In Federal Anti-Indian Mutemo: The Legal Entrapment of Indigenous Peoples, Peter d'Errico anofumura kusakosha uye ruvengo uko United States inoshandisa mutemo kushandisa - kana kuramba - kururamisira kuvanhu vepakutanga venyika ino.
"Patinopinda munzvimbo inonzi'tiri kupinda munyika ine hunyanzvi yakagadzirwa neUnited States kudzora maNative uye kutora minda yavo," anonyora d'Errico, gweta uye purofesa ari kubuda paYunivhesiti yeMassachusetts-Amherst.
Pasinei nekuvhiringidzika uye kupokana, mutemo wemubatanidzwa weIndia - mumashoko aErrico,"mutemo unopesana neIndia" - wakagara uine chinangwa chisingachinji. Kupfurikidza nokuparadza Marudzi nenzanga, kwakabetsera vapfumi navane simba kuunganidza nyika huru nezviwanikwa. Uku kutorwa kwevhu kunoitwa muchidimbu nekuti izvo zvinowanzodaidzwa kuti federal Indian mutemo haisi yakarongeka seti yemitemo. Pane kudaro, maererano ne d'Errico, ndizvo zviri pakati-20th-zana remakore reUS Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter akadana"hodge-podge hombeโ uye inovhara nzvimbo dzese dzehupenyu hwechivanhu nechiitwa nehurongwa hwakakura hwematare eUS, mitemo, mirairo yevakuru uye mirau yeagency yakawedzera mumakore apfuura nenzira isina kurongeka uye yakagadziridzwa.
Kent McNeil, purofesa akabuda paOsgoode Hall Law School paYork University muToronto, anodana d'Errico's. Federal Anti-Indian Mutemo โ"kurwiswa kwakananga pamunda wese wemutemo weAmerica une chekuita nevanhu veMarudzi. " Anozvirumbidza semunhu"inofanira-kuverengaโ kune vanoda kunzwisisa kuti chii chinoparira kutaura kupi nokupi kwokuti kubvisirwa pfuma kweMarudzi kwave kwakanaka zviri pamutemo. Saizvozvo, Robert Maxim, mukuru wekutsvagisa shamwari kuBrookings Institution uye mugari wedzinza reMashpee Wampanoag, anorumbidza bhuku iri se"yakakosha uye inovhenekera vanhu vese, veMarudzi nevasiri veMarudzi zvakafanana."
Munguva yese yenyonganyonga, kushandiswa kwemutemo weUS kuvanhu veMarudzi kwakave nechinangwa chisingachinji: kuba.
Nekurerutsa vanhu veMarudzi uye kodzero dzavo pasi pezvibvumirano zvavo - uye, kubvira 1924, sevagari vakazara veUnited States - mutemo wemubatanidzwa unorwisa maIndia wakashandira vapfumi uye vane simba. Izvi zvinosanganisira vatungamiri veAmerica vekutanga. George Washington, Thomas Jefferson nevamwe vakawanda vakabudirira. Uye vaiziva kuti vaifanira kushanda nekukasira: Sekureva kwaWashington, chero munhu aifanirwa kushanda"uyo anoregeredza mukana uripo wekuvhima nyika dzakanaka ... haazombozviwana zvakare."
IUnited States, inonyora d'Errico, ndiyo"bhizimisi rehofisi yevhu,โ zvose nezvokuwana mhindu neminda. Kana, sekuyambira kwaWashington: Unozeza, unorasikirwa.
Tsanangudzo yemutungamiri wedu wekutanga ichiri yechokwadi nanhasi. Pandakanyora"Iyo Hurumende yeUS Iri Kubatsira Makambani Kupamba Nyika Yekwaanogara"nokuti Mune Zuva in 2016, nyaya yacho yaitaura nezveimwe mhuri yevaNavajo yakanga ichitamburira kuvhara pombi yeoiri yakanga yava nemakumi emakore ichipfuura nenyika yayo. Zvichakadaro, makambani asiri maNative nevanhu muIndia yese vaiwana purofiti kubva kuNative land kusvika kumabhiriyoni emadhora sezvo vaifudza mhuka, kudyara zvirimwa, kutema matanda, kuchera zvicherwa, kuchera mafuta negasi nezvimwe.
Kunyora kwaD'Errico kunoziviswa nezvakaitika kwaari kutanga munguva yekupedzisira 1960segweta revatengi veNavajo vebasa remutemo risingabatsiri, Dinรฉ be'iinรก Nรกhiiลna be Agha' diit'ahii, iyo yakanga iri paNyika yeNavajo panguva iyoyo. Anoenderera mberi nanhasi kumhan'ara nyaya dzechivanhu, kusanganisira akamiririra rusununguko rwevasungwa vechitendero, Mashpee Wampanoag kodzero dzekubata hove uye kodzero dzeWestern Shoshone. Akapedza kudzidza kuYale Law School, akatanga dhipatimendi rezvidzidzo zvemutemo kuMass-Amherst uye akadzidzisa ipapo. 30 makore.
Dare Repamusorosoro rakagara richipa humbowo hwepamutemo kune avo vanoda kutora minda nezviwanikwa kubva kuvanhu veIndigenous. Mukutanga 1800s, dare rakazivisa mumifungo mitatuโJohnson v. McIntosh, Cherokee Nation v. State of Georgia uye Worcester v. State of Georgiaโkuti vanhu veNyika vakanga vasina, chaizvoizvo, varidzi venyika yavo asi vaingovawo zvavo"vagari vemoโ kudai maKristu aiveโฆ"akazviwana; kuti nyika dzeMarudzi dzaive"wadhiโ dzeUnited States; uye kuti United States yakanga ine"utongi hwokupedzisiraโ panyika yose yeMarudzi nevanhu.
Mafungiro 'munyori wekutanga aive Chief Justice John Marshall. MuKristu akazvipira, akafuratira zvaidiwa neBumbiro reMitemo rekuparadzanisa chechi nenyika. Akataura nezvechiKristu sechikonzero chekutonga uye-mushure mekutendeuka kwechitendero"hedeniโ Marudzi โ muripo wekurasikirwa kwavo.
Marshall akaziva kuti akanga ari pasi pevhu. D'Errico anomutora achibvuma kuti zvirevo zveimwe pfungwa zvaive"pretensionsโ yaivepo"hakuna kumwe.โ Uyu wakanga usiri mutemo wakajairika, asi kumiswa kwemutemo, anodaro d'Errico. Marshall akanga aita kunze kwemutemo wezvivakwa, achizivisa kuti maNative, sevanhu vakaderera, vaive"diminutive rightsโ: Vanogona kugara munyika asi vaisava varidzi vayo.
Maonero acho aive nemuenzaniso wenhoroondo. Mabhuku apapa womuzana remakore rechiXNUMX akarayira madzimambo echiKristu kuti aite"kupinda nechisimba, kukunda, kurwa, kukundaโ nyika dzevasiri vaKristu uye kuderedza vagari vemo."uranda husingagumi.โ Nzombe dzakatsanangura kukoloni sekutengeserana: ruponeso kune avo maKristu akapa mari kana hunyanzvi hwekurwisa uye kudzingwa muchechi kune avo vakawanikwa vachitora chero chinhu."kunze kwemari nemihoro.โ Mabhuru akatsanangurawo marongerwo emepu anoratidza kuti ndedzipi nyika dzine zvakawanikwa, kana"kusvika zvino hazvisati zvaonekwa,โ nyika.
Muna March 2023, Vatican yakaedza kuita kuti vanhu vasazvidavirire nokuda kwokuparadza uye kunoramba kuchiitika kwoutongi hwevagari vemo. Madhipatimendi maviri eVatican - eTsika neDzidzo uye ekusimudzira Integral Human Development - akazivisa mukutaura kwakabatana kuti mabhuru epapa"dzakashandiswa nokuda kwezvinangwa zvezvematongerwe enyika nemakwikwi ehurumende dzaidzora kuitira kuti dzipembedze zviito zvounzenza zvaiitirwa Marudzi.โ
Hapana nzira, anodaro d'Errico:"Mabhuru akanga ari kufora akarayira kuti akunde uye atendeuke.โ Zvakadaro, akatambira kutariswa kwaJoint Statement kwakaunzwa kune veIndigenous nyaya - kunyangwe paine matambudziko.
Hofisi yevatapi venhau yeVatican yakapindura Mumazuva ano kukumbira zvirevo uye tsananguro nekunongedza kune a Vatican News indavhiyu umo Kadhinari Michael Czerny akaratidzira kusuwa pamusoro pemigumisiro inopfuurira yekoloni, achitaura kuti"Baba Vatsvene vakarambwa muna yakasimba mazwi ani kumanikidzirwa netsika imwe pane imwe.โ Czerny akarasawo mutauro wechechi wekare wemhirizhonga pamusoro peVanhu veIndigenous uchienzanisa nezvaitaurwa nechechi panguva iyoyo nezvevakadzi, maJuda nevamwe.
Marudzi akashora zvine simba dzidziso yaMarshall. Mune a 2019 kukwidza kumatare edzimhosva, Nyika yeYakama, muWashington State, yakadana rusaruraganda, rusaruraganda uye rusaruraganda"chiremera chakagadzirwa. " Mune a 1996 pfupi yakanyorwa naD'Errico, Western Shoshones yakati yaive"hapana kwainotemerwa muBumbiro reUnited Statesโ uye"zvinopesana zvachose nenheyo dzinokosha dzekodzero dzevanhu.โ
Kunyangwe Marshall akabvuma kuti maonero ake aive echokwadi"zvinopesana nekodzero yechisikigo,โ akavadaidzawo kuti"inokosha,โ d'Errico anonyora. Hurumende yemubatanidzwa yaitsamira pakusateerera mutemo kwaibvumirwa nemafungiro kuitira kupisa chiremera chayo pamusoro penyika dzeMarudzi nevanhu.
Vagari vedzinza vakafa nezviuru mushure mekunge Congress yapasisa Indian Removal Act ye 1830, achirayira mamwe marudzi edzinza kuti afambe kubva kunyika dzokumusha kwavo kuenda kuIndia Territory mune yava kunzi Oklahoma. Congress's 1887 General Allotment Act yakaparadza kuchengetwa kwakawanda uye yakaendesa zvikamu zvacho kune vagari, ichiparadza tsika dzekare dzenharaunda uye dzemwaka-mashandisirwo evhu. Pakati-1800s kusvika manheru 1900yakaratidza rumwe rudzi rwokuparadza: Vechiduku vomunzvimbomo vaidikanirwa kupinda zvikoro zvebhodhingi zvine chisimba chaizivikanwa nevashandi vaiedza kukurira mitauro yavo netsika kubva mazviri.
Makumi emakore mushure meMarshall maonero, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock uye mimwe mitongo yedare repamusoro yakatoenda mberi, ichizivisa Congress's plenary - kana mhedziso - simba pamusoro peMarudzi. Nekuda kweizvozvo, maNative madzinza aive asiri pasi pehurumende yemubatanidzwa asi zvakare aivimba nevezvematongerwo enyika vavariro dzisingatarisirwi uye kuita chibvumirano. Izvi zvaisava nekuti zvibvumirano zvavo kana Bumbiro reMitemo rakataura kudaro, asi kuti Dare Repamusorosoro rakadaro.
Marshall akanga ari muongorori wepasi uyewo mutongi, maererano neD'Errico. Kutenda kune ndima ine chekuita neKentucky mune imwe yemafungiro aMarshall, iye nemhuri yake vakagadzira muridzi we 600,000 maeka ikoko. Gweta reNavajo Roberta Carol Harvey anotarisa kushandiswa kusina tsitsi kwekutonga kune zviwanikwa zvematanda mune rimwe bhuku rakabudiswa mu. 2022, Iyo Iron Triangle: Bhizinesi, Hurumende, uye Colonial Settlers 'Kudzingwa kweIndia Timberlands neTimber.. Richiongororwa zvine hungwaru, bhuku raHarvey rinodonongodza huwandu hwemhosva - manyepo, manyepo, chiokomuhomwe, kubatana, kuponda, hondo dzepachivande dzekuparadza uye zvimwe zvakawanda - zvakaitwa nevatungamiriri vebhizinesi nevezvematongerwo enyika pavakaunganidza mari zhinji nekutema miti yakakura.
"Huori hwaive chikamu chekunyepedzera kwakanyanyisa kwezviwanikwa zvechiKristu,โ d'Errico anonyora kudaro. Imwe nzira yekufunga nezvazvo: Vatsinhanisi vemari vanogamuchirwa mutemberi iyi!
Liberals vanga vachishuvira sevanochengetedza kushandisa maonero aMarshall ekutonga uye kubviswa kwevanhu veNative. Mushakabvu weDare Repamusorosoro reUS Mutongi Ruth Bader Ginsberg akataura nezve Marshall canon mukunyora a 2005 maonero panyaya yeOneida Nation. Kufanana nevatongi vakawanda vemazuva ano, akasiya zvakataurwa naMarshall kuti chiKristu ndicho chikonzero chekudzingwa. The 15th Nheyo dzechitendero chezana ramakore revaridzi veUS venzvimbo dzayo zvino dzave"zvinonyadzisaโ uye vanowanzo"zvakavanzikaโ nevatongi nemagweta, d'Errico anonyora.
Dare Repamusorosoro richiri pairi, maererano ne d'Errico. Anorondedzera mutongo wedare munguva pfupi yapfuura muna McGirt v. Oklahoma, gakava pamusoro pekutonga mhosva dzakaitika paMuscogee Nation, iri mukati memiganhu yeOklahoma. Nyika yaiti ine masimba nekuti, sekuona kwayo, United States yakanga yaita makore apfuura kumisa nyika yeNative, ichityora hupfumi hwayo hwekutanga nekuda kwemuridzi wemunhu, kubvisa zvikamu zvehurumende yavo nezvimwe. Nyika yeMuscogee yakapikisa kuti yakanga yatambura"kutukaโ asi zvichiripo.
Mhosva iyi yakapinda mudare reSupreme Court, iro rakaona kuti 2020, kuti Rudzi rweMuscogee rwakanga ruriko asi nekuda kwekuti Congress yakanga isina kuibvisa pachena. Saka, rudzi rwedzinza rwaive nesimba pamusoro pemhosva dziri kutaurwa. Sezvineiwo, anoshuma d'Errico,"vanhu vakawanda vakashamiswa.โ Ivo sezviri pachena vaisanzwisisa izvozvo McGirt kwaisava kukunda kwehutongi hweNative asi yambiro: Nyika yeMuscogee yaivepo nekuti Congress yakanga isati yashandisa simba rayo rose kuiputsa.
"Congress inogona kuita tsvina chero painoda, "d'Errico anonyora.
Nguva nenguva, chirongwa chinomuka chinoita sechinotsigira vanhu veNative asi chinogona kunge chiri"kudzima kunoitwa serubatsiro,โ maererano ned'Errico. Somuenzaniso, kubva 1946 to 2006, Indian Claims Commission inorega vanhu vekuAmerica vachimhan'ara kuUnited States kuti varipe nyika yavakatora zvichipesana nezvibvumirano zvavo nezvimwe zvibvumirano. Iyi nzira yaive nechinangwa chekugadzirisa mazana ezvikwereti zvekubiwa kwevhu kubva makore mazhinji apfuura. Komisheni yezvikwereti yakapa mari inosvika madhora1.3 bhiriyoni mumakumi matanhatu emakore aakashanda. Pamari diki iyoyo, tichipihwa hukuru hwema acreage hwakabatanidzwa, komisheni yakasimbisa kutonga kweUS kwenzvimbo dziri kutaurwa.
Komisheni yaive muenzaniso wakanaka weiyo"musungo wepamutemoโ unowanikwa mune kadikidiki kebhuku raD'Errico. United States yakanga yagadzira hurongwa hwekuti nyika dzemadzinza dzakarasikirwa nepfuma isingadzokerike - ivhu, zviwanikwa, nzvimbo dzinoyera uye kuzivikanwa kwetsika - nekungotora chikamu.
Pari zvino nyika dzemadzinza dzakamirira mutongo weDare Repamusorosoro panyaya yekupikisa mutemo weIndian Child Welfare Act (ICWA). Yakapfuura neCongress mukati 1978, ICWA yaive nechinangwa chekuchengeta vana veIndigenous munharaunda dzavo. Panguva iyoyo, chikamu chimwe muzvitatu chevana vokuAmerica chakanga chatorerwa mhuri dzavo ndokuiswa kumhuri dzevachena kana kuti mumisha yemapoka evachena nechinangwa chokuti varasikirwe nedzinza ravo nesonganiro.
Nhasi, nyika zhinji dzichiri kubvisa huwandu husina kuenzana hwevana veNative, maererano neNational Indian Child Welfare Association. Mushure 16 vatongi veFifth Circuit Court of Appeals vakanzwa nyaya yeICWA ndokuibudisa 325 mapeji emafungiro anopokana uye anopindirana, nyaya yakaenda kuDare Repamusorosoro, d'Errico anonyora. Kutsigira ICWA pamberi pedare repamusoro vapotsa 500 nyika dzemadzinza pamwe chete nemasangano mazhinji eNative, nyika, masangano ekuchengetedza vana uye mamwe.
Vanopikisa ICWA vanoti mutemo uyu unoenderana nerusaruraganda rwuri kunze kwebumbiro remutemo. Sangano reNative American Rights Fund (NARF), kambani yezvemitemo yechivanhu, inopokana. ICWA vanopikisa havatarisi madzinza emarudzi semasangano ezvematongerwo enyika, kwete emarudzi, NARF inobata; vanopikisa vanofuratirawo kukuvadzwa kunoitwa vana vanokura vasina mutauro wavo, tsika, mhuri nenharaunda. Vakapokana muna Mbudzi 2022, nyaya yacho ingangotongwa zhizha rino.
Muchitsauko chekupedzisira cheD'Errico, anotarisa a 2021 nyaya yakakwidzwa neRed Lake Chippewa neWhite Earth Ojibwe. Sutu iyi ine chinangwa chekuchengetedza kodzero dzeManoomin (kana mupunga wemusango, chikafu chavo chemweya uye chekudya)"kuvapo, kubudirira, kuvandudza uye shanduka. " Anotsanangura kuedza uku kusimbisa kodzero dzechisikigo sechikamu cheIndigenous"kudana kukuziva." Nekushanduka kwemamiriro ekunze kuri kuitika uye yakawanda yeUS ivhu, mvura uye zviwanikwa zvakakuvadzwa neoiri, gasi uye mamwe maindasitiri ekuwedzera, kuteerera zvirevo zvemazuva ano zvevakoloni, kutonga-kupesvedzerwa kufunga hakusisiri sarudzo, d'Errico anonyora.
Mhosva yekumisikidza kodzero dzaManoomin, kurwira kwaStanding Rock Sioux Tribe kuchengetedza mvura yeRwizi rweMissouri uye zvimwe zvakawanda zvakaenzaniswa neNative endeavors zvinopa mukana wakakosha, sekureva d'Errico. Mafungiro ari shure kwavo anogona kutibatsira tose kugadzira mutemo mutsva usingatemerwe asi unobva kukodzero nezvisungo zvemugari ari kubatanidzwa, ane mutoro.
Izvi, d'Errico anonyora, zvichatibvumira"gadzirisazve ukama hwedu nomumwe nomumwe uye nepasi ratinogoverana neChisiko chose.โ
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โUrayai muIndia, ponesai murumeโโฆchaizvoโฆhandisati ndambonzwisisa kubva ndichiri mudiki kuti chii chaizvo chinowanisa varunguโฆtose tiri vanhuโฆhatingangogari zvakadaro here?