ziviso
Chimwe chezvinoitika zvikuru zvezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri, nokudzokororwa kunosvika nhasi, kudonhedzwa kwebhomba reatomu paJapan muna 1945. Bhomba risati rashandiswa, vakuru vakuru vakatungamirira Manhattan Project vakaudza purezidhendi weU.S. Harry S. Truman:
"Nyika mukufambira mberi kwayo mutsika kana ichienzaniswa nebudiriro yayo yehunyanzvi inozopedzisira yave mutsitsi dzechombo chakadaro. Nemamwe mashoko, budiriro yemazuva ano inogona kuparadzwa zvachose."[1]
Vanhu vazhinji, uye ini ndinobvumirana, vanotenda kuti 'kururamiswa' kwetsika yekushandisa bhomba reatomu muHondo Yenyika II, uye kutyisidzira kushandiswa kwezvombo zvenyukireya mumakumi emakore anotevera, hakuna hwaro munzanga yakabudirira. Asi zvakadini nenharo yenguva dzose iyo mabhomba maviri eatomu akadonhedzwa paJapan akaita, kunyanguvezvo, kugumisa hondo? Ichi chinyorwa chinoongorora zvakadzama maonero iwayo.
Rokutanga remabhomba rakakandwa paHiroshima muna Nyamavhuvhu 6, 1945 uye rechipiri paNagasaki mazuva matatu gare gare. Mauto ane zvombo eSoviet akavhozhokera Manchuria inotapurwa neJapan pana August 8. Pana August 15, Mambo Hirohito akazivisa kukanda mapfumo pasi kweJapan muhurukuro yeredhiyo kurudzi.
Kutaura zvakafara, kune zvikoro zvitatu zvakasiyana zvekufunga kuti sei hurumende yeUS yakashandisa bhomba. Isu tinogona kutaura kune izvi seyeorthodox, revisionist, uye neo-orthodox kana anti-revisionist zvikoro.
Vanyori venhoroondo dzeOrthodox vanopikisa kuti kudonhedza mabhomba eatomu kwaidiwa uye kwairuramiswa nokuti izvi zvakatungamirira zvakananga kukuzvipira kweJapan, nokudaro zvichiponesa mamiriyoni ehupenyu hweAmerica neJapan uhwo hungadai hwakarasika neimwe nzira panguva yekurwisa kweU.S. kuJapan, kwakarongwa kutanga musi waNovember 1, 1945. Vanoongororazve havabvumirani: kubhomba kwacho kwakanga kusingadikanwi kana kururamiswa, vanoti; Japan yakanga yatokundwa zvachose. Vamwe vanoongorora vanotopikisa kuti United States yakashandisa mabhomba kutyisidzira Soviet Union.
Mumakore achangopfuura, anti-revisionists vakapikisa maonero ekudzokorora uye vakakakavara, sezvakaita vanyori vezvakaitika kare vekare, kuti bhomba rakashandiswa kupedza Hondo yePacific nekukurudzira zvakananga kuzvipira kweJapan. Vanopokana kuti kupinda kweSoviet muhondo yekurwisa Japan yakaita basa diki mukukanda mapfumo pasi, uye zvechokwadi zvishoma pane yakasarudzika 'kuvhundutsa' chinhu chebhomba.
Izvi zviri pamusoro ipfupi pfupiso asi zvinotora hunhu hwemaonero akasiyana pakupera kweHondo yePacific. Mune zvinotevera ini ndinoda kuratidza kuti nepo kuchiramba kuchiine mhepo, dzimwe nguva kupisa, gakava pakati pevanyori venhoroondo, maonero ekudzokorora anowirirana zvakanyanya nehumbowo.
Mujaho Muvengi
Vanyori venhoroondo dzekuMadokero vachikakavadzana zvikonzero zvekupera kwehondo vakatarisa zvakanyanya kuUS 'sarudzo' yekudonhedza bhomba reatomu.[2] Asi pave paine tarisiro shoma yakapihwa kunhaurirano pakati pevakuru venguva yehondo yeJapan izvo zvakakonzera kukanda mapfumo pasi. Kunyangwe zvishoma zvave zvichizivikanwa nezvekuita sarudzo kweSoviet uye kupinda kweSoviet muHondo yePacific kurwisa Japan.
Chigumbuso kusvika nguva pfupi yadarika chave chekuti hapana munyori wenhoroondo anga achinyatsogona Chirungu, chiJapan nechiRussian kuti aferefete zvinyorwa zvakachengetwa - zvinosanganisira zvinyorwa zvemukati zvehurumende, mishumo yemauto uye kupindira kwehungwaru - mumitauro mitatu yese. Izvi zvinotsanangura kuti sei gakava renhoroondo kuMadokero rakatarisana nevavariro yekutonga kweTruman uye kugadzira mitemo: izvi, mushure mezvose, zvinogona kutevedzwa pahwaro hwezvinyorwa zvemutauro weChirungu. Semuenzaniso, muna 1965, munyori wenhoroondo "revisionist" Gar Alperovitz akaburitsa bhuku rine simba, 'Atomic Diplomacy', umo maakapokana kuti kushandiswa kwemabhomba eatomu kwaive kusingakodzere muhondo uye kwaiitirwa seratidziro yesimba reU.S. kurwisa simba reSoviet. Pave paine gakava rinotyisa pamusoro peizvi kwemakumi emakore akawanda.[3]
Muna 2005, Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, purofesa wenhoroondo paUniversity of California kuSanta Barbara, akabudisa ongororo inokosha, 'Racing The Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan.'[4] Hasegawa, akaberekerwa uye akakurira muJapan asi asi zvino mugari wemuUS, akakoshesa hukama hwematatu munguva yehondo pakati peUnited States, Soviet Union neJapan. Kudzidza kwake kwakayemurwa zvakanyanya uye kwakaunza hunyanzvi hwakadzama, pamwe nekutora nhau, gakava. Barton Bernstein, purofesa wenhoroondo paStanford University uye mumwe wevanonyanya kutaura pamusoro penyaya dzebhomba reA, akarumbidza neushamwari bhuku iri se "rinotyisa", "vhoriyamu huru munhoroondo yepasirese" uye "chiito chinoorora, chakakodzera mibairo uye rumbidzo. ."[5] Bhuku rakaunzawo jolt hombe kune vanopikisa-revisionists.
Saka nei zita rekuti, โKumhanya Muvengiโ? PaPotsdam, mutungamiri weSoviet Joseph Stalin akanga apa Truman zuva rekurwiswa kweSoviet kuJapan - August 15, 1945. Kana US yaifanira kumanikidza Japan kuzvipira pasina rubatsiro rweSoviet, uye nokudaro kudzivisa kuita chero geostrategic concessions kune shamwari yayo inooneka, yaizofanira kudaro zuva iroro risati rasvika. Hasegawa anotora nyaya yacho:
"Chinhu chimwe chete chakasara chaiva bhomba reatomu. Kusiyana nekutaura kwevanyori vezvakaitika kare kuti Truman akanga asina chinangwa chekushandisa bhomba reatomu sechombo chezvematongerwo enyika kurwisana neSoviet Union, zvakaoma kufuratira chokwadi chokuti maSoviet akafunga mukuverenga kwaTruman. zuva rokurwisa kweSoviet rakaita kuti zvive zvakakosha zvikuru kuti United States idonhedze bhomba mukuvamba kwaAugust, maSoviet asati apinda muhondo. Mujaho pakati pekupinda muhondo kweSoviet nebhomba reatomu zvino wasvika pakakwirira.โ [6]
Kushingairira kutsvagisa kwaHasegawa kwakasimbisa dambudziko rekudzokorora kune maonero echinyakare ekuti mabhomba eatomu akaunza kurova kwakasimba kukuda kweJapan kurwa, uye zvakakonzera kuzvipira. Anoyambira kuti:
"Vanhu vekuAmerica vachiri kuomerera kungano yokuti mabhomba eatomu akadonhera paHiroshima neNagasaki akapa mhirizhonga kuhurumende yeJapan. Sarudzo yekushandisa bhomba yakaponesa kwete mauto eAmerica chete asiwo maJapan, maererano nerondedzero iyi. ruramisa sarudzo yaTruman uye kurerutsa hana yeAmerica. "
Hasegawa anoratidza kuti "ngano iyi haigoni kutsigirwa nezvakaitika kare. Uchapupu hunojekesa kuti pane dzimwe nzira dzekushandiswa kwebhomba, dzimwe nzira idzo hurumende yeTruman nokuda kwezvikonzero zvayo yakaramba kutevera. "[7]
Chiziviso chePotsdam
Kuti tinyatsonzwisisa chimiro che'rudzi'[8] pakati peSoviet Union kupinda muhondo yePacific uye kushandiswa kweAmerica kwebhomba reatomu, tinofanira kudzokera kuPotsdam Proclamation yakapihwa nevatungamiriri veUnited. States, United Kingdom neChina [9] musi waChikunguru 26, 1945. Izvi zvakaronga mazwi e "kukanda mapfumo pasi kwemauto ese eJapan." Dai mazwi aya asina kusangana, Japan yaizotarisana ne "kukurumidza uye kuparadzwa zvachose."
Hasegawa, nevamwe vanyori venhau dzakaitika, vanopokana kuti Truman ainetsekana zvakanyanya kuti Stalin achakurumidza kupinda muhondo mudunhu rePacific achipokana neJapan uye kuita zvakakosha budiriro muAsia, nekudaro achityisidzira zvido zveU.S. Ko iyo US yaigona sei kumanikidza kuzvipira kweJapan maSoviet asati awana budiriro yakadaro? Bhomba reatomu rakapa mhinduro kudambudziko rakanga rakatarisana naTruman. Kukonzeresa kukanda mapfumo pasi kweJapan Soviet Union isati yapinda muhondo yePacific, anodaro Hasegawa, Truman akapa Chiziviso chePotsdam. Izvi zvaiitirwa kwete seyambiro kuJapan, asi kupembedza kushandiswa kwebhomba reatomu.
Nhoroondo yakajairwa, inotendwa zvakanyanya kuMadokero, ndeyekuti kuramba kweJapan kwePotsdam Proclamation kwakatungamira danho reUS rekudonhedza bhomba. Hasegawa anocherekedza pachena kuti ngano iyi, zvakare, "haigone kutsigirwa nechokwadi." [10] Truman akanyora kuti akapa murairo wekudonhedza bhomba mushure mekunge Japan yaramba Chiziviso. Chokwadi chakapesana, zvisinei: murayiro wokudonhedza bhomba reatomu wakapiwa kuna General Carl Spaatz, mukuru weU.S. Army Strategic Air Forces, mangwanani aJuly 25. Chiziviso chacho hachina kupiwa kutozosvikira manheru aJuly 26. .Kurambwa kunofungidzirwa kweJapan kwePotsdam Proclamation kwaidiwa kuratidza kudonhedzwa kwebhomba.[11]
Kunyange zvazvo Japan yakanga isati yabvuma kukanda mapfumo pasi, vatongi vayo vakanga vatoona kukundwa vachiitarisa pachiso pakuvamba saFebruary 1945. Munhoroondo yokungwarira yezvinoitika zvakatungamirira kukubhomba reatomu, munyori wenhau dzakaitika Peter Kuznick anodudza Pacific Strategic Intelligence Summary ye vhiki yemusangano wePotsdam:
"[Ini] zvinganzi Japan ikozvino, zviri pamutemo kana zvisiri pachena, inobvuma kukundwa kwayo. Ichisiya sechisingawaniki chinangwa chekukunda kwenguva refu, yakatendeukira kuzvinangwa zviviri zve (a) kuyananisa kudada kwenyika nekukundwa, uye. (b) kutsvaga nzira dzakanakisa dzekununura kuparara kwezvinangwa zvake. " [12]
Colonel Charles Bonesteel, mukuru weWar Department Operations Division Policy Section, akayeuka kuti: โvarombo vechiJapan vakanga vachibudisa manzwiro kunze neRussia.โ[13] Allen Dulles weHofisi yeStrategic Services (yakatangira iyo CIA) yakaudza Henry Stimson, Munyori weHondo weUS, kuPotsdam. Akanyora kuti:
โMusi waChikunguru 20, 1945, pasi pemirayiridzo yakabva kuWashington, ndakaenda kuMusangano wePotsdam ndokushuma ikoko kuMunyori Stimson pamusoro pezvandakanga ndadzidza kubva kuTokyoโvakashuva kukanda mapfumo pasi kana vaigona kuchengeta Mambo nebumbiro remitemo sechikonzero chokuchengeta. chirango uye kurongeka muJapan mushure mekunge nhau dzinorwadza dzekukanda mapfumo pasi dzazivikanwa nevanhu vekuJapan."[14]
Zvakakosha kuyeuka kuti vanhu vokuJapan vairemekedza Mambo samwari mupenyu. Akamira pamusoro pesimba: zvematongerwo enyika, zvemitemo, zvekutonga, zvetsika, zvechitendero uye zvechiuto. Chokwadi, Emperor aisanganisira izvo chaizvo zveJapan. Nokudaro kukosha kwake kwakakosha, kune maJapan, kune mazwi ekuzvipira.
Mutungamiri Truman neMunyori weNyika, VaJames Byrnes, mumwe wevapi vezano vaTruman vanovimbwa navo, vanofanira kunge vakaziva kuti Japan yaiisa pfungwa dzekupedza hondo. Izvi zvinogona kuoneka muTruman's Chikunguru 18, 1945 diary yekunyora ichitaura nezve "teregiramu kubva kuna Jap Emperor achikumbira [veSoviet kuti vareverere] rugare." Pane zvakare Nyamavhuvhu 3 yakanyorwa naWalter Brown, mubatsiri waByrnes, uyo akati, "Pakati paAugusta/Mutungamiri, Leahy, JFB [Byrnes] agrred [sic] Japas [sic] achitsvaga rugare."[15]
Byrnes akabvuma pachena izvi paakataura nevezvenhau nguva pfupi hondo yapera. The New York Times yakashuma pana Nyamavhuvhu 29, 1945 kuti Byrnes โakataura chaakadana kuti chibvumikiso cheRussia chokuti maJapan aiziva kuti vakarohwa bhomba reatomu rokutanga risati radonhedzwa paHiroshima.โ[16] Kuznick anocherekedza kuti tsinhiro dzakafanana dzakaitwa noMunyori. weNavy James Forrestal, Mutevedzeri weMunyori weHondo John McCloy uye Munyori weHondo Stimson, achiratidza kupararira kwaive kwakaita kuitika uku. Kuznick anowedzera kuti:
"Asi, kuPotsdam, Stimson paakaedza kunyengerera Truman kuti achinje maitiro ake uye ape vimbiso kuna mambo muPotsdam Proclamation, Truman akaudza Munyori wake weHondo akwegura kuti, kana asingafarire mafambiro ari kuita zvinhu, aigona kurongedza. mabhegi ake odzokera kumba."[17]
Muchidimbu, sekutaura kunoita Hasegawa:
"Kupembedza Hiroshima neNagasaki nekuita gakava risingagoneki rekare rekuti mabhomba eatomu apedza hondo haachagoneki."[18]
Mibvunzo Yakakosha Isina Kupindurwa
Kuno kuUK, Oliver Kamm, munyori weblogger uye anombopota achinyora bepanhau, akanyora nezvenyaya dziri pamusoro apa kubva kune anopikisa-revisionist maonero. Mune imwe Guardian tsinhiro pamusoro pemakore makumi matanhatu nemaviri ekubhomba kweatomu kweHiroshima, akataura kuti "Kutsvagisa kwenhoroondo kutsva [.] kunopa tsigiro ine simba kune dudziro yetsika yechisarudzo chekudonhedza bhomba." Kunyange zvazvo achibvuma kuipa kwebhomba racho, akati pane โmukana mukuru wokuti kubvisa bhomba kungadai kwakonzera kutambura kukuru.โ[62] Izvi, kutaura zvishoma, kutaura kunokakavara zvikuru.[19] ]
Kamm akanyora kwenguva refu nezve kupera kwehondo yePacific mubhurogi rake, achidudza anti-revisionist vanyori vakadai saRobert Maddox, Robert Newman, Sadao Asada naDM Giangreco.[21] Giangreco munyori wenhoroondo dzemauto anogara kuUS Army Command uye General Staff College kuFort Leavenworth, Kansas. Iye mutsigiri weiyo "yepamusoro-yekufungidzira vakafa": nharo yekuti mazana ezviuru, zvimwe anopfuura miriyoni, hupenyu hweUS hungadai hwakarasika muOperation Olympic, kupinda kweJapan kwakarongerwa Mbudzi 1, 1945. Kamm anoomerera kune orthodox / anti-revisionist script kuti mabhomba maviri eatomu aidikanwa kuunza kuzvipira kweJapan, achitaura munyori wenhoroondo wekuJapan paDoshisho University muKyoto:
"Sadao Asada yakaratidza kubva kune vekutanga kuti kudonhedzwa kwemabhomba maviri kwakakosha mukusimbisa chinzvimbo cheavo vari mukati meHurumende yeJapan vanoda kumhan'ara runyararo."
Ndakabata Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, munyori we 'Racing the Enemy', uye ndakaratidza nharo dziri pamusoro apa. Achitaura kune akati wandei anti-revisionist vanyori venhau dzakaitika, uye kuna Kamm, Hasegawa akapindura:
"Ndinoziva kutsoropodza kwakasimudzwa naGiangreco, Asada, Newman, naKamm. Ndingawedzerawo Michael Kort muchikamu chimwe chete. Mutsara wavo wenharo wakafanana zvikuru. "
Havasi ivo chete vakafanana, asi vakarambwa nevanyori vezvakaitika kare vanosanganisira Bernstein, Alperovitz naHasegawa pachake. Sezvineiwo, Hasegawa anoti Giangreco, Newman, Kamm naKort havaverenge chiJapan, uye nekudaro vanofanirwa "kuvimba chete naAsada kuti vape mutongo wavo pamubvunzo unokosha: mabhomba eatomu uye kupinda kweSoviet kwakapesvedzera[d] sarudzo yeJapan. kuzvipira." [22]
Sezvataona, Hasegawa akakurukura uyu mubvunzo zvakasimba muโKumhanya Nomuvengiโ uye akaratidzira mumanyuko akachengetwa kuti kupinda kweSoviet kwaiva nepesvedzero huru, zvamazvirokwazvo, inokatyamadza inokatyamadza pavatungamiriri veJapan. Mu'Kupera kweHondo yePacific: Kuongororazve', yakabudiswa muna 2007 uye yakagadziridzwa naHasegawa, anounganidza humwe humbowo hwekupokana kwake muchitsauko chinosanganisa icho chinosanganisira kumwe kuongorora kwakasimba kwemagwaro emutauro wechiJapan, uye anotsiura Sadao Asada zvizere.
Hasegawa anocherekedza, somuenzaniso, kuti teregiramu pakati peGurukota Rokune dzimwe nyika reTogo nomumiriri weJapan Sato muSoviet Union dzinoratidza kuti Japan yakanga ichiomerera kutariro yokuti kuguma kwehondo kwaibvira uye kunodikanwa kupfurikidza nokuyananisa kweMoscow. Soviet Union neJapan dzakanga dzasaina Chibvumirano CheKune Kwazvakarerekera muna 1941 icho Japan yaitarisira kushandisa kuunza mazwi akanaka ekupedza hondo. Iyi ndiyo nzvimbo iyo Togo yakanga yaomerera kwairi sezvo veAllies vakanga vabudisa Potsdam Proclamation musi waJuly 26, 1945. Bhomba reHiroshima musi waAugust 6 harina kuchinja mutemo uyu, sezvakajeka kubva mumagwaro ezvinyorwa zveJapan. Chokwadi, kubva kune aya makuru masosi, Hasegawa aratidza kuti vatongi veJapan vakaisa tariro yavo zvakanyanya pakuyananisa kweMoscow mushure mebhomba reHiroshima.
Hasegawa akanyatsoongorora huchapupu hwemutauro wekutanga wevatungamiriri vemauto eJapan, kunyanya, uye akapa mienzaniso yakawanda inosimbisa maonero ekuti kuvhunduka kwavo pakupinda kweSoviet muHondo yePacific kwaive kwakanyanya kudarika pakadonhedzwa mabhomba eatomu. Sezvakataurwa neJapan Army Ministry yakataura zvine mutsindo nguva pfupi mushure mehondo:
"Kupinda kweSoviet muhondo kwakakanganisa zvakanyanya danho reJapan rekukanda mapfumo pasi."[23]
Hasegawa anoti:
"Asada inofuratira humbowo hwese uhu hunosimbisa kukosha kwekupinda muhondo kweSoviet." [24]
Hasegawa anopedzisa zvine musoro:
"Kutsoropodza kwangu kukuru kune avo vanoti Truman haana imwe sarudzo kunze kwekushandisa bhomba reA kuti aponese hupenyu ndeiyi: Kana zvirizvo, nei akaziva nzira mbiri dzaainadzo dzaigona kunge dzakakurumidza kukanda mapfumo pasi: ( 1) kuvimbisa kupinda muhondo yeSoviet; uye (2) kudzokorora chido chekukanda mapfumo pasi nenzira yakadai yekuvimbisa kuchengetwa kwegadziriro yamambo? Vatsoropodzi vangu havapindure mibvunzo iyi yakakosha."[25]
"Zvakakanganiswa Zvakadzika" Zvikumbiro Zvekukuvadzwa
Huwandu hungangove hwevaAllied, uye hweJapan, hupenyu hungadai hwakarasika mukurwiswa kwakarongwa kweJapan, hunogona, chokwadi, kusambozivikanwa nechokwadi. Uyezve, nhamba ipi neipi ingava 'yakanyanya kukwirira' uye inozvidemba zvachose. Nekudaro, zvinozivikanwa kuti nhamba yakafanotaurwa yekufa kwehondo yeUS mukurwiswa kwakarongwa kwakawedzera zvakanyanya pakati pevatsigiri vebhomba kubva kuUS War department's 1945 kufanotaura kwe46,000 vakafa. Muna 1955, Truman akasimbirira kuti General George Marshall aitya kurasikirwa nehafu yemiriyoni hupenyu hweAmerica. Munyori weWar Stimson akaita chirevo chevakafa vanopfuura 1,000,000 1947 1991 (vakafa, vakakuvadzwa uye vakashaika) muna 1995. Uye, muna 26, Mutungamiri George H.W. Bush akadzivirira "sarudzo yakaoma yekuverenga yaTruman, [iyo] yakaponesa mamirioni ehupenyu hweAmerica." Muna XNUMX, nhengo yevashandi paBock's Car, ndege yakabhomba Nagasaki, yakataura kuti kubhomba kwakaponesa hupenyu hwemamiriyoni matanhatu - miriyoni imwe yekuAmerica nemamiriyoni mashanu eJapan.[XNUMX]
Michael Kort, saD. M. Giangreco, mutsigiri weiyo "yepamusoro-inofungidzirwa vakakuvara" thesis. Muna 2003, Kort akaburitsa chidimbu chakanzi 'Casualty Projections for the Invasion of Japan, Phantom Estimates, uye Masvomhu eBarton Bernstein'.[27] Uku kwaiva kuedza kuramba basa raBernstein, ambotaurwa pamusoro apa, uyo ane kunyatsoongorora humbowo hwakanga hwamuita kuti arambe fungidziro dzevakaurayiwa padanho repamusoro rechiyero chaidiwa nevanyori vezvakaitika kare veorthodox uye anti-revisionist. Bernstein akapindura [28] kuna Kort muchidimbu icho, kutora mashoko aHasegawa, "anoparadza zvachose" [29] fungidziro yepamusoro yemamiriyoni evakafa kana kupfuura.
Bernstein akakakavadzana, nemienzaniso yakawanda, kuti anopesana nekudzokorora Kort: "inovimba nekuverenga kwakaomerwa, kusiiwa kwezvinhu zvakakosha, tsvakiridzo yakaganhurirwa, kugadzirisa kusiri nyore uye kwakapfava kwenyaya dzakaoma, uye mutauro wakajeka uye dudziro. uye anoregeredza manyuko akakodzera ezvakachengetwa uye zvizhinji zvebhuku rakabudiswa pamusoro penhau yengozi. Pakupedzisira, ane zvinetso zvakakomba nokunokora mashoko zvakarurama, achibudisa pachena zvinetso zvikuru semhizha.โ
Bernstein akaratidza kuti Kort "kazhinji haakwanisi kuongorora zvakadzama mumatambudziko", anoratidza "kusava nehanya kunoshamisa" uye, muchidimbu, akagadzira "rondedzero yakashata [iyo] kashoma, kana ichimboitika, inosangana nemipimo yehurukuro yakakomba, ine mutoro wezvidzidzo. "
Mune imwe nyaya, Bernstein akatendeukira kuna Giangreco, munyori wezvakaitika kare wemauto atotaura:
"Nekuda kwechinyorwa chazvino chakakanganisika icho chinonetsa mukududzira mabviro, inoita hukama husina chokwadi, nekusatsoropodza uye nekuzvishandira inoshandisa ndangariro dzepashure-Hiroshima, muchidimbu inotaura zvisirizvo zvehutsva, uye inodzivirira humwe hunyanzvi hwekare hwakapesana, ona D. M. Giangreco, ' " A Score of Bloody Okinawas na Iwo Jimas": Mutungamiri Truman neCasualty Estimates yeKupinda muJapan,' Pacific Historical Review 72 (Kukadzi 2003): 93-132."[30]
Uku "kukanganisa kwakanyanya" ongororo yakaitwa naGiangreco ndicho chinyorwa icho Kamm akadzokororwa kutaura kwevanofungidzira vakakuvara zvakanyanya kutsamira zvakanyanya.
Vanyori venhoroondo vakangwarira havarambe kuti Truman ainetsekana netarisiro yekuti hupenyu hwakawanda hweUS hucharasika mukurwiswa kweJapan, asi huwandu hwakafanotaurwa hwaive hushoma pane huwandu hwakakwirisa hwakapihwa mushure mehondo kuti 'varuramise' mabhomba eatomu. Nhamba dzakadai, pamwe chete ne "kurambwa" kweJapan kwePotsdam Proclamation, inoumba chikamu chenhoroondo yakajairika yekuti mabhomba eatomu aidiwa zvinosiririsa. Asi sezvo Hasegawa anocherekedza zvine hungwaru:
"Uchapupu hunojekesa kuti pakanga pane dzimwe nzira dzekushandiswa kwebhomba, dzimwe nzira idzo hurumende yeTruman nokuda kwezvikonzero zvayo yakaramba kutevera. Uye iri pano, muuchapupu hwemigwagwa isina kutorwa, iyo mubvunzo wehutsika hunouya. Kusvikira pakufa kwake, Truman akaramba achidzoka kumubvunzo uyu uye achidzokorora apembedza chisarudzo chake, achigadzira ngano yaakasvika pakudavira. ."[31]
Chii chakamanikidza maJapan Kuzvipira?
Iyo 'United States Strategic Bombing Survey', yakavakirwa panhaurirano dzepashure pehondo nemazana emauto eJapan nevatungamiriri vevanhu, yakagumisa kuti Japan ingadai yakazvipira pamberi paMbudzi 1 - zuva rakatarwa kurwisa kweUS kuJapan - pasina mabhomba eatomu uye pasina kupinda kweSoviet. muhondo. Kwemakore, mhedziso iyi yakatsigira nharo dzevanyori vezvakaitika kare vakati mabhomba eatomu akanga asingakodzeri kukanda mapfumo pasi.
Nekudaro, vamwe vanyori venhoroondo, kunyanya Bart Bernstein, vakapokana kuti mhedzisiro yeongororo haitsigirwe nehumbowo hwayo. Bernstein aratidza kuti humbowo, mune dzimwe nzvimbo, hunopokana uye anoyambira kuti 'Survey' i "gwara risingavimbike."[32] Semuyenzaniso, Prince Konoe Fumimaro, nhume yaHirohito kuMoscow, akanga ataura mukubvunzurudzwa kwake kwepashure pehondo kuti hondo. ingadai yakaenderera mberi muna 1945 (kureva kuti kupfuura iyo yaifungidzirwa yekupinda zuva reUS muna Mbudzi 1) dai bhomba reatomu risati radonhedzwa paJapan.
Kunyange zvazvo Bernstein akagumisa kuti Paul Nitze, munyori we 'Survey', akanga "aine tarisiro yakanyanyisa pamusoro pekuzvipira kwaNovember," Bernstein akatsvaka kugadzirisa kutaura kwaNitze kwokuti Japan "zvirokwazvo" ingadai yakazvipira pasina A-bhomba, Soviet. kupinda muhondo, kana kuchinjwa mazwi ekuzvipira anobvumira emperor-as-figurehead system. Kushandiswa kwe "zvirokwazvo", akagumisa Bernstein, kwaive kutonga kwakanyanyisa. Zvisinei, sezvakaratidzwa naHasegawa, kupinda kweSoviet muhondo yePacific kwakanga kuri katyamadzo huru kuvatungamiriri veJapan - Japan yakanga ichiri kutsvaka zvakasimba betsero yeMoscow kugumisa hondo.[33]
Tichifunga nezvesimba rakakura rekupinda kweSoviet muhondo, maonero aBernstein ndeekuti pasi pekubhomba kwakanyanya kweUS uye neAllied air-naval blockade yaive ichidzipa nyika, zvaive "zvichinyanya kupfuura" kuti Japan ingadai yakazvipira kusati kwapinda. Bernstein anoshatisa "mukana wakarasika" wakakomba wekudzivirira kupinda kweJapan kunodhura pasina kudonhedza bhomba reatomu nekumirira kupinda kweSoviet muhondo. [34]
Gar Alperovitz anocherekedza kuti "nyaya yekururama kweStrategic Bombing Survey ndeyechipiri" kumhedzisiro yekupinda muhondo kweSoviet.[35] Alperovitz, ane bhuku ra1995, 'Sarudzo Yekushandisa Bhomba', akavandudza zvakanyanya nharo dzekudzokorora dzebhuku rake rekare makore makumi matatu apfuura, saBernstein, akatambira tsvakiridzo yaHasegawa.
Asperovitz, yakafanana nevamwe vanyori vezvakaitika kare, inofadzwa nekugona kwaHasegawa kudhirowa zvine hunyanzvi uye zvine simba kubva kuzvinyorwa zvekutanga zvechiRungu, chiJapan neRussia. Semuyenzaniso, chimwe chezvidzidzo zvakakosha zvakabatwa naHasegawa inhau dzehungwaru dzeJapan dzakatambirwa nekudzikiswa nemaAmerican. Sezvataurwa pamusoro apa, aya anonzi maMagic intercepts akaburitsa kuti vatungamiri vekuJapan, kusanganisira Gurukota rezvekunze reTogo, vaifunga nezvePotsdam Proclamation sehwaro hwekukanda mapfumo pasi. Truman, Byrnes, naStimson vangangove "vachinyatsoteerera kune Mashiripiti ekubata kuti vaone kuita kweJapan kuChiziviso."
Seizvo Hasegawa anocherekedza nezvevatungamiriri veUS:
"Kana vaida kuzvipira kweJapan nemutengo wakaderera muhupenyu hweAmerica, kana vachida kudzivirira Soviet kupinda muhondo, uye kana vachida kudzivisa kushandiswa kwebhomba reatomu, sezvavakataura muzvinyorwa zvavo zvepashure pehondo, nei vasina hanya. ruzivo rwakawanikwa neMashiripiti? [.] munhu haagone kunzvenga mhedziso yekuti United States yakamhanya kudonhedza bhomba pasina kuedza kuongorora kugadzirira kwevamwe vanoita mitemo yeJapan kutsvaga rugare kuburikidza nekupedzisira."[36] Truman, anopokana. Hasegawa, "akanga akatsunga kutsiva kunyadziswa kwePearl Harbor nekumanikidza muvengi kukanda mapfumo pasi pasina zvisungo."[37]
Peter Kuznick anoti: "kusimbisa basa rekupedzisira remabhomba eatomu mukukunda kwekupedzisira [.] yakashandira propaganda yeAmerica nekuderedza kukosha kwekupinda kweSoviet muHondo yePacific, zvichibvisa mupiro weSoviet mukukunda Japan, uye kuratidza chombo chikuru icho. United States chete ndiyo yainayo." [38]
Zvichibva pakunyatsoongorora matura eJapan, Hasegawa anosimbisa kuti kunyange zvazvo bhomba reHiroshima โrakawedzera pfungwa yokukurumidzira kutsvaka kuguma kwehondo, [hazvina] kuita kuti hurumende yeJapan iite chero chiito chapakarepo chakaramba mutemo wekare wokutsvaka. kupindirana kweMoscow." Uyezve, Hasegawa haana kuwana humbowo hunoratidza kuti bhomba reHiroshima rakatungamira Gurukota reKune dzimwe nyika Togo kana Emperor Hirohito kugamuchira mazwi ePotsdam. Panyaya iyi, mhedzisiro yebhomba rechipiri paNagasaki "yaive isingakoshi." Kunyange zano risingadaviriki rakaitwa neGurukota reMauto reJapan Anami Korechika rokuti "United States yakanga ine mabhomba eatomu anodarika zana uye yakaronga kubhomba Tokyo yakatevera haina kuchinja pfungwa dzebato rerunyararo kana bato rehondo zvachose."[100]
Chiitiko chakakosha chakachinja maonero evakuru vekutonga kweJapan yaive kupinda kweSoviet muhondo. Izvi "zvakaita kuti hurumende yeJapan iite chiito nekukasika. Kekutanga, zvakamanikidza hurumende kuti inangane nenyaya yekuti yaifanira kubvuma here mitemo yePotsdam." [40]
Hasegawa haarambi zvachose kuita kwebhomba reatomu pavagadziri vemitemo veJapan. Koichi Kido, chipangamazano aivimbwa namambo Hirohito, akataura mushure mehondo kuti bhomba reatomu rakabatsira kumisa chiyero ichifarira avo vanonzi "bato rerunyararo" mukati mevakuru veJapan. Nekudaro, pahwaro hwehumbowo hwakakura hwekuchengetera hwaakaunganidza uye nekuwongorora zvakanyanya, Hasegawa anogumisa kuti:
"Zvingave zvakanyatsojeka kutaura kuti kupinda kweSoviet muhondo, kuwedzera kune iyo yakanyungudutswa chiyero, ndokubvisa zvachose chikero chacho."[41]
Kudonhedzwa kwemabhomba eatomu, kupinda kweSoviet muHondo yePacific, uye kupera kweHondo Yenyika II, pasina mubvunzo kuchaunza tsvakiridzo yenhoroondo isingaperi uye gakava. Asi humbowo huripo - kunyanya, kuunganidzwa kwezvinyorwa zvakanyatsoongororwa muChirungu, chiRussian nechiJapani - hunoratidza zvakasimba kuti ongororo yevanoongorora nhoroondo ndiyo inotsigirwa zvakanyanya nechokwadi.
Pakupedzisira, chinonyanya kukosha igakava retsika rokuti hapagoni kuva nechikonzero chokushandisa, kana kuti kutyisidzira kushandiswa kwezvombo zvenyukireya. Kunyangwe nyaya yacho yave pedyo-kunyangarika kubva munhau dzenhau uye gakava remazuva ano, kutyisidzira kwekuparadza kwenyukireya kunoramba kuripo. Vanhu vachiri vakamira kumucheto kwegomba rakadzika-dzika.
KUTENDA
Ndinoda kuonga Gar Alperovitz, Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Peter Koznick naUday Mohan nokuda kwemashoko avo anobatsira.
References uye Notes
[1] Memo kuMutungamiri Truman kubva kuMunyori weHondo Henry Stimson uye Brigadier General Leslie Groves, Kubvumbi 25, 1945; yakanyorwa muna Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, 'Kumhanya Muvengi: Stalin, Truman, uye Kuzvipira kweJapan', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 66.
[2] Pane kusahadzika kwakanyanya pamusoro pekuti 'chisarudzo' chimwe chete chepamutemo cheUS chekushandisa bhomba reatomu chakatorwa, pane kusimuka kweManhattan Project nehondo pachayo ichitungamira zvisingaite kunjodzi dzeHiroshima neNagasaki.
Brigadier General Groves, mukuru weManhattan Project, akatsanangura Truman se "mukomana mudiki pane toboggan," kumhanya-mhanya kwakatakura mutungamiri wenyika kusvika bhomba radonhedzwa. (Yakataurwa muna Peter J. Kuznick, 'Sarudzo yekuisa njodzi mune ramangwana: Harry Truman, Atomic Bomb uye Apocalyptic Narrative', Japan Focus, July 23, 2007; http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2479).
Munyori wenhau dzakaitika Barton J. Bernstein anonyora kuti: โChikonzero chinoita kuti vanyori vezvakaitika kare vasawane zvinyorwa zveโchisarudzoโ chebhomba repamusoro-soro reA-hachisi chokuti paive nekutya kwevagadziri vemitemo veUnited States nevapi vamazano vekuchengetedza marekodhi kana kutaura nezvebhomba (zvishomanana chaizvo. madhayari epanguva iyoyo anozvitaura, kazhinji mubumbiro riri nyore-kutsanangura), asi, panzvimbo pezvo, nokuti pakanga pasina chikonzero chemusangano chaiwo โwechisarudzo.โ Musangano wakadaro waizodiwa kudai pakanga pane mubvunzo wakakomba pamusoro pawo. kushandisa bhomba muJapan kana kusashandisa. (Bernstein, H-Diplo Roundtable Ongororo, Bhuku VII, Nhamba 2 (2006), Tsuyoshi Hasegawa. 'Kumhanya Muvengi: Stalin, Truman, uye Kuzvipira kweJapan,' Ongororo (Barton J. Bernstein, Stanford University), p. 15; http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/PDF/Bernstein-HasegawaRoundtable.pdf).
[3] Kuti unyatsoongorora zvinyorwa zvine chekuita nenhoroondo, ona Barton J. Bernstein, Chitsauko 1: 'Kusuma Matambudziko Anodudzira eJapan's 1945 Surrender', mu 'Kupera kweHondo yePacific: Reappraisals', rakapepetwa naTsuyoshi Hasegawa, Stanford University Press, 2007.
[4] Kuti uwane pfupiso yebhuku uye rumwe ruzivo, ona: http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/HASRAC.html. Hurukuro yakadzama kusvika pari zvino pamusoro penyaya dzakasimudzwa nebhuku raHasegawa, rine kudyidzana nevatsoropodzi vakati wandei, inowanikwa muchikamu cheH-Diplo Book Roundtable Reviews pa. http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/#hasegawa.
[5] Bernstein, H-Diplo Roundtable Ongororo, op. cit., map. 1-2.
[6] Hasegawa, 'Kumhanya Muvengi', p. 140.
[7] Ibid., Pp. 298-299.
[8] Havasi vese vanyori venhoroondo dzeA-bhomba, kana vanyori vezvenhoroondo, vanonyorera kune 'mujaho' chimiro chekududzira humbowo. Bernstein, kunyanya, anopokana kubva pakuona uku, zvirinani sekuratidzwa muH-Diplo Roundtable Ongororo. Ona chinyorwa 2 pamusoro kuti uwane zvizere.
[9] China haina kukokwa kuPotsdam, wanga uri musangano pakati peVatatu Vatatu veUnited States, Soviet Union neUK. Nekudaro, mvumo yaChiang Kai-shek, mutungamiri weChina weNationalist, yakatsvakwa yePotsdam Proclamation uye zita rake, kusiyana neraStalin, rinowanikwa paChiziviso. Truman akaramba zvachose chikumbiro chaStalin chekuwedzera zita remutungamiri weSoviet kuChiziviso mushure mekunge chapihwa. Ona Chitsauko 4 che'Kumhanya Muvengi' kuti uwane rumwe ruzivo.
[10] Hasegawa, 'Kumhanya Muvengi', p. 152.
[11] Ini ndinocherekedza "zvinofungidzirwa" nekuti pane gakava, rakapihwa pakureba mu 'Kumhanya Muvengi', kuti Japan haina, kutaura zvazviri, kuramba Chiziviso. Ona kunyanya p. 211 ye'Racing the Enemy', apo Hasegawa anonyora kuti: "Iye [Kiichiro Hiranuma, sachigaro wePrivy Council], akabvunza [Gurukota Rokune dzimwe nyika] Togo kana zvaiva zvechokwadi sezvakataurwa neSoviet kuzivisa, kuti hurumende yeJapan yakanga yaramba zviri pamutemo Potsdam. Chiziviso. Togo yakataura kuti yakanga isiri yechokwadi. Baron Hiranuma akabvunza kuti: โNdechipi, zvino, chiri hwaro hwokutaura kwavo kwokuti takaramba Chiziviso chePotsdam?โ Togo yakangopindura kuti: โVanofanira kunge vakafungidzira kuti takazviita.โ โ, p. . 211.
[12] Peter J. Kuznick, 'Sarudzo yekuisa njodzi mune ramangwana: Harry Truman, Atomic Bomb uye Apocalyptic Narrative', Japan Focus, July 23, 2007; http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2479.
[13] Ibid., yakataurwa.
[14] Ibid., yakataurwa.
[15] Ibid., yakataurwa.
[16] Ibid., yakataurwa.
[17] Ibid., yakataurwa.
[18] Hasegawa, โMujaho weMuvengiโ, peji 299-300.
[19] Oliver Kamm, 'Inotyisa, asi isiri mhosva', Guardian, Nyamavhuvhu 6, 2007; http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,2142224,00.html
[20] Kuti uwane imwe nhaurirano yakangwarira uye ine chiremera, ona Barton J. Bernstein, Chitsauko 1: โKusuma Matambudziko Anodudzira eJapanโs 1945 Surrenderโ, p. 15, uyo anopokana kuti mukana unoenda neimwe nzira.
[21] 'Media Lens zvakare', Gumiguru 17, 2007; http://oliverkamm.typepad.com/blog/2006/10/media_lens_once.html; 'Media Lens vs. Kunzwisisa kwenhoroondo', Zvita 13, 2006; http://oliverkamm.typepad.com/blog/2006/12/media_lens_vs_h.html.
[22] Email kubva kuTsuyoshi Hasegawa, Zvita 5, 2007.
[23] Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, 'Kupera kweHondo yePacific: Reappraisals', Stanford University Press, 2007, p. 129. Chitsauko 4 chebhuku rino mupiro weHasegawa inova chirevo chakazara chekupesana-revisionist nharo dzakaitwa naSadao Asada naRichard Frank, munyori we "Downfall" (1999).
[24] Op. cit., p. 131.
[25] Email kubva kuTsuyoshi Hasegawa, Zvita 5, 2007.
[26] Kuznick, op. cit.
[27] Passport, Newsletter of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, Zvita 2003; http://www.shafr.org/newsletter/2003/december/kort.htm.
[28] Barton Bernstein, 'Marshall, Leahy, and Casualty Issues - Mhinduro kune Kort's Flawed Critique,' Passport, SHAFR newsletter, Nyamavhuvhu 2004, http://www.shafr.org/newsletter/2004/august/bernstein.htm.
[29] Email kubva kuTsuyoshi Hasegawa, Zvita 5, 2007.
[30] Barton Bernstein, 'Kuongororazve "Atomic General": Leslie R. Groves', Journal of Military History 67 (July 2003): 883-920; mashoko omuzasi 46 ari papeji 910.
[31] Hasegawa, 'Kumhanya Muvengi', p. 299.
[32] Barton Bernstein, 'Kumanikidzira Kuzvipira kweJapan pasina A-Bhomba, Kupinda kweSoviet, kana Kupinda: Kuongororazve US Bombing Survey's Early-Surrender Conclusion,' Journal of Strategic Studies, vol. 18, kwete. 2 (June 1995), mapeji 101-148.
[33] Vatungamiriri vepamusoro vemauto nevehurumende vekuJapan, vanonzi 'Big Six', vakabhejera zvakanyanya, uye zvakashata, pakuramba vasina kwavakarerekera neSoviet Union. Chikonzero chavo cheiyi mutemo chakanga chiri chokuti Japan yakanga โichiita hondo youpenyu kana kuti yorufu mukurwisana neUnited States neBritain.โ Kana maSoviet akapinda muhondo, "yaizokonzera rufu kuHumambo." (โKumhanya Muvengiโ, Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, mapeji 71-72).
[34] Bernstein, akataurwa muHasegawa, 'Kumhanya Muvengi', p. 295.
[35] Email kubva Gar Alperovitz, Zvita 5, 2007.
[36] Hasegawa, โMujaho weMuvengiโ, peji 172-173.
[37] Ibid., Peji. 99.
[38] Kuznick, op. cit.
[39] Hasegawa, mu 'Kupera kweHondo yePacific: Reappraisals', p. 144.
[40] Ibid., Peji. 144.
[41] Ibid. p. 144.
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