Ngano yakagara ichisimudzirwa kuti Britain yakaramba kutumira mauto kuhondo yeVietnam uye haina kuita basa diki mairi. Mafaira ehurumende yeBritish akafumurwa pahondo saka haana kupfupika pane zvakazarurwa, zvichiratidza kuti Britain yakapa rubatsiro rwakakosha rwepachivande kuUS panguva yese yekukwira kwemauto, uye ichiburitsawo chayo chakavanda uye basa rechiuto. Chokwadi ndechekuti Britain yaive yakabatana mukurwisa Vietnam uye inogovera rimwe basa rekutambura kukuru kwevanhu kwakaguma.
Tsigiro yekupindira kweUS
Kufarira kukuru kweBritish kutsigira US kwaisangova kutsigira shamwari yayo huru, asiwo kutya kuti 'kudonha' kweSouth Vietnam 'kwaizokanganisa zvido zveBritish nekudyara muSouth East Asia uye kukuvadza zvakanyanya tarisiro ye Nyika Yemahara ine kutyisidzira kweCommunist'.
Mushure mekunge US yapindira muna Mbudzi 1961 - apo manejimendi aKennedy akatumira zvikopokopo, ndege dzakareruka, midziyo yehungwaru uye vamwe vapangamazano veuto reSouth Vietnamese, mushure mezvo mauto emuchadenga eUS akatanga kurwisa mishoni - Munyori Wekunze Alec Douglas Home akanyora kuti 'hutungamiriri. vanogona kuvimba nerutsigiro rwedu mune matanho avari kutora'. Varongi veBritish vakanzwisisa zvakajeka kuti kupindira uku kwaive kukanganisa zvachose kwe1954 Geneva Accords iyo inoisa miganhu pahuwandu hwemauto eUS anogamuchirwa muVietnam. Britain yaive nebasa rekuchengetedza zvibvumirano izvi semumwe sachigaro weGeneva Agreements, neSoviet Union. Asi maBritish akarangana neUS nekuvimbisa kusasimudza nyaya iyi. "Sasachigaro-sachigaro, Hurumende yaMambo yakagadzirira kufuratira zviitiko zveAmerica," Bazi rezvekunze rakataura muchivande. Douglas Home akapa zano kuna Secretary of State Dean Rusk 'kuti vadzivise kushambadza nezvezvirikuitwa'.
Britain yakatsigira mauto kwete sarudzo yediplomatic. "Chokwadi isu tinofanirwa kuvavarira kutsausa uye kusaisa pfungwa dzepasirese pane zvatinoita muVietnam isu tichienderera mberi nebasa rekukunda Viet Cong," Douglas Home akanyora panguva iyoyo. (Kushandiswa kweshoko rokuti 'isu' pano kunonakidza, kunoratidza kuti makurukota eBritain aitora hondo sehondo yavo zvakare). Muna Chivabvu 1962 Mutungamiriri wehurumende Harold Macmillan akatumira tsamba kuMutungamiriri weSouth Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, achiti 'takaona nekuyemura nzira iyo hurumende yako nevanhu vakaramba nayo' kuedza kweNorth Vietnam 'kupidigura hutongi hwakasununguka muSouth Vietnam. ', achiwedzera 'tinokushuvira iwe kubudirira kwese mukurwira kwako'.
Kutsigira kweBritain kwehondo kunotsanangurwa nyore nyore - mukati mehafu yekutanga ye1960s, London yaifunga kuti US inogona kukunda. Mhedzisiro pane yakajairwa yeVietnamese yaive isina basa. Iko hakuna kungonetseka kunoratidzwa mune chero emazana emafaira ekuronga eBritish ehupenyu hwevanhu pakupera kwekugamuchira kweAnglo-America mutemo. Vakuru veBritish vainyatsoziva zvaiitika kune vanhuwo zvavo veVietnamese. Muna December 1962, somuenzaniso, Mumiriri weBritain muSaigon, Harry Hohler, akacherekedza mauto eSouth Vietnamโ โmubato wendege usingasaruriโ uye kuuraya vagari vomumusha vasina mhaka. Chaingove chekunetsekana chaive chekuti izvi zvingave ne'kukanganisa pfungwa' uye 'kunyanya kupikisa nhema dzechikomunisti'.
Ndira 1962 ndiyo yekutanga kutaurwa mumafaira eBritish yandakaona nezve 'kemikari inoshandiswa kubvisa mitsetse yemiti yemusango'. Muna Kurume gore raitevera, mukuru weHofisi Yekune dzimwe nyika Fred Warner akanyora kuti 'hapana mubvunzo kuti vanhu vekuAmerica vakashandisa makemikari ane chepfu' uye kuti 'tinotenda kuti makemikari aya chombo chiri pamutemo' chekuparadza kavha yevapanduki. Vati hurumende yeSoviet yakakumbira kuti paitwe ongororo neInternational Control Commission (ICC) yeGeneva Accords, asi VaWarner vakati iyi inyaya yeICC chete, kwete Britain. Zvakare, vakuru veBritish vakadzivirira US, nemhedzisiro inotyisa.
Kutsigira kweBritain kuDiem
Britain yakapa rutsigiro rwakananga kuhurumende yeDiem nemauto eUS mukutsigira hondo. The British Advisory Administrative Mission (BRIAM) yakanga yatanga basa muSaigon munaGunyana 1961 nechikwata chidiki chenyanzvi mu'kupikisa-kupandukira', hungwaru uye 'ruzivo', ichida kutsigira vanachipangamazano vekuUS. Mukuru waBRIAM, Robert Thompson, akakurumidza kuva mumwe wevarayiridzi veDiem vanotungamirira kunze kwenyika.
Zvikumbiro zvehurumende yeBritain zvekuti BRIAM yaingove nebasa revanhu kwete rechiuto, yakachengetwa mumhinduro nenharo dzeparamende dzakasiyana siyana, aive manyepo. Memo yaikurudzira kugadzwa kweBRIAM yakataura kuti kudzidziswa kwaizopihwa 'pamusoro penzvimbo yese yekupikisa-inurgency'. Vanosvika mazana matatu masoja eVietnamese vakadzidziswa 'kupikisa-inurgency' kumisasa yeBritish muMalaya muna 300/1962 chete. Pakazosvika 3 hurumende yeDiem yakatsanangurwa 'seinoonga zvikuru rudzi rwekudzidziswa uye rubatsiro' rwakapiwa neBritain.
Kubatsira kukuru kweBritain kuhondo, zvisinei, kwaive zvirongwa zveThompson zvekupikisa, zvichibva pamatanho (akanyanya hutsinye) muBritish counter-inurgency muMalaya muma1950s. Vakuru vemauto eUS, zvakashumwa, vakafadzwa zvikuru naThompson uye 'vainyanya kuzvidya mwoyo' kuti 'ruzivo rwakakosha rwatakawana muMalaya [rushandiswe zvakanakisisa muSouth Vietnam'. Mukupera kwa1961, Thompson akagadzira chirongwa chekunyora icho chakazozivikanwa seDelta Plan ine chinangwa, maererano neHofisi Yekune dzimwe nyika, 'yaive kutonga, kutonga uye kukunda pamusoro pehuwandu, kunyanya kumaruwa, kutanga mudunhu reDelta. Chikumbiro ichi chaisanganisira kudzika nguva dzekusvika pamba uye nzvimbo dzinorambidzwa kudzora mafambiro mumigwagwa yese nemunzira dzemvura 'kukanganisa hurongwa hwekutumira maKomonisiti', pamwe ne'kudzora chikafu chishoma' mune dzimwe nzvimbo. 'Kana hurongwa uhwu hukashanda zvinobudirira', Ambassador akadaro, 'izvi zvinopa mukana mukuru wekuuraya magandanga'. Thompson's Delta Plan yaivewo hwaro hwechirongwa cheUS 'strategic hamlets', chichazorongwa neUS State Department.
Basa rakavanda reBritain
Hurumende yeBritain haina kumbobvira yabvuma kuti mauto eBritish akarwa muVietnam, asi mafaera anosimbisa kuti vakazviita, kunyangwe akati wandei anoramba akaongororwa. Muna Nyamavhuvhu 1962, Mauto Attache muSaigon, Colonel Lee, akanyorera kuWar Office muLondon achiisa mushumo nemumwe munhu ane zita rakaongororwa asi anotsanangurwa sechipangamazano kuhurumende yeMalaya, ichiri koloni yeBritish. Uyu chipangamazano akakurudzira kuti timu yeSAS itumirwe kuVietnam. Lee akati izvo zvaisatambirika nekuda kwechinzvimbo cheBritain seCo-Chair weGeneva Agreement asi ndokuzonyora kuti:
"Zvisinei, kurudziro iyi inogona kuitika kana vashandi vakavharirwa uye vakapihwa chinzvimbo chenguva pfupi, kana vakanamatira kuAmerican Special Forces nenzira yekuti chiziviso chavo chemauto eBritish chirasikirwe muU. Zvakadaro maAmerican varikuchemera rubatsiro rwenyanzvi mundima iyi uye vane chishuwo chikuru chekuti [inji imwe yezvinyorwa yakaongororwa] inofanira kubatana navo. Chokwadi inyanzvi, izere nechido, kutyaira uye kutanga mukubata nevanhu vekare ava uye ndinovimba kuti achapihwa rutsigiro rwakakwana uye rubatsiro mubasa iri'.
'Ava vanhu vekare' inoreva maMontagnards munzvimbo dzakakwirira dzepakati pematunhu eVietnam. Lee anoenderera mberi achiti:
'Zviripachena kuti kune nzvimbo yakakura yerubatsiro rwemaitiro anoshanda pamitsara yezviri kutoitwa nemaAmerican. Saka zvinokurudzirwa zvakasimba kuti mupiro weBritish [sic] sezvingabvira unamatidzwe pakuedza kweAmerica mumunda, kunyanya tichitarisa kushomeka kwemamwe marudzi evashandi. Mhinduro chaiyo inogona kunge iri yekupa huwandu hwezvikwata kuti zvishande mune imwe nzvimbo yakanyatsobatanidzwa muhurongwa hwese hweAmerica neVietnamese. Rutivi rwehurumende runogona kuumbwa nevakanyatsosarudzwa vekuEurope neveMalaya vane ruzivo rwakakodzera, uye chikamu chemauto chinogona kutorwa kubva kuuto reSAS rakashanda kwemakore mazhinji pakati pevaAborigines muMalaya. Matanho akakodzera pasina mubvunzo aigona kutorwa kuti avape chinzvimbo chechinguvana. Kunyangwe isu tichifanira kuvimba nevanhu vekuAmerica kusvika pamwero mukuru werutsigiro rwezvinhu, zvingangove zvichikwanisika kupa mupiro wakanaka mundima iyi senge michina yakasarudzika. Mhinduro isinganyatso kugutsa inogona kunge iri yekubatanidza dzimwe nyanzvi muzvikwata zviripo kana zvinofungidzirwa zveAmerican Special Forces Teams, kunyangwe chakanyanya kukanganisa pano, kunyanya kudivi reAborigine chingave chekuti vazhinji vevashandi veMalaysia vane ruzivo havataure Chirungu uye vaizofanira kutaura. vanovimba nechikamu cheBritish sevaturikiri pakubata nevaAmerica.'
Chikwata ichi chakatumirwa, uye chaizivikanwa se'Noone mission' pasi paRichard Noone (mufananidzo uyo ane zita rakaongororwa mumafaira aya) uye akashanda ari pasi peBRIAM. Basa rekuvanda rakatanga muzhizha ra1962 uye rakanga richiri kushanda kusvika pakupera kwa1963.
Rumwe rubatsiro rwekuvanda rwakapihwa neBritain rwaisanganisira ndege dzepachivande dzeBritish kubva kuHong Kong kuendesa zvombo, kunyanya napalm nemabhomba mazana mashanu emapaunzi. Rutsigiro rwehungwaru rwaisanganisira kutumira mishumo kuvanhu vekuAmerica kubva kuMI6 station heads muHanoi ukuwo British monitoring station muHong Kong yakapa US hungwaru kusvika 1975, mukuvhiya kwakabatana neUS National Security Agency, iyo yakabata mauto eNorth Vietnamese. nemauto eUS anoraira mabhomba pamusoro peNorth Vietnam.
Kuwedzera kwemauto, kutsigira kweBritish
Hofisi yeKune dzimwe nyika yaMay 1965 inotaura kuti 'kupinda kweBritain zvakananga muVietnam hakuna kukosha' asi 'kuti zvido zvedu sesimba risiri rekomunisiti zvingakanganiswa kana hurumende yeUnited States yakakundwa mundima, kana kutadza kuita zvisungo zvayo'. Saka mukurumbira weUS waive munjodzi uye kukundwa 'kwaizokanganisa kumira kweAmerica pasirese'. Saizvozvo, 'kusiyiwa kweAmerica muSouth Vietnam kuchaita kuti shamwari nemuvengi pasi rese vazvibvunze kana US inogona, mune ramangwana kunyengerwa kusiya vamwe vanobatana kana zvinhu zvaoma'.
Iyo nguva 1963-6 yakaratidzwa pamusoro pezvose nekukwira kukuru kwechisimba cheUS. Mafaira eBritish anoratidza dhigirii rerutsigiro rwepachivande Mutungamiriri wehurumende Harold Wilson akapa Mutungamiri Johnson, padanho rega rega rekukwira, kazhinji aichengetwa ari ega achipihwa kupikisa kukuru kweBritain kuhondo - muenzaniso wakanaka, sezvazvino neIraq, wekuti kutyisidzira kwevanhu kuri sei. inobatwa nekunzwisisa kwakavanzika pakati pevakuru kumativi ese eAtlantic.
Muna Kukadzi 1965, US yakatora hondo muchikamu chitsva chinoparadza nekutanga kubhomba kweNorth Vietnam muchirongwa chayo che'Rolling Thunder'. Britain yakanga yatovimbisa kupa 'rusingaverengeki [sic] tsigiro kune chero chiito chingaitwe nehurumende yeUS icho chakayerwa uye chine chekuita neNorth Vietnamese neViet Cong chiitiko'. Mushure memazuva maviri kurwiswa kwatanga, Munyori wezvekune dzimwe nyika Michael Stewart akaudza embassy yeWashington 'nezvekudiwa kwemauto kuita chiito' uye akaudza Wilson kuti 'Ndainyanya kunetseka kuti ndisataure chero chinhu paruzhinji chingaite sechishoropodza hurumende yeUS'.
Muchidimbu Hofisi Yekune dzimwe nyika muna Kurume 1965 yakataura kuti 'kunyangwe nguva nenguva takataura maonero echenjedzo mukupindura zviziviso zvehurongwa hweUS hwekurwiswa neNorth, hatina kana nhanho yatisina kumbovapikisa. Zvatinotaura zvanga zviri pamusoro penguva kana ratidziro yeruzhinji yekurwiswaรขโฌยฆHMGรขโฌยฆ havana kana nhanho yakambopikisa mutemo uri kuteverwa neUS asi nekukurudzira shanduko diki dzenguva kana mharidzo nguva nenguva, vakabvuma mazviri. '.
Apo US yakatanga kushandisa ndege yayo muSouth Vietnam muna Kurume 1965, izvi zvakagamuchirwawo nemumiriri weBritish, uyo akati zvaive ne'beneficial mhedzisiro' kuhurumende yeVietnamese uye 'hunhu hwevatyairi veAmerica'. Musi wa8 Kurume US yakamhara zviuru zvitatu nemazana mashanu ezvikepe muSouth Vietnam izvo zvakanzi neHofisi Yekune dzimwe nyika pachivande 'zvaipesana neChisungo 3,500 ne16 chechibvumirano che17 [Geneva], asi hatisati tawana kuratidzira pamusoro penyaya iyi' - saka, zvakanaka kunyarara. Zvino, muna Chikumi 1954, US yakazivisa kuti mauto epasi eUS aizenge ave kuenda kunorwa nguva nenguva. Mumwe mukuru wehofisi yezvekune dzimwe nyika akacherechedza kuti 'Ndinonzwa chokwadi kuti tinofanira kuedza kubatsira hurumende yeUnited States, iyo yakange yapinda mune imwe dambudziko mukubata chiziviso chemutungamiri wenyika, zvichireva kuti kuzvipira kwemauto epasi inyaya yedhigirii'.
Kupihwa kweBritish zvombo kuUS kuti zvishandiswe muVietnam kwakaitwa mukuziva kuti kwakatyora zvibvumirano zveGeneva. MunaGunyana 1965 Hofisi Yekune dzimwe nyika yakabvuma kutumira kunze mabhomba mazana matatu aiitirwa US Air Force 'kuti ishandiswe muVietnam', ichiti 'hapafanirwe kuve nekushambadza' uye kuti 'kutumira kunofanira kunge kuri muUK'. Mwedzi wapfuura, Munyori Wezvekune dzimwe nyika akanga abvuma kupa US vatakuri vemauto mazana maviri ezvombo kuti vashandise muVietnam 'chero bedzi kuendeswa kwakaitika muEurope' uye kuti pakanga pasina 'kuziviswa kusingadzivisiki'.
Nzira yekubuda uye zvido zveBritish
Mukupesana nehafu yokutanga yama1960, kubvira muna 1965 zvichienda mberi varongi veBritain vakanga vachigumisa kuti hondo yaisagona kuhwinwa muchiuto. Chirevo cheKune dzimwe nyika Office chaChikumi 1968 chakagumisa kuti 'zvakanyanya mukuda kwedu kuti United States iwane nzira yekutiza kubva mukubatanidzwa kwayo' muVietnam. Chikonzero chaive chekuti hondo yaive ichiisa 'matambudziko pamari yenyika' izvo zvaive nekuda kwekushaikwa kwekuvimba nemari yekuchengetedza. Chimwe chikonzero cheizvi chaive chiyero cheUS chekushomeka kwekubhadhara kwakakonzerwa nekushandisa muhondo. Kubvisa kweUS 'kuchava nesimba rinokurudzira padhora uye mukutengeserana kwenyika [sic], izvo zvinofanirwa kubatsira zvakananga mubhadharo weUK'. Sezvo hurongwa hwemari huripo hwaitsamira zvakanyanya pakuda kwenyika dzeEurope kuchengetedza nhamba inowedzera yemadhora mumatura adzo, njodzi yaive yekuti izvi zvaisazoenderera mberi nekusingaperi. Izvi 'zvinogona kuguma nedambudziko guru remari izvo zvingatikonzeresa kukanganisa kukuru chero zvingazoitika'.
Asi vashumiri veBritain vakaramba vachitsigira hondo pachena, musiyano chete uri kunetseka pamusoro pekuti kubhomba North Vietnam kwaiva 'kuchenjera' kana kuti 'kungabudirira'. Kupinda kweUS kuCambodia muna Kubvumbi 1970 kwakatsigirwawo zvakasimba nevakuru veBritain. Ipapo Mumiriri weBritain, John Moreton, akanyora kuti 'kusiya njodzi dzezvematongerwo enyika, ndava kunyatsogutsikana nekunaka kwenharo dzemauto dzichitsigira sarudzo'.
Edward Heath, anorangarirwa seMutungamiriri weBritain akatora Britain muEuropean Community muna 1973, anofanirwa kurangarirwawo nekukumbira ruregerero kwakanyanya kumhirizhonga yeUS muVietnam. Heath akanyorera Nixon muna Chikunguru 1970 kuti 'Handidi kukuvimbisai kuti mune rutsigiro rwedu ruzere mukutsvaga kwenyu rugare munharaunda. Tinoyemura zvikuru kusimba uye kushingirira kwawakaratidza'. Izvi zvaive mukupindura tsamba yaNixon yekubuda kwemauto eUS kubva kuCambodia, iyo US yakanga yapinda nechisimba mwedzi mitatu yapfuura.
Muna Kubvumbi 1972, Nixon yakarova mabhomba makuru paHanoi neHaiphong nepo mamwe maguta akatarirwa uye akaparadzwa zvakarongeka. Bazi renhau rehurumende yeBritain rakarairwa kuti ritaure kuti Nixon yakanga yave nenguva refu 'yakachengetera[d] kodzero' yekubhomba North Vietnam. Musi wa 17 Kubvumbi Secretary Foreign Foreign Douglas-Home akadzivirira kubhomba kweAmerica muParamende izvo zvakaita kuti Gurukota rinoona nezvekunze kweUnited States, William Rodgers, vamufonere 'vachimutenda zvikuru' uye kuti 'zvakafarirwa zvikuru muWashington'. Rodgers akaudza Douglas Home 'kufara kwakaita Mutungamiriri'.
Britain yakatsigira US kusvika pekupedzisira apo, kwese, pakanga pasina kana kunyepedzera kunetseka kune vakabatwa.
Ichi chinyorwa chakagadziridzwa kubva mubhuku raMark Curtis razvino, Unpeople: Britain's Secret Human Rights Abuses, rakabudiswa naVintage, London. www.markcurtis.info. Email: [email inodzivirirwa]
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