Magweta mashoma ane simba rakawanda pamitemo yemutungamiri wenyika Bush mu'hondo yehugandanga' kupfuura John Yoo. Ichi chinhu chinoshamisa, nekuti Yoo anga asiri mukuru wedare remakurukota, asiri gweta reWhite House, uye asiri mukuru muDhipatimendi reJustice. Aingove gweta repakati-soro muHofisi yeDhipatimendi reJustice yeLegal Counse ane masimba mashoma ekutarisira uye asina simba rekusimbisa mitemo. Zvakadaro neakaundi ese, Yoo aive neruwoko mune chero sarudzo huru yepamutemo inosanganisira mhinduro yeUS pakurwiswa kwaGunyana 11, uye panguva dzese, sekuziva kwedu, zano rake raigara rakafanana - mutungamiri anogona kuita chero chinhu. mutungamiri anoda.
Zano raYoo rinonyanya kuzivikanwa raive mumemorandamu yaNyamavhuvhu 2002 ichitaura kuti mutungamiri wenyika haagone kurambidzwa nemutemo kurayira kurwadziswa munguva yehondo - kunyangwe United States yakasaina nekubvumidza chibvumirano chinorambidza zvachose kutambudzwa mumamiriro ese ezvinhu, uye kunyangwe Congress yakapfuura. mutemo unoenderana nechibvumirano ichocho, icho pasina misiyano ipi neipi inorambidza kurwadzisa. Yoo akafunga kuti nemhaka yokuti Bumbiro reMitemo rinoita mutungamiri wenyika 'Mutungamiriri-Mukuru,' hapana mutemo unogona kurambidza zvaanogona kuita mukutsvaga hondo. Pakufunga uku, mutungamiri wenyika achapihwa mvumo neBumbiro reMitemo rekuti aite kuuraya rudzi kana achida.
Yoo ikozvino adzoka muhupenyu hwepachivande, adzokera kudare remutemo paYunivhesiti yeCalifornia kuBerkeley. Kusiyana nevamwe vaimbove nhengo dzehutungamiriri, anoita kunge aine mifungo mishoma kana paine chechipiri pamusoro pezvaakaita, uye akaramba achidzivirira zvine hukasha maonero ake. Bhuku rake Masimba eHondo neRunyararo: Bumbiro uye Zvekune dzimwe nyika Mushure me9/11 inoratidza kuti sei Yoo aive nesimba mukutonga kweBush. Inopa chaizvo nharo dzaizoda kunzwikwa nemutungamiri wenyika. Yoo anopokana kuti mutungamiri wenyika ane simba rimwechete rekutanga hondo pasina mvumo yekongiresi, uye kududzira, kumisa, nekutyora zvibvumirano zvepasi rose pamadiro. Chokwadi, zvibvumirano zvakatenderwa, Yoo anotenda, hazvigone kusimbiswa nematare kunze kwekunge Congress yaisa mumwe mutemo wekuishandisa. Maererano nemaonero aya, hurumende yeCongress inoona nezvekunze inongogumira pakudzika mitemo yemumba uye kugovera mari. Nekumwe kutaura, kana tasvika panyaya dzezvekunze, mutungamiri wenyika anoshandisa masimba asina divi rimwe chete asingatariswe nemutemo - webumbiro remitemo kana wepasi rose.
Yoo haasi iye wekutanga kusimudzira zvigaro zvakadaro. Vazhinji vanochengetedza vanofarira mutungamiriri akasimba, kunyanya kana zvasvika kune nyaya dzekunze, uye kazhinji vanopokana nezvemutemo wepasi rose. Izvo zvinopihwa naYoo izvo zvitsva kuedza kuyananisa izvi zvemazuva ano zvekuchengetedza zvido neinopesvedzera Conservative dzidziso yekududzira kwebumbiro: iyo 'yekutanga' maitiro, ayo anoti Bumbiro reMitemo rinofanirwa kududzirwa zvichienderana nekunzwisisa chaiko kunoitwa nevagadziri, vakabvumira, uye veruzhinji pakanyorwa Bumbiro reMitemo nekuvandudzwa kwaro.
Dambudziko revatangi vekutanga vanotenda mumukuru akasimba uye vanoshora mutemo wepasirese nderekuti vagadziri vacho vakabata chaizvo maonero akapesana - vaive nehanya zvakanyanya nemasimba ekutonga, uye sevatungamiriri venyika itsva uye isina njodzi, vaive nechido chekuona kuti. zvisungo zvavakanga vataurirana nedzimwe nyika zvaizoremekedzwa nekutevedzwa. Mukati memazana maviri amakore apfuura, hongu, simba rokutonga rakawedzera zvikuru mukuita; uye maitiro evatungamiriri vazhinji veUS kumutemo wepasi rose awedzera kusaremekedza sezvo simba reUS richienzaniswa nedzimwe nyika rawedzera. Asi zviitiko izvi zvakaoma kuenderana nedzidziso ye 'chinangwa chepakutanga,' icho, sezvakataurwa naJustice Antonin Scalia nevamwe vanochengetedza zvakanyanya, vanonyanya kuzvidza kuvandudzwa kwemutemo kwemazana maviri emakore apfuura. Basa raYoo nderekuyananisa kushandiswa kwemazuva ano kwesimba reAmerica nekutenda kwake muchinangwa chekutanga. Maonero ake akakunda pasi pehutongi hweBush, uye saka haafanirwe kuongororwa chete nekuda kwekuziva kwavo uye nhoroondo yechokwadi, asi nemhedzisiro yavo kumutemo weUS mu'hondo yehugandanga.'
hondo
Pamusoro payo, Bumbiro reMitemo rinopatsanura masimba pamusoro pezvekune dzimwe nyika. Inopa Congress mutoro wakakura, kunyanya nezvehondo. Kongiresi ine simba rekusimudza nekudzora mauto; kuzivisa hondo uye kubudisa 'Letters of Marque and Reprisal,' idzo dzinobvumira marudzi mashoma ekurwisana; kutsanangura mhosva dzinopesana nemutemo wemarudzi; uye kudzora kutengeserana kwenyika dzese. Seneti inofanirwa kusimbisa zvibvumirano zvese nekugadzwa kwevamiriri. Mutungamiri wenyika anonzi 'Commander-in-Chief,' uye anogadza vamiriri uye anoita zvibvumirano zvinoenderana nemvumo yeSeneti. Pamusoro pezvo, mazwi ekuti 'executive power' kubva pakatanga nyika, ave achionekwa seanopa mutungamiri wenyika mvumo yekumiririra nyika munyaya dzekunze.
Uku kukamukana kwemutoro kwakaumbwa nokuda kwezvikonzero zvinozivikanwa zvikuru zvenhau nouzivi. Bumbiro remutemo rakanyorwa zvichitevera Hondo yeChimurenga, umo makoroni akapandukira kushungurudzwa kwehumambo hweBritain, semuenzaniso wemukuru asingazvidavirire. Rudzi rutsva rwaisavimbika nemasimba ekutonga zvekuti kuyedza kwekutanga kuumba hurumende yemubatanidzwa, Zvinyorwa zveConfederation, zvakangogadzira nhengo dzakawanda dzeContinental Congress, iyo yaitotsamira kumatunhu kuita mabasa akakosha, kusanganisira kubhadharisa mitero, kutonga. maitiro evagari vemo, kusimudza mauto, uye kuenda kuhondo. Kuedza uku kwakakundikana, saka vanyori veBumbiro reMitemo vakapa Congress simba rakawanda, uye vakamutsidzira pfungwa yebazi rehurumende rinotungamirirwa nemukuru mumwechete. Asi vakasimbirira pamiganho yakakura pasimba rebazi idzva, uye nekudaro vakapihwa kuCongress masimba akasimba ayo aigara achionekwa kunge emukuru - kusanganisira simba rekuzivisa hondo.
Vazhinji vevagadziri vakatsigira nechido danho rekuramba mutungamiri wenyika simba rekubatanidza nyika muhondo. Pierce Butler, nhengo yeConstitutional Convention, paakafunga kupa mutungamiri wenyika simba rekuita hondo, zvaakataura zvakarambwa zvachose. George Mason akati mutungamiri wenyika 'haafanirwe kuvimbwa' nesimba rehondo, uye kuti inofanira kusiiwa neCongress senzira 'yekuvhara pane kufambisa hondo.' James Wilson, imwe nhengo, akataura kuti kupa Congress mvumo yekuzivisa hondo 'hakuzotikurumidzisi kupinda muhondo; kunotemerwa kurinda pamusoro payo. Hazvizove musimba remurume mumwechete, kana boka revarume, kutibatanidzira mukutambudzika kwakadaro; nokuti simba rinokosha rokuzivisa hondo riri mumaoko eparamende yose.' Kunyange Alexander Hamilton, mumwe wevakavamba zvikurusa aitsigira simba guru guru, akataura kuti โGuta Remitemo roga rinogona kuvhiringidza [zvikomborero zvorugare] nokuisa rudzi muhondo. Sezvakataurwa naJohn Hart Ely, aimbova mutungamiriri weStanford Law School, nepo chinangwa chepakutanga cheVavambi panyaya dzakawanda chinowanzova 'chisina kujeka kusvika pakusarongeka,' kana totaura nezvemasimba ehondo 'hazvisizvo.'
Mukutarisana nehumbowo uhu, Yoo anoshinga kuti kubvunza kwakadzama kwenhoroondo kunoratidza chinangwa chakasiyana chepakutanga - chekupa mutungamiri wenyika simba pamusoro penyaya dzekunze dzakangofanana neramambo weEngland, kusanganisira simba rekutanga hondo pasina. mvumo yeCongress. Anotaura kuti simba 'rokuzivisa Hondo' yakapihwa kuCongress rakanga risingarevi kuti riise simba rekutanga kana kupa mvumo kuhondo, asi simba rekutaura zviri pamutemo kuti hondo yanga ichienderera - chirevo chingave 'ruremekedzo kune. muvengi' uye aizopa mvumo kune mukuru kushandisa masimba akasiyana-siyana munguva yehondo. Kunyanya, Yoo anopokana, chirevo chinopa Congress simba re "kuzivisa Hondo" chaiitirwa kuda kubvumidzwa neCongress ye "hondo yakazara," izwi iro Yoo risingambotsanangure, asi rakasiira mutungamiri wenyika danho rekuita muhondo shoma. Anotora maduramazwi kubva panguva yekutanga ayo anotsanangura 'kuzivisa' se'kutaura' kana 'kuzivisa,' kwete 'kutanga.' Vanotaura kuti Bumbiro reMitemo harina kupa kongiresi simba rekupinda muhondo kana kubhadharisa, mazwi anoshandiswa mune zvimwe bumbiro remitemo achitaura nezvehondo. Uye anoti kusiyana nemamwe mabumbiro ehurumende panguva iyoyo, bumbiro remubatanidzwa raisada kuti mutungamiri wenyika abvunze Congress asati aenda kuhondo.
Humbowo hwese hunodudzwa naYoo, zvisinei, hunogona kuverengerwa zvinogutsa kuti atsigire maonero aanoda kupokana - kureva, kuti Bumbiro reMitemo rakapa mutungamiri wenyika simba chete, semukuru wemauto, kuita hondo dzekudzivirira apo nyika yakarwiswa. , uye kutungamira mashandiro muhondo dzakabvumidzwa neCongress. Precedent yeBritish ndeyekushandisa kushoma pano, sezvo mafiremu akaziva akabva kune yakawanda kwazvo. Tsanangudzo dzeduramazwi rekuti 'declare' dzinopawo nhungamiro shoma, sezvo Yoo achifuratira kuti pane musiyano mukuru pakati po'kuzivisa' kwomumwe munhu kuda kwake waini kana kuti Mozart uye kuzivisa hondo yamambo. 'Declare War' yaitove izwi remutemo reunyanzvi, uye pane humbowo hwekuti yakashandiswa panguva iyoyo kureva kutanga kwehondo uye chirevo chekuzivisa zviri pamutemo kuti hondo yaienderera mberi. Kushandiswa kwezwi rekuti 'declare' pane kuti 'mutero' kana 'kupinda' kunongoratidza kupatsanurwa kwechiremera uko mutungamiri wenyika anobhadharisa - kana kuenderera mberi - hondo kana yangotanga. Chokwadi, vagadziri vacho vakatsiva zvine mukurumbira kutsiva 'kuzivisa' kuti 'ita' mukuverengera masimba ehondo eCongress nekuda kwechikonzero ichi. Uye vagadziri vacho vaive vasina chikonzero chekuti mutungamiri wenyika ataurirane neCongress vasati vaenda kuhondo sezvo yaive sarudzo yeCongress, kwete yemutungamiri wenyika.
Chinonyanya kunetsa kurondedzero yaYoo, nhoroondo yake inopa simba 'rokuzivisa Hondo' chimiro chisina revo. Panguva yekunyorwa kweBumbiro reMitemo, 'declaration of war' yepamutemo yakanga isingakodzeri kushandiswa kwemasimba ehondo pasi pemutemo wepamba kana wepasi rose, saka fungidziro yaYoo yekuti chiziviso chakashanda chinangwa ichocho chinokundikana. Yoo yakawedzera zano rekuti chirevo chinoziva musiyano pakati pe'hondo dzese,' dzinofanirwa kuziviswa, uye hondo diki, dzisingadi, hadzina nhoroondo. Kunyangwe kuzvipira kwake kunooneka kune yekutanga, Yoo haataure humbowo chero hupi hunoratidza kuti chero musiyano wakadaro uripo kuchizvarwa chekutanga. Uyewo haambotsananguri kuti musiyano wacho ungarevei nhasi. Uye chokwadi chekuti zvinyorwa zvinopa Congress simba re "kuzivisa Hondo" uye kuburitsa 'Letters of Marque and Reprisal' rinoratidza zvakasimba chinangwa chekuti Congress itore nzira dzese dzehondo kunze kwekudzoreredza kurwisa. Kana tsananguro idzi dzikangobuda, chasara padzidziso yaYoo yechirevo chehondo ndechekuti inopa Congress simba rekupa 'ruremekedzo kumuvengi' - zvisiri zvekunyengetedza kuramba mutauro wakajeka wevagadziri vataurwa pamusoro.
Humbowo hwaYoo haudzikisi mhedziso yekuti vagadziri vaida kuti Congress itore mutoro wesarudzo yekuendesa nyika kuhondo. Asi neimwe nzira, nharo dzinopikisana nedzidziso yake ndedzedzidzo. Tsika yemazuva ano iri padyo nekuona kwaYoo pane kuona kwevagadziri. Kutanga neHondo yeKorea, vatungamiri vakagara vachibatanidza nyika mumakakatanwa emauto vasingamiriri Congress kuti ibvumidze kuita kwavo. Yoo anocherekedza kuti nepo nyika yakapinda muhondo dzinosvika zana nemakumi maviri neshanu, Congress yakazivisa hondo kashanu chete. Vagadziri vaive vasina mutongo unoshanda pavakapa Congress simba iri?
Yoo anoti kubva munaGunyana 11, zvinotonyanya kukosha kuti nyika ikwanise kuita nekukasira uye pasina kuzeza, kunyangwe nekukasira, kuzvidzivirira. Hatikwanise kumirira Congress kuti ione zvayaida kuita. Iyo 'hondo yehugandanga' haitenderi kutaurirana kwedemocracy, kana kwete pamberi. Uye, sekuramba kwaYoo achisimbirira, Congress inoramba yakasununguka kugura mari kune chero chiito chemauto chaisingade.
Asi nhasi pane chikonzero chakanaka sechaivepo pakanyorwa Bumbiro remitemo kuti ripe Kongiresi simba rekubvumidza mabasa echiuto. Sezvo vagadziri vakanyatsofanotaura, vatungamiri vakaratidza kuti vanoda zvikuru kupfuura Congress kubatanidza nyika muhondo. Zviri nyore kuti munhu mumwe aite pfungwa dzake pane kuti ruzhinji rwedzimba mbiri dzeCongress vabvumirane pagwaro rehondo.
Mapurezidhendi anowanzo batsirwa nehondo kupfuura nhengo dzeCongress, nekuwedzera mukurumbira wavo kwenguva pfupi, nekuwana masimba akawandisa pamusoro pehupfumi hwevanhu nemauto, uye, dzimwe nguva, nekuzivikanwa kwenhoroondo kwavakazopihwa. Zvakare, sekuratidzira kwaita Hondo yeVietnam, kunyangwe hondo ikave isingafarirwe zvakanyanya, hazvisi nyore kubvisa mari yemauto.
Ichokwadi, sekuona kwaYoo, kuti, kubva kuna Harry Truman, vatungamiri vemapato maviri vanowanzoramba maonero ekuti vanoda mvumo yekongiresi kuti vaite mauto kuhondo. Asi mafungiro aya achangotanga kuitika. Kunyange zviziviso zvehondo zvange zvisingaite, Yoo anotadza kuona kuti vatungamiri vanga vachitsvaga mvumo yekongiresi yezviito zvechiuto. Kusvika Hondo yeKorea, vatungamiri vakabvuma pachena kuti mvumo yekongiresi yaidiwa kana kupa zvikonzero zvekuti nei imwe danho remauto raive rakasiyana nemutemo iwoyo. Saka, maonero anosimudzirwa naYoo se 'yekutanga' akafambiswa mberi chete mukati memakore makumi mashanu apfuura, uye chete nevatungamiriri vanozvida.
Maonero aya anonyanya kupikiswa neCongress, sezvinoonekwa muna 1973 War Powers Resolution, iyo yakatsvaga kusimbisa uye kudzoreredza basa reCongress pakusarudza kuenda kuhondo, uye zvakare mumakakatanwa emutemo anoitika kana vatungamiri vachitaura. zvekuenda kuhondo. Sezvo hondo yeIraq yakasimbisa zvinorwadza, sarudzo yekuenda kuhondo, kunyanya hondo yakatangwa nemutungamiri wenyika pasina kutsigirwa kwenyika dzakawanda, inogona kuva nemigumisiro yakaipa; uye kubvisa nyika kubva muhondo yakadai kunogona kuoma zvakanyanya. Dai Congress yaizobviswa mukutanga kuita sarudzo, sekuda kwaYoo, mhedzisiro yacho ingangove yakatowanda hondo, uye mamwe quagmires senge ari muIraq. Panyaya iyi, vagadziri vainyengetedza, uye ndiYoo atadza kunzwisisa ese macheki esimba rekutonga ravakaisa uye zvikonzero zvavakaita.
Zvibvumirano
Tsanangudzo yaYoo yesimba rechibvumirano, semaonero ake esimba rehondo, inosiya zvinoshamisa kubva mugwaro reBumbiro reMitemo uye kunzwisisa kwayo kwechinyakare. The Constitution's Supremacy Clause inotsanangura izvozvo
'Zvose Zvibvumirano zvakaitwa, kana zvichaitwa, pasi peHurumende yeUnited States, zvichave Mutemo wepamusoro weNyika; uye Vatongi venyika imwe neimwe vachasungwa nazvo.
Nesimba rechikamu ichocho, uye zvakataurwa pamusoro pezvibvumirano panguva yekuumbwa, zvakagara zvichigamuchirwa kuti zvibvumirano zvine simba remutemo muUnited States, zvinogadzira zvisungo zvinosunga, uye zvinogona kusimbiswa nematare. Chokwadi, Dare Repamusorosoro rakataura kare kuti zvibvumirano 'zvinofanira kuonekwaโฆsezvakaenzana nechiito chedare reparamende.'
Munguva yazvino, Congress inowanzo tsanangura kana ichibvumidza chibvumirano kuti haifanirwe kutevedzerwa mudare kudzamara mumwe mutemo wadzikwa. Uye kunyange pasina mirairidzo yakadaro, matare dzimwe nguva anoona zvibvumirano zvisingashandisi mutongo; Dare Repamusorosoro reUnited States reDC Circuit rakaita izvi nguva pfupi yadarika mukuramba zvaitaurwa nemusungwa weGuantanamo zvekuti kutongwa kwaakaitwa mudare remauto kutyora chibvumirano cheGeneva Conventions.
Yoo aizoenda mberi, achisimbirira pafungidziro yekupokana nematare edzimhosva kunze kwekunge Congress yanyatso tsanangura zvimwe. Pamaonero aya, zvibvumirano hazvina simba remutemo, uye zvinongova zvivimbiso zvezvematongerwo enyika, zvine simba rakawanda sekutaura kwedanidziro. Uye anoenderera mberi achiti mutungamiri wenyika ane simba rimwechete rekududzira, kududzira zvakare, uye kumisa zvibvumirano, vachinyatsopa vatungamiri pamusoro pemutemo kana zvasvika pazvibvumirano.
Kuti atsigire maonero evanoongororazve aya, Yoo anovimba zvakanyanya uye kakawanda pane dhizaini yakaoma pakati pezvekunze - iyo yaanoona, mutsika yeBritish, senzvimbo yemukuru - uye nyaya dzemumba - izvo zvaanoona sedunhu reparamende. Asi sezvataona, vanyori veBumbiro reMitemo vakaramba zvakajeka kupatsanurwa kwakaoma kudaro, zvichipa Congress neSeneti simba guru pamusoro pemabasa aionekwa neBritish semukuru muzvisikwa, kusanganisira simba rekuita hondo nezvibvumirano, uye kupa vatongi mutoro. kusimbisa zvibvumirano se'Mutemo Wenyika.'
Kana paine chero chinhu, humbowo hwenhoroondo hwaYoo hwakanyanya kutetepa neruremekedzo kune simba rechibvumirano uye Supremacy Clause kupfuura zviri maererano nechirevo chekuzivisa hondo. Sokugumisa kwakaita Jack Rakove, mumwe wevanyori venhoroondo dzekare munguva yehurumende, vagadziri vacho 'vaiva nepfungwa imwe chete pakupa zvibvumirano chinzvimbo chemutemo.' Sezvakataurwa nevamwe vanyori venhoroondo, chimwe chezvikuru zvinokurudzira kuunganidza Bumbiro reMitemo kwaive kuramba kunonyadzisa kwehurumende dzenyika kuita zvibvumirano. The Supremacy Clause yakagadzirisa dambudziko iri nenzira yakananga sezvinobvira - nekuita zvibvumirano 'Mutemo Wenyika,' unotevedzwa mumatare uye unosunga hurumende uye vagari vemo zvakafanana. Kuti zvibvumirano zvaisafungidzirwa kuti zvinoda kufambiswazve zvinosimbiswa nesarudzo dzakabvumiranwa nevaridzi kuti vasiye kuteedzerwa kwechibvumirano kubva kumasimba akanyorwa eCongress, 'sezvisingakoshese sezvo zvibvumirano zvaifanira kuva 'mitemo.' Nhoroondo yaYoo inoshandura mhedziso iyoyo pamusoro wayo; kuverenga kwake kwaizopa kunyanyisa kutaura kweSupremacy Clause kuti zvibvumirano mitemo. Kudai zvibvumirano zvaiva nesimba repamba chete pazvinenge zvaitwa nemutemo unotevera, sezvinoitwa naYoo, ipapo mutemo wacho pachawo waizova nenzvimbo ye'Mutemo Wenyika,' kwete chibvumirano.
Yoo haisisiri kugutsikana nekuremekedza kududzirwa kwemutungamiri wezvibvumirano. Anoramba achiti nekuti mutemo wezvekunze isimba rekutonga, mukuru anofanirwa kugona kududzira zvakare nekumisa zvibvumirano zvisina tsarukano. Asi nepo Bumbiro reMitemo richiona mutungamiri wenyika semutauriri mukuru wezvibvumirano, rakapawo mabasa akajeka ezvibvumirano kune mamwe mapazi; zvibvumirano zvose zvinofanirwa kutenderwa nezvikamu zviviri muzvitatu zveSeneti, uye kana zvatambirwa, zvibvumirano zvinova 'mutemo' unotevedzwa nematare. Mutungamiriri wenyika anofanirwa kunge achikwanisa kududzira zvibvumirano kuitira kuti 'aite' mitemo, sekugona kwaanoita kududzira mitemo yechinangwa ichocho. Asi hapana chikonzero nei kududzira kwake zvibvumirano kuchifanira kusungirwa kumatare edzimhosva kana kuparamende kupfuura kududzira kwake mitemo.
Mutemo weMutemo
Maonero aYoo pahondo uye masimba echibvumirano anogovera zvinhu zviviri. Chekutanga, ivo vaviri vanobva zvakanyanya kubva mugwaro reBumbiro reMitemo. Aizoderedza simba roโkuzivisa Hondoโ kumuitirowo zvawo, ruremekedzo kumuvengi; uye aizopa gadziriro huru yeSupremacy Clause yokuti zvibvumirano ndiwo 'Mutemo Wenyika.' Zvinoshamisa kuti purezidhendi anozivisa kutenda kwake mu 'kuvaka kwakasimba' kweBumbiro reMitemo angadai akawana dudziro dzaYoo dzichinyengetedza, nokuti Yoo haana chimwe chinhu kunze kwemuvaki akasimba. Imwe yenharo dzinowanzo itwa mukudzivirira 'zvekutanga' ndeyekuti dudziro dzinosimbisa 'kurarama' kana kushanduka kweBumbiro reMitemo hadzina magumo, uye naizvozvo dzinobvumira vatongi kuti varasike kure nechinyorwa. Yoo asingazive anoratidza kuti mhando yake yepakutanga inongotarisana nekushoropodzwa sedzimwe nzira, kana zvisiri izvo. Haangobva pachinyorwa chete, asi anopokana nemisimboti inoitsigira.
Chechipiri, uye zvakanyanya kukosha, kubuda kwese kwaYoo kubva mugwaro reBumbiro reMitemo kunonongedza kune imwe nzira - yekubvisa kuongororwa kwemutemo pamasimba emutungamiri wenyika pamusoro penyaya dzekunze. Anotaura chokwadi pamusoro peizvi, uye anodzivirira dzidziso yake nechikonzero chekuti inochengetedza 'kuchinjika' kune mukuru mune dzekunze. Asi 'kuchinjika' kwaanotsvaga kuchengetedza kuchinjika kwekubatanidza nyika muhondo pasina mvumo yekongiresi, uye kufuratira nekutyora zvisungo zvepasirese pasina chirango. Sezvo Carlos Vazquez, purofesa wemutemo kuGeorgetown, akakakavadzana achipindura Yoo, 'kushanduka kune zvikomborero zvayo, asi ndizvo zvinoitawo kuzvipira.' Bumbiro remutemo rakapa nyika kuhurumende yepamutemo iyo yaizoita kuti zviome kuenda kuhondo uye iyo yaizopa kutevedzwa kwechokwadi kwezvisungo zvepasi rose. Yoo aizozviramba zvose nezita rekuti mutungamiri wenyika aite zvaanoda.
Kunyangwe kana Yoo akanganisa nezve nzwisiso yekutanga muna 1787, akarasika nezve 2005? Sezvinoratidzwa nedikidiki rebhuku rake, gakava rake haribvi panhoroondo yekudzokorora chete, asiwo pamakakatanwa pamusoro pezvinoda kuitwa munyika yezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri nerimwe iri kutyisidzirwa nehugandanga uye zvombo zvekuparadza kukuru. Anoti zviri kuitika izvi zvinoda kuti mutungamiri wenyika ave nemukana wekumisa sarudzo dzake dzekunze kubva pakuda kweCongress uye kubva kumutemo wepasi rose.
Pano zvakakodzera kuongorora zvinzvimbo zvakatsigirwa naYoo achiri mubazi repamusoro uye kubvira, uye mhedzisiro yavo mu 'hondo yekutya.' Pese pese, Yoo akatsvaga kushandisa 'kuchinjika' kwaanowana muBumbiro reMitemo kutsigira nzira ye "hondo yehugandanga" umo miganhu yemutemo inodudzirwa kure kana kurambwa zvachose. Vhiki mbiri chete mushure mekurwiswa kwaGunyana 11, Yoo akatumira memo yakakura kuna Tim Flanigan, mutevedzeri wedare reWhite House, achipokana kuti Mutungamiriri ane simba rimwechete rekushandisa mauto kwete chete kurwisa magandanga akakonzera kurwiswa kwaGunyana 11 asi nemagandanga chero kupi. pasi rose, vaine kana vasina mvumo yekongiresi.
Yoo akatevera pfungwa iyoyo nenhevedzano yememos muna Ndira 2002 kuchengetedza, zvichipesana nekupokana kwakasimba kweDhipatimendi reHurumende, kuti Magungano eGeneva haafaniri kushandiswa kune chero vasungwa vakabatwa mukurwisana muAfghanistan. Yoo akakakavadzana kuti mutungamiri anogona kumisa magungano unilaterally; kuti al-Qaeda yakanga isiri chikamu chechibvumirano; kuti Afghanistan yakanga iri 'nyika yakakundikana' uye naizvozvo mutungamiri wenyika aigona kufuratira chokwadi chokuti yakanga yasaina zvibvumirano; uye kuti maTaliban akange atadza kutevedzera zvaidiwa neGeneva Kokorodzano maererano nemafambiro ehondo uye saka aisafanirwa kuchengetedzwa. Uye, haana kupokana, kuti mutungamiri wenyika aisungwa nemutemo wechivanhu wepasi rose, uyo unosimbirira kubatwa zvine hunhu kune vese vasungwa munguva yehondo. Vachivimba nekufunga kwaYoo, hutongi hwaBush hwakati hwaigona kubata nekuchengetedza chero munhu anganzi nemutungamiri wenyika inhengo kana mutsigiri weAl-Qaeda kana Taliban, uye anogona kuramba zvachose vasungwa vese kuchengetedzwa kweGeneva Conventions, kusanganisira kunzwa. kuvabvumira kupikisa chimiro chavo uye zvirambidzo pamaitiro ekubvunzurudza ane hutsinye.
Echoing Yoo, Alberto Gonzales, uyo aive gweta reWhite House, akapokana panguva iyoyo kuti chimwe chezvikonzero chikuru chekuramba kuchengetedzwa kwevasungwa pasi peGeneva Conventions kwaive 'kuchengetedza kuchinjika' uye kuita kuti zvive nyore 'kukurumidza kuwana ruzivo kubva kumagandanga akabatwa nevatsigiri vavo. .' Vakuru veCIA pavakati vakakwidza nyaya yekuti nzira dzavaishandisa kubvunzurudza vasungwa veAl-Qaeda - vakaita semvura - dzinogona kuvaisa pamhosva, Yoo akabvunzwa zvakare. Mukupindura, akanyora iyo Nyamavhuvhu 1, 2002, yekutambudza memo, yakasainwa nemukuru wake, Jay Bybee, ndokuendeswa kuna Gonzales. Mune memo iyoyo, Yoo 'akadudzira' mhosva uye mutemo wenyika dzakawanda unorambidza kutambudzwa nenzira nhete uye yemutemo sezvinobvira; chinangwa chake chiri pachena chakanga chiri chokubvumira vakuru vakuru vehurumende kushandisa kumanikidza kwakawanda sezvinobvira mukubvunzurudza.
Yoo akanyora kuti kutyisidzirwa nerufu kunobvumirwa kana kusingatyisidzire 'rufu rwava pedyo,' uye kuti zvinodhaka zvakagadzirirwa kukanganisa hunhu zvinogona kupihwa chero bedzi 'zvisingapindi kusvika pakati pekugona kwemunhu kuona nyika yakamupoteredza. .' Akataura kuti mutemo unorambidza kutambudza vanhu hautadzisi vanobvunzurudza kukuvadza pfungwa chero bedzi usina 'kurebeswa.' Kurwadziswa kwomuviri kwaigona kuitwa chero bedzi kwakanga kwakaderera zvikuru kupfuura marwadzo ane chokuita noโkukuvadzwa kwakakomba kwomuviri, kwakadai sokukundikana kwomuviri, kusashanda zvakanaka kwomuviri, kana kuti kunyange rufu.โ
Kunyangwe dudziro iyi haina kuchengetedza yakakwana 'kushanduka' kwaYoo. Muchikamu chakasiyana chememo, akapokana kuti kana maburi aya akange asina kukwana, mutungamiri wenyika aive akasununguka kuraira kutambudzwa chaiko. Mutemo upi noupi unoganhurira masimba emutungamiri wenyika kurayira kurwadziswa munguva yehondo, memo yakataura kudaro, 'inotyora mutemo wega wega weBumbiro reMitemo reMutungamiriri weMutungamiriri Mukuru.'
Kubva paakasiya Dhipatimendi reJustice, Yoo akadzivirirawo maitiro e "kududzira zvinoshamisa," umo United States yakapamba "vanofungidzirwa" vazhinji muhondo yehugandanga uye "vakavapa" kunyika dzechitatu nemarekodhi ekutambudza vasungwa. Akataura kuti matare edzimhosva haana kodzero yekuongorora zviito zvemutungamiri wenyika zvinonzi zvinotyora mutemo weWar Powers. Uye akadzivirira tsika yekuuraya kwakanangwa, neimwe nzira inozivikanwa se'kuuraya pfupiso.'
Muchidimbu, kuchinjika kwevamiriri veYoo kunobvumira manejimendi kuvharira vanhu zvachose pasina mhosva kana kunzwa, kuvaisa pasi pehutsinye hwekumanikidza kubvunzurudza nzira, kuvatumira kune dzimwe nyika nerekodhi rekuita zvakanyanya, kuuraya vanhu vaanotsanangura se muvengi pasina kutongwa, uye kuti matare asapindire muzviito zvose zvakadaro.
Kuchinjika kwakadaro kwakanyatso kubatsira US mukubata nehugandanga? Mune zvese zvingangoitika, marongero nemaitiro Yoo afambira mberi akaita kuti nyika isachengeteke. Kushungurudzwa kwakaitika kuGuantanamo neAbu Ghraib kwave kunyadzisa nyika dzepasi rose kuUnited States, uye neakaundi akawanda zvakabatsira kuunganidza vechidiki kuti vajoine al-Qaeda. IUS yakarasa tsitsi dzayaive nadzo munaGunyana 12, 2001, uye isu tazviwana tiri munyika pamwe ine ruvengo kupfuura nakare kose.
Nekuremekedza vasungwa, kuvonga kuna Yoo, US ikozvino iri muhutano husingagoneki: kune rumwe rutivi, zvave zvisingatenderwi kuti US ibate mazana evasungwa nekusingaperi pasina kuvaedza; nerumwe rutivi nzira dzedu dzokubvunzurudza dzinomanikidzira uye dzisina hunhu dzakapa kuti vasungwa vazhinji vadzivirirwe kubva pakutongwa. Nekuti humbowo hwatingashandisa kwavari hwakasvibiswa nekusabatwa zvakanaka kwavo, miedzo ingangove nguva yekufumura maitiro ehutsinye ekubvunzurudza eUnited States. Dambudziko iri raigona kudzivirirwa zvachose. Dai takapa vasungwa veAl-Qaeda kunzwikwa kwakanaka kunodiwa neGeneva Conventions pakutanga, uye dai takabvunzurudza zvine hunhu kuGuantanamo, Abu Ghraib, Camp Mercury, nekumwewo, vashoma vangadai vakaramba kuti US ichengete vamwe vasungwa. nguva yekurwisana kwemauto, uye tingadai takaedza avo vane mhosva dzehondo. Chave chisingafarirwe nevakawanda muUS nekune dzimwe nyika kuramba kwehurumende kugamuchira kunyange zvisungo zvishoma zvemitemo yehondo.
Mhedzisiro ye'kushanduka-shanduka' kwaYoo kwave kuzvikuvadza kuUS - takashandura nyika umo mutemo wepasi rose wanga uri kudivi redu kuita imwe yatinoiona semuvengi wedu. Pentagon's National Defense Strategy, yakabudiswa muna Kurume 2005, inoti,
'Simba redu senyika richaramba richipikiswa nevaya vanoshandisa nzira yevasina simba, vachishandisa nhandare dzepasi rose, nzira dzekutonga, uye hugandanga.'
Chirevo chekuti nzira dzekutonga - izvo chaizvo zvehutongi hwemutemo - dzinofanirwa kurambwa senzira yevasina simba, zvakafanana nehugandanga, inoratidza kuenderera mberi kwesimba resimba raYoo. Kana hutongi hwemutemo huchingoonekwa semudziyo unoshandiswa nemagandanga, pane chinhu chakashata. Michael Ignatieff akanyora kuti 'ndiwo hunhu chaihwo hwedemocracy iyo isingaite chete, asi inofanira, kurwa neruoko rumwe rwakasungwa kumusana. Zviri muchimiro chedemocracy kuti inokunda vavengi vayo chaizvo nekuti inokunda.' Yoo akakurudzira hutongi hweBush kuti husunungure ruoko rwayo uye kusiya zvisungo zvekutonga kwemutemo. Pamwe ndosaka tisiri kukunda.
David Cole purofesa wezvemitemo kuGeorgetown uye ari mupiro kuNew York Ongororo yeMabhuku uko chidimbu ichi chichangobva kubuda. Ndiye munyori we Enemy Aliens: Double Standards uye Bumbiro reRusununguko muHondo yehugandanga, ichangobva kubudiswa mune imwe yakadzokororwa yepepa.
[Cherechedza: Ichi chinyorwa chinobuda mumagazini yaNovember 17 ye New York Review of Books nemanyoro akawanda emuzasi; chinyorwa chine manotsi chichawanikwawo svondo rinouya pa iyo webhusaiti yemagazini. Chinyorwa chakatanga kubuda online pa Tomdispatch.com, weblog yeNational Institute, iyo inopa kuyerera kwakadzikama kwemamwe masosi, nhau, uye maonero kubva kuna Tom Engelhardt, mupepeti wenguva refu mukutsikisa, muvambi we iyo American Empire Project uye munyori we Mugumo Wekukunda Muitiro.]
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