke wazenza zaziwe phantsi zonke - zonke zaba yipropathi karhulumente. Kwakungelo xesha, yaye kumashumi ambalwa eminyaka alandelayo, ukutshatyalaliswa kwamahlathi kwiiPyrenees kwaqalisa ukwanda.
Ekupheleni kweeMfazwe zeNapoleon, amahlathi 'esizwe' aye athengiswa. Zaye zathengiswa, rhoqo ngamaxabiso aphantsi, 'koohlohlesakhe abazizityebi'. Baba yimpahla yabucala. Abanini abatsha bamahlathi, ababesoloko bengabanini bamaziko amakhulu entsimbi kulo mmandla, babengafuni ukuba nelori enamalungelo oluntu lwasekuhlaleni amahlathi, nto leyo ababeyiphikisa ngamandla. Inzala yabo yayiyinzuzo yabo. Uninzi lwamathamsanqa abalulekileyo lwenziwa ngokugawula imithi 'ngaphandle kwenceba' ukondla ishishini elikhulayo laseFransi kunye neenjini zalo zomphunga. Kufuneka kongezwe ukuba ishishini laseFransi ngelo xesha (ngoo-1820 kunye noo-1830) lalisaxhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kumalahle - kodwa emva kwexesha elithile amalahle aqala ukusetyenziswa ngokubanzi.
Ulawulo olutsha lwangeniswa emthethweni ngo-1827, ngokupasiswa kweKhowudi yeHlathi yesizwe. Onke amalungelo okusetyenziswa kwehlathi ayecinezelwe kwaye nayiphi na 'umlimiOthe gqolo ukusebenzisa amalungelo anjalo kwixesha elizayo uya kuthathwa njengokwaphula umthetho kwaye abe noxanduva lwezohlwayo ezinkulu okanye ukuvalelwa entolongweni. Ngexesha leengxoxo, elinye iSekela lachaza ngokucacileyo isizathu sokuba iKhowudi yeHlathi iyimfuneko:
Ushishino oluchumayo lukhula mihla le lufuna ubutyebi obuninzi obuvela kumahlathi ethu, (izixhobo zokusebenza) ezingakwaziyo ukubuyiswa yimigodi kwizibilini zomhlaba, ngaphezu kwako konke ngenxa yomgangatho otshayo.
Akukho mbuzo apha Intlekele yoMbutho okanye njalo. Ishishini lalifuna iinkuni yaye ngaloo ndlela amahlathi ayeza kuwa. Ukunyanzelisa amalungelo abo omhlaba abucala abanini abatsha babagxotha abantu basekuhlaleni baza baqesha 'abagadi bamahlathi' ukuba babathintele. Kuluntu lwasekuhlaleni konke oku kwaba yintlekele. Kangangezizukulwana bebethembele kumahlathi ukuze baphile; ngoku babejongene nobuhlwempu. Uninzi lwabantu basekuhlaleni lwalungenakulindeleka ukuba luqonde ngokupheleleyo amandla amakhulu ezopolitiko kunye nezoqoqosho ezaziqala ukudlala, kodwa babenokubona ukuba yintoni umphumo kubo kwiindawo zabo. Bagxothwa kumahlathi 'ookhokho' babo, kwaqeshwa abalindi bamahlathi ababethiyiwe ukuba babagcine bengekho, intshinyela yehlathi yayigawulwa yaye kwakuvela iifolokhwe ezingakumbi zokutshisa amalahle kuyo yonke indawo.
Kwakufuneka baxhathise. Ukuqala ngo-1n 1828 benza njalo. Le yayidume (ubuncinci ekuhlaleni) Guerre des Demoiselles. Abanini bamahlathi batsha, ababedla ngokuba ngabanini baloo mahlathi, baye bachasa ilungelo loluntu lokusebenzisa amahlathi. Xa uluntu luye lwafuna ulungiso kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni lwacelwa ukuba lubonise ubungqina obubhaliweyo obubhaliweyo. Ewe 'izivumelwano' ezinjalo ezinikezela la malungelo mhlawumbi zange zibekho okanye kudala zatshatyalaliswa. Kodwa abantu basekuhlaleni babakhangela nangayiphi na imeko. Ngomhla wesi-4 kuSeptemba 1828 baqhekeza kwiHolo yeDolophu yaseSentein e-Ariรจge baza bavula izifuba befuna ubungqina obunjalo-kodwa ngelize. ULabouysse uchaza okwenzekayo emva koko, ephelelwe lithemba:
Bathathe amanyathelo okuphawula inkumbulo edibeneyo yeli lizwe (intlawulo). Ngaloo ndlela ngoFebruwari 1829, kwihlathi laseBhetemale, abameli bengcinezelo - abalindi behlathi abadumileyo abahlawulwa ngabanikazi babucala okanye nguRhulumente kunye nabantu ababizwa ngokuba yiSalamanders (kuba iimpahla zabo zazimnyama kwaye zityheli) bagqogqa izindlu zabemi abambalwa abakwanti. Ngequbuliso kwathi gqi amadoda asibhozo, azifihle yaye exhobe ngezixhobo ezahlukahlukeneyo, awagxotha. Esi sisiqalo sovukelo olusisigxina.
Ngo-1829 kunye no-1830 inkcaso yakhula kwaye yasasazeka kuwo wonke ummandla. Ekugqibeleni kuqikelelwa ukuba abantu abali-150,000 XNUMX babebandakanyekile. Ngokubanzi, inkcaso yayiquka abafana abancinci, bahlala bengaphantsi kwamashumi amabini, badityaniswa ngamagqala amaninzi eeMfazwe zeNapoleonic. Iibhendi zaba zikhulu, kwaye kwavela iinkokeli zasekuhlaleni. Eyona idumileyo kwezi yayibizwa ngokuba yi-'Vidalou' โ eneneni nguJean-Baptiste Lafforgue othile. Naphi na apho bahamba khona, abalindi behlathi, i Salamanders, ayejamelene namaqela abafana โabazifihlileโ abanjalo, abazama ukubanqanda ukuba bangakwazi ukungena emahlathini. Ngokwenyani babeguqulwe njengabafazi okanye amanenekazi (Demoiselles), kungoko igama elanikwa uvukelo-mbuso: La Guerre des Demoiselles. Kwingqina lokuzibonela usishiyile le nkcazo ye Iidemoiselles:
Inkokeli endandithetha nayo yayinde kakhulu, inxibe ibhulukhwe yangaphantsiโฆ wayenxibe i-saber yomkhosi wamahashe okhanyayo. Omnye, oxhobe ngezembe nobude obuqhelekileyo, wayegqunywe ilokhwe eqiniswe ngebhanti elibomvu elalibotshelelwe ngompu; ubuso bakhe bebuqatywe mnyama, kunye namagwebu ehagu atyalwe ebusweni bakhe, kwaye ubukhulu becala kumashiya kunye nemilebe yakhe ephezulu; waye 'coiffured' ngu 'shako' (isigcina-ntloko se hussar). Iqela eliseleyo lalinxibe ngendlela efanayo.
Ukufihla okungaqhelekanga kwakuyimfuneko ukuthintela Iidemoiselles ukusuka ekuchongweni. Xa abantu besiswa phambi kweenkundla babedla ngokukhululwa ngenxa yokuba kungekho bungqina bubambekayo bobunyani babo. Nangona kunjalo indlela ababenxibe ngayo iphinda ibonakale kwimbali yecarnivals yasekhaya xa, ngokufanayo nesithethe seYurophu enkulu, iintsuku ezimbalwa ngonyaka umhlaba ngokwenene 'wawujikiswa'. IiNkosi zazikhonza abantu abahlwempuzekileyo kwaye abafazi bagagamela amadoda.
The Iidemoiselles babenenkxaso phantse kubo bonke abemi basekuhlaleni, kuquka uninzi loSodolophu. Umphathiswa we-Ariรจge wabhalela uMphathiswa wezangaPhakathi waseFransi ngo-1830 ukuba akuyi kuba luncedo ukuzama ukutyala iintlola okanye oosolwazi eluntwini kuba:
Imidla yabantu belizwe le I-Ariรจge, kwimiba echaphazela amahlathi, idibaniswe kangangokuba umntu akanakuthemba ukufumana ama-agent ayimfihlo kumagunya, ngaphandle kokuthenga ngexabiso eliphezulu kakhulu.
Kodwa urhulumente oyintloko kwakufuneka enze okuthile ukuze akhusele amalungelo ezinto zabucala. Babexelelwe ukuba 'abemi baseAriรจge 'babekhohlakele kwaye bekhohlakele njengeebhere abaziphakamisayo'. Bathumela kwiinkampani ezilishumi elinesithathu zamajoni ahamba ngeenyawo kunye neebrigade ezisibhozo ze gendarmerie. Kodwa ngesiphumo esincinci, ngaphandle kokumisela ingcamango 'yoxanduva oluhlangeneyo' nakwizenzo 'zobhukuqo' zomntu ngamnye. Akunjalo kuphela Iidemoiselles babe nenkxaso yoluntu lwasekuhlaleni - nkqu nee-freemasons zasekuhlaleni, abefundisi, oonoposi kunye namadoda amasiko babekwicala labo - kodwa babesebenzisa amaqhinga okubetha kunye nokuqhuba amaqhinga, athe imikhosi yaseFransi yafumanisa kunzima ukulwa nayo. Njengoko ingcinezelo yomkhosi yayibonakala ingasebenzi, urhulumente wagqiba ekubeni athethathethane. Ekugqibeleni, ngomhla wama-23 kuFebruwari 1831, iSebe Lezangaphakathi laseFransi lakhupha umyalelo owawurhoxisa yonke imimiselo yemithetho yehlathi yowe-1827. Kwabhengezwa uxolelo jikelele; bonke abagwetyiweyo bakhululwa kwaye onke amatyala amiswa. Amalungelo ookhokho okusetyenziswa kwehlathi abuyiselwa. Abantu baseAriรจge baphumelele impumelelo ebalulekileyo, eyimbali, kodwa ekugqibeleni iPyrrhic, uloyiso!
Ngeminyaka yee-1830, imimandla emininzi yePyrenean yayigawulwe ngokuphawulekayo. UMichael Williams ucaphula iingxelo ezininzi zelo xesha ezichaza lo mboniso โngamabinzana nanjengamagama anjengathi โimihlaba eyinkangala,โ โiqhushumbisi,โ โimbonakalo eyoyikekayo,โ โnobunqunu oboyikekayo bamatye angenanto nayinyumba.โโ Kodwa, njengoko sele sibonile, oku kugawulwa kwamahlathi, ubuncinci kwiiPyrenees, akuzange kube ngumphumo wokuba uluntu lwasekuhlaleni lusebenzise amahlathi ngokuqhelekileyo, kwaba sisiphumo esicacileyo, okokuqala kwesidingo sikaNapoleon somthi ukuze abonelele ngemikhosi yakhe kwaye, kamva, amahlathi ashicileliweyo. ixhatshazwe ngabanini babucala ukuba babonelele ngeenkuni namalahle ukwenzela inguqu kwezoshishino yaseFransi.
The Iidemoiselles babeza kubuya manqaphanqapha kwisithuba seminyaka engamashumi amane ezayo. Kodwa kwixesha elide abazange bakwazi ukumisa ukugawulwa kwangasese kunye nokuxhaphaza amahlathi asePyrenean. Oku kwaqhubeka. Abantu basekuhlaleni bakufumanisa kunzima nangakumbi ukuphila, njengoko amahlathi abo ayegawulwa kwaye ukufikelela nokusetyenziswa kwawo kwakusiba nzima ngakumbi. Njengezigidi zabantu baseYurophu ngenkulungwane ye-19, bafudukela kwiidolophu nezixeko ezikhulayo zaseFransi. Apho ukuze babe ngamalungu amatsha e-proletariat yasezidolophini ekhulayo. Ngokubhekiselele kumahlathi ePyrenees, okuseleyo kuwo namhlanje akunakuchazwa kwiinzame zamva zokuhlwayelwa kwakhona kwamahlathi eFransi, apho kwakukho amaninzi, kodwa kunoko ubukho bawo bubangelwa kukuba ekugqibeleni ishishini laseFransi liye latshintshela ekusebenziseni. amalahle, kwaye kamva ioli ethengwe kwamanye amazwe, kwaye kude namalahle, njengomthombo wawo ophambili wamandla. Ngokwale ngqiqo amafutha efosili aye awasindisa amanye amahlathi aseYurophu.
Into endithemba ukuba icacile kule mbali encinci yembali kukuba ukugawulwa kwamahlathi okwenzeka kwiiPyrenees zaseFransi akuzange kubangelwe kwaphela. Intlekele yoMbutho. Yaba sisiphumo sophuhliso lwezopolitiko nezoqoqosho eFransi iyonke kwaye, kwinqanaba lendawo, ukugawulwa kwamahlathi kwaqhutywa ngabanini babucala abatsha bamahlathi, kungekhona ngabantu basekuhlaleni abaphulukene namalungelo abo okusebenzisa 'i-commons. '.
Imithombo kunye neereferensi
UMichael Williams, Ukugawula Umhlaba, Chicago, 2006; UGarret Hardin, Ishwangusha leeNtlanga, Inzululwazi, ngo-1968; Elinor Ostrom, Ukulawula iiCommons: I-Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, iCambridge University Press, 1990, uSusan Jane Buck Cox, Akukho ntlekele kwi-Commons, Ukuziphatha kokusingqongileyo, ngo-1985; Ian Angus, Intsomi Yentlekele Yoluntu, Izwi leSocialist, 2008; Thomas Malthus, Isincoko esingoMgaqo-siseko waBemi, ngo-1798; ULudwig von Mises, Isenzo soLuntu: I-Treatise on Economics, 1949; Georges Labouysse, D'รฉtranges demoiselles, Occitanie, 2006 ; UFrancois umntwana, La guerre des Demoiselles en Ariรจge (1829-1872), eMontbel, ngowe-1972; UJean-Franรงois Soulet, Les Pyrรฉnรฉes okanye XIXe siรจcle. L'รฉveil d'une sociรฉtรฉ civile, iinguqulelo Sud-Ouest, Luรงon, 2004;Renรฉ Dupont, La guerre des Demoiselles dans les forรชts de l'Ariรจge (1829-1831), Travaux du laboratoire forestier de Toulouse; eToulouse ; Uphumelele uBarousse, Les Demoiselles, La Mosaรฏque du Midi, ngo-1839; Michel Dubedat, Le procรจs des Demoiselles. Resistance ร l'application du Code forestier dans les montagnes de l'Ariรจge (1828-1830), Bulletin de la sociรฉtรฉ ariรฉgeoise des sciences letts et arts, 1899-1900.
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