Pepalali, lolembedwa pansi pa mutu wakuti, "US Settler-Colonialism and Genocide Policies," linaperekedwa pa Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Organization of American Historians 2015 ku St. Louis, MO pa April 18, 2015.
Ndondomeko ndi zochita za US zokhudzana ndi Amwenye, ngakhale kuti nthawi zambiri zimatchedwa "tsankho" kapena "tsankho," sizimawonetsedwa kawirikawiri monga momwe zilili: zochitika zapamwamba za imperialism ndi mtundu wina wa utsamunda-utsamunda wa atsamunda. Monga momwe katswiri wa chikhalidwe cha anthu Patrick Wolfe akulembera, โFunso la kupulula fuko siliri kutali ndi kukambitsirana kwa utsamunda wa atsamunda. Dziko ndi moyoโkapena, nthaka ndi yofunika kuti pakhale moyo.โi Mbiri ya United States ndi mbiri ya atsamunda atsamunda.
Kukula kwa United States kuchoka kunyanja kupita kunyanja yowala chinali cholinga ndi mapangidwe a omwe adayambitsa dzikoli. Malo โaulereโ anali maginito amene anakopa anthu a ku Ulaya. Pambuyo pa nkhondo yofuna ufulu wodzilamulira koma malamulo oyendetsera dziko la US asanayambe kulembedwa, Continental Congress inatulutsa lamulo la kumpoto chakumadzulo. Limeneli linali lamulo loyamba la Republic of the incipient republic, lomwe limasonyeza cholinga cha anthu ofuna ufulu. Inali njira yopititsira patsogolo gawo la Indian lotetezedwa ndi Britain ("Ohio Country") kutsidya lina la ma Appalachian ndi Alleghenies. Boma la Britain lidapanga kukhazikika kumeneko kosaloledwa ndi Proclamation of 1763.
Mu 1801, pulezidenti Jefferson anafotokoza moyenerera zolinga za dziko latsopanolo lofuna kufutukula kontinenti mopingasa ndi moimirira, kuti: โNgakhale kuti zokonda zathu zamasiku ano zingatitsekereze mโmalire athu, nโzosatheka kuti tisayembekezere nthaลตi zakutali, pamene kuchulukitsa kwathu kudzakhala kofulumira. kudzifutukula kupyola malire amenewo ndi kukuta dziko lonse la kumpoto, ngati si la kumโmwera, ndi anthu olankhula chinenero chofanana, olamuliridwa ndi malamulo ofananawo.โ Masomphenya awa a tsogolo lodziwika bwino adapezeka zaka zingapo pambuyo pake mu Chiphunzitso cha Monroe, kuwonetsa cholinga cholanda kapena kulamulira madera omwe kale anali atsamunda aku Spain ku America ndi Pacific, zomwe zikanadzachitika m'zaka zotsalazo.
Mawonekedwe a chitsamunda omwe Amwenye a ku North America adakumana nawo anali amakono kuyambira pachiyambi: kufalikira kwa mabungwe aku Europe, mothandizidwa ndi magulu ankhondo a boma, kupita kumayiko akunja, ndikulandidwa kwa malo ndi chuma. Settler colonialism imafuna ndondomeko yopha anthu. Mayiko ndi madera akumidzi, ngakhale akuyesetsa kusunga mfundo zofunika kwambiri komanso kusonkhana, kuyambira pachiyambi adatsutsa utsamunda wamakono pogwiritsa ntchito njira zodzitchinjiriza komanso zokhumudwitsa, kuphatikiza mitundu yamakono yolimbana ndi zida zomenyera ufulu wadziko ndi zomwe tsopano zimatchedwa uchigawenga. Mโzochitika zirizonse iwo amenya nkhondo ndikupitirizabe kumenyera kupulumuka monga anthu. Cholinga cha akuluakulu a boma la United States chinali chakuti anthuwo asakhalenso anthu mwachisawawa. Ili ndilo tanthauzo lenileni la kuphedwa kwamasiku ano.
Cholinga cha akuluakulu a atsamunda a ku United States chinali chakuti anthuwo asakhalenso anthu mwachisawawa. Ili ndilo tanthauzo lenileni la kuphedwa kwamtundu wamakono kusiyana ndi zochitika zakale zachiwawa zomwe zinalibe cholinga cha kutha. Dziko la United States ngati gulu lazachikhalidwe cha anthu ndi ndale ndi chifukwa cha ndondomeko yautsamunda yomwe yatenga zaka mazana ambiri. Mayiko ndi madera amakono ndi magulu omwe amapangidwa chifukwa chokana utsamunda, omwe adatengera zochita ndi mbiri yawo. N'zochititsa chidwi, koma palibe chozizwitsa, kuti apulumuka monga anthu.
Settler-colonialism imafuna chiwawa kapena kuwopseza chiwawa kuti akwaniritse zolinga zake, zomwe zimapanga maziko a dongosolo la United States. Anthu sapereka malo awo, chuma, ana, ndi tsogolo lawo popanda kumenyana, ndipo nkhondoyi imakumana ndi ziwawa. Pogwiritsira ntchito mphamvu zofunikira kuti akwaniritse zolinga zake zowonjezera, boma lolamulira limayambitsa ziwawa. Lingaliro lakuti mikangano ya anthu othawa kwawo ndi chinthu chosapeลตeka cha kusiyana kwa chikhalidwe ndi kusamvetsetsana, kapena kuti ziwawa zinachitidwa mofanana ndi atsamunda ndi atsamunda, zimasokoneza chikhalidwe cha mbiri yakale. Utsamunda waku Euro-America, womwe ndi gawo la kudalirana kwachuma kwachuma, kuyambira pachiyambi chake unali ndi chizoloลตezi chofuna kupha fuko.
Ndiye, kodi kuphedwa kwa mafuko ndi chiyani? Mnzanga wa mโgululi, Gary Clayton Anderson, mโbuku lake laposachedwapa, โEthnic Cleansing and the Indian,โ anatsutsa kuti: โKuphedwa kwa mafuko sikudzakhala khalidwe lovomerezeka ndi zimene zinachitika ku North America, chifukwa Amwenye ambiri anapulumuka ndiponso chifukwa chakuti mfundo za kuphedwa kwa mafuko sizidzadziwika. za kupha anthu ambiri pamlingo wofanana ndi zochitika zapakati pa Ulaya, Cambodia, kapena Rwanda sizinachitikepo.โii Pali zolakwika zazikulu pakuwunikaku.
Liwu lakuti โkupha anthuโ linayambika pambuyo pa Shoah, kapena Holocaust, ndipo kuletsa kwake kunaphatikizidwa mumsonkhano wa United Nations woperekedwa mu 1948 ndipo unavomerezedwa mu 1951: UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Msonkhanowu siwobwerezabwereza koma ukugwira ntchito pa ubale wa US-Indigenous kuyambira 1988, pamene Senate ya US idavomereza. Mgwirizano wakupha anthu ambiri ndi chida chofunikira kwambiri pakuwunika mbiri yautsamunda munthawi iliyonse, makamaka m'mbiri ya US.
Pamsonkhanowu, chimodzi mwa mchitidwe uliwonse mwa zisanu chimaonedwa kuti ndi kupha fuko ngati โwachita ndi cholinga chowononga, lonse kapena mbali ina, mtundu, fuko, fuko kapena chipembedzoโ:
(a) kupha mamembala a gulu;
(b) kuvulaza kwambiri thupi kapena maganizo kwa mamembala a gulu;
(c) kuwononga mwadala moyo wa gulu womwe umawerengedwa kuti uwononge thupi lonse kapena mbali yake;
(d) kukhazikitsa njira zopewera kubadwa m'gulu;
(e) kusamutsa ana agululo mokakamiza kupita ku gulu lina.iii
Zochita zotsatirazi ndizolangidwa:
(a) Kupha fuko;
(b) Chiwembu chopha anthu;
(c) Kulimbikitsa anthu kupha anthu;
(d) Kuyesa kupha anthu;
(e) Kuphatikizika ndi kupha anthu.
Mawu akuti โkupha anthuโ kaลตirikaลตiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito molakwa, monga mmene Dr. Anderson anaunika, kufotokoza zitsanzo zonyanyira za kupha anthu ambiri, imfa ya chiลตerengero cha anthu, monga, mwachitsanzo, ku Cambodia. Zomwe zidachitika ku Cambodia zinali zowopsa, koma sizikugwera pansi pamigwirizano ya Genocide Convention, chifukwa Mgwirizanowu umanena za gulu ladziko, fuko, fuko kapena chipembedzo, ndi anthu omwe ali mgululi omwe amayang'aniridwa ndi boma kapena othandizira ake chifukwa. iwo ali mโgululo kapena poukira tsinde la kukhalapo kwa gululo monga gulu limene likukumana nalo ndi cholinga chowononga gululo lonse kapena mbali yake. Boma la Cambodian lidachita zolakwa kwa anthu, koma osati kupha anthu. Kupha anthu ambiri si chinthu choyipa kwambiri kuposa china chilichonse, koma ndi mtundu wina wake. Mawu akuti, "kuyeretsa mafuko," ndi mawu ofotokozera omwe adapangidwa ndi othandizira anthu kuti afotokoze zomwe zinkanenedwa kuti zikuchitika m'zaka za m'ma 1990 nkhondo zapakati pa mayiko a Yugoslavia. Ndilo mawu ofotokozera, osati mawu a malamulo okhudza anthu padziko lonse lapansi.
Ngakhale kuti kuphedwa kwa Nazi kunali koopsa kwambiri pa zigawenga zonse, mipiringidzo yokhazikitsidwa ndi chipani cha Nazi siimene iyenera kuganiziridwa kuti ndi yakupha. Mutu wa msonkhano wa Genocide ndi wakuti โConvention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crime of Genocide,โ choncho lamuloli likunena za kupewa kuphedwa kwa anthu pozindikira mfundo za malamulo a boma, osati chilango chokhacho. Chofunika koposa, kuphedwa kwa mafuko sikuyenera kukhala kokwanira kuti tinene kuti kupha anthu.
Mbiri ya US, komanso zowawa zomwe zidabadwa nazo, sizingamveke popanda kuthana ndi kuphana komwe United States idachita motsutsana ndi Amwenye. Kuyambira nthawi ya atsamunda mpaka kukhazikitsidwa kwa dziko la United States ndikupitilira zaka za m'ma XNUMX, izi zakhala zikuzunza anthu, zigawenga, nkhanza zogonana, kuphana, ntchito zankhondo mwadongosolo, kuchotsedwa kwa Amwenye m'madera a makolo awo, kuthamangitsidwa kwa ana Achimereka ku America. masukulu ogonera ngati asitikali, magawo, ndi ndondomeko yothetsa.
Mkati mwamalingaliro okhazikika atsamunda, kuphedwa kwa anthu onse ku United States kuyambira pomwe idakhazikitsidwa, koma palinso mfundo zodziwika bwino zakuphana kwaulamuliro wa US zomwe zitha kudziwika muzaka zinayi zosiyana: a Jacksonian. nthawi ya kuchotsedwa mokakamizidwa; kuthamangira golide ku California ku Northern California; pa Nkhondo Yachiลตeniลตeni ndi pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiลตeniลตeni imene inkatchedwa Nkhondo za Amwenye Kummwera Chakumadzulo ndi Zigwa Zazikulu; ndi nthawi yothetsa 1950s; kuphatikiza apo, pali nthawi yochulukirapo ya masukulu okakamiza ogonera, 1870s mpaka 1960s. Carlisle boarding school, yokhazikitsidwa ndi US Army ofisala Richard Henry Pratt mu 1879, idakhala chitsanzo kwa ena okhazikitsidwa ndi a Bureau of Zochitika ku India (BIA). Pratt adanena mukulankhula mu 1892, "Msilikali wamkulu adanena kuti Mmwenye yekhayo wabwino ndi wakufa. M'lingaliro lina, ndikugwirizana ndi malingaliro, koma mu izi: kuti Amwenye onse omwe ali mu mpikisano ayenera kukhala akufa. Iphani Mmwenye yemwe ali mwa iye ndikupulumutsa munthuyo.
Milandu yakupha anthu motsata malamulo ingapezeke m'mabuku a mbiri yakale komanso m'mbiri ya anthu amtundu wamba. Chitsanzo cha mu 1873 nโchofanana ndi chimene Msilikali wamkulu wa asilikali William T. Sherman analemba kuti: โTiyenera kuchita zinthu moona mtima pobwezera a Sioux, mpaka kuwapha, amuna, akazi ndi ana . . . pa kumenyedwa, asilikaliwo samatha kupuma kuti asiyanitse amuna ndi akazi, ngakhalenso kusankhana zaka.โiv
Zomwe zimatchedwa "Nkhondo za ku India" mwaukadaulo zinatha cha m'ma 1880, ngakhale kuphedwa kwa Wounded Knee kunachitika zaka khumi pambuyo pake. Mwachiwonekere kuchita ndi cholinga chophera fuko, kumawonedwabe ngati "nkhondo" m'mabuku a mbiri ya mbadwa zankhondo zaku US. Ma Medals of Honor a Congression adaperekedwa kwa asitikali makumi awiri omwe adakhudzidwa. Chipilala chinamangidwa ku Fort Riley, Kansas, kulemekeza asilikali omwe anaphedwa ndi moto waubwenzi. Wowombera pankhondo adapangidwa kuti alemekeze mwambowu ndikuwonjezedwa kumayendedwe ena omwe amawonetsedwa ku Pentagon, West Point, ndi malo ankhondo padziko lonse lapansi. L. Frank Baum, wokhazikika ku Dakota Territory pambuyo pake wotchuka chifukwa cholemba Zodabwitsa Mfiti wa oz, adasinthidwa ndi Aberdeen Loweruka Mpainiya panthawiyo. Masiku asanu pambuyo pa chochitika chodwala pa Wounded Knee, pa January 3, 1891, iye analemba kuti, โMpainiya analengeza kale kuti chitetezo chathu chokha chimadalira pa kuthetsedwa kotheratu kwa Amwenye. Titawalakwira kwa zaka mazana ambiri, tidachita bwino, kuti titeteze chitukuko chathu, kutsata cholakwika chimodzi kapena zingapo ndikufafaniza zolengedwa zosasinthika komanso zosasinthika izi padziko lapansi.
Kaya 1880 kapena 1890, malo ambiri ogwirizana omwe Native Nations adapeza pomenyera nkhondo zolimba mapangano opangidwa ndi United States adatayika pambuyo pa tsikulo.
Pambuyo pa kutha kwa Nkhondo za Amwenye, kunadza kugaลตidwa, lamulo lina la kupha mafuko amitundu ya Amwenye monga mitundu, monga anthu, kuthetsedwa kwa gululo. Kutengera mtundu wa Sioux monga chitsanzo, ngakhale Dawes Allotment Act ya 1884 isanakhazikitsidwe, komanso pomwe Black Hills idalandidwa kale ndi boma la federal, bungwe la boma lidafika ku Sioux dera kuchokera ku Washington, DC, mu 1888 ndi lingaliro chepetsani Sioux Nation ku malo ang'onoang'ono asanu ndi limodzi, ndondomeko yomwe ingasiyire maekala mamiliyoni asanu ndi anayi otsegulidwa kuti Euro-America ikhazikitse. Komitiyi idawona kuti sizingatheke kupeza siginecha za magawo atatu mwa anayi a dzikolo malinga ndi pangano la 1868, ndipo adabwerera ku Washington ndi malingaliro oti boma linyalanyaze panganoli ndikutenga malowo popanda chilolezo cha Sioux. Njira yokhayo yokwaniritsira cholinga chimenecho inali malamulo, Congress itamasula boma kuudindo wokambirana mgwirizano. Congress idalamula General George Crook kuti atsogolere nthumwi kuti ziyesenso, nthawi ino ndi mwayi wa $ 1.50 pa ekala. Pakusokoneza komanso kuchita zinthu ndi atsogoleri omwe anthu ake anali ndi njala, bungweli linasaina zofunikira. Mtundu waukulu wa Sioux udasweka kukhala zisumbu zazing'ono posakhalitsa zitazunguliridwa mbali zonse ndi osamukira ku Europe, pomwe malo ambiri osungirako amakhala ndi bolodi yokhala ndi okhazikika pagawo kapena malo obwereketsa.v Kupanga kusungitsa kwakutali kumeneku kudasokoneza ubale pakati pa mabanja ndi magulu a Sioux Nation ndikutsegula madera omwe Azungu adakhazikika. Zinapangitsanso Bureau of Indian Affairs kuwongolera mwamphamvu, mothandizidwa ndi masukulu ogonera kunyumba. Dzuwa Dance, mwambo wapachaka womwe udasonkhanitsa Sioux ndikulimbitsa mgwirizano wadziko, udaletsedwa, komanso miyambo ina yachipembedzo. Ngakhale kuti anthu a Sioux anali ofooka muulamuliro wa atsamunda chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1903, adatha kuyamba bizinesi yoweta ng'ombe kuti alowe m'malo mwa chuma chawo chakale chosaka njati. Mu XNUMX, Khoti Lalikulu Kwambiri ku United States linagamula kuti Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, kuti pa Marichi 3, 1871, wokwera ndalama anali wovomerezeka komanso kuti Congress inali ndi mphamvu "zonse" zoyang'anira katundu waku India. Chifukwa chake Office of Indian Affairs itha kutaya malo ndi zinthu zaku India mosasamala kanthu za zomwe zidachitika kale. Malamulo adatsatiridwa omwe adatsegula kusungitsa ndalama pakubweza ngongole ngakhale kugulitsa magawo omwe adatengedwa chifukwa cha chikhulupiriro. Pafupifupi malo onse odyetserako ziweto adakhala ndi amwenye omwe sanali amwenye pofika m'ma 1920s.
Pofika nthawi ya New Deal-Collier komanso kuthetsedwa kwa malo aku India pansi pa Indian Reorganization Act, anthu omwe sanali amwenye adaposa Amwenye omwe adasungitsa malo a Sioux atatu mpaka m'modzi. Komabe, โmaboma a mafukoโ amene anaikidwa chifukwa cha lamulo la Indian Reorganization Act anali ovulaza ndiponso ogawanitsa a Sioux.โvi Pankhani imeneyi, malemu Mathew King, wolemba mbiri yakale wachikulire wa ku Oglala Sioux (Pine Ridge), anati: โBungwe loona za nkhani za ku India linapanga malamulo a bungweli ndi lamulo la Indian Reorganization Act la 1934. kukhazikitsidwa kwa lamulo la kunyumba. . . . Anthu amwambo akukangamirabe ku Pangano lawo, chifukwa ndife fuko lodziyimira pawokha. Tili ndi boma lathu.โvii โUlamuliro wakunyumba,โ kapena kuti neocolonialism, unatsimikizira mfundo yosakhalitsa, komabe, chifukwa chakumayambiriro kwa zaka za mโma 1950 United States inapanga mfundo yake yothetsa mikangano, ndi malamulo olamula kuti kuthetsedwa kwapangโonopangโono kwa kusungitsa kulikonse ngakhalenso maboma a mafuko.viii Panthawi yosiyidwa ndikusamuka, ndalama zomwe munthu amapeza pachaka pa malo osungitsa a Sioux zinali $355, pomwe m'matauni apafupi a South Dakota anali $2,500. Ngakhale izi zinali choncho, potsatira mfundo zake zothetsa ntchito, Bungwe Loona za Ufulu wa Anthu ku India lidalimbikitsa kuchepetsedwa kwa ntchito ndikuyambitsa pulogalamu yake yosamutsira Amwenye kumadera akumatauni, pomwe ambiri a Sioux akusamukira ku San Francisco ndi Denver kukafunafuna ntchito.ix
Mikhalidwe ya Mitundu ina Yachikhalidwe inali yofanana.
Pawnee Attorney Walter R. Echo-Hawk analemba kuti:
Mu 1881, malo okhala amwenye ku United States anali atatsika mpaka maekala 156 miliyoni. Pofika mโchaka cha 1934, maekala pafupifupi 50 miliyoni okha ndi amene anatsala (dera la ukulu wa Idaho ndi Washington) chifukwa cha lamulo la General Allotment Act la 1887. Mโkati mwa Nkhondo Yadziko II, boma linatenga maekala enanso 500,000 kuti agwiritse ntchito pankhondo. Mafuko opitilira zana, magulu, ndi ma Rancheria adasiya malo awo pansi pamilandu yosiyanasiyana ya Congress panthawi yothetsa ma 1950s. Pofika mโchaka cha 1955, malo a nthaka anali atacheperachepera kufika pa 2.3 peresenti yokha [kukula pa mapeto a nkhondo za ku India].x
Malinga ndi mgwirizano womwe ulipo pakati pa akatswiri a mbiri yakale, kusamutsidwa kwakukulu kwa malo kuchokera ku Indigenous kupita ku manja a Euro-America komwe kunachitika ku America pambuyo pa 1492 ndi chifukwa chochepa chifukwa cha kuukira kwa Britain ndi US America, nkhondo, mikhalidwe ya anthu othawa kwawo, ndi ndondomeko zakupha ku North America kusiyana ndi mabakiteriya omwe adaniwo adabwera nawo mosadziwa. Wolemba mbiri Colin Calloway ali mโgulu la ochirikiza chiphunzitso chimenechi kulemba kuti, โMatenda a miliri akadachititsa kuti anthu achepe kwambiri mโmaiko a ku America kaya anabweretsedwa ndi adani a ku Ulaya kapena atabweretsedwa kunyumba ndi amalonda Achimereka Achimereka.โxi Kutsimikiza koteroko kumapangitsa kuti tsoka lina lililonse la Amwenye likhale losatheka. Izi ndi zomwe katswiri wa chikhalidwe cha anthu Michael Wilcox watcha "nkhani yomaliza." Pulofesa Calloway ndi wolemba mbiri wosamala komanso wolemekezeka kwambiri wa ku Indigenous North America, koma mawu ake omaliza amafotokoza lingaliro losakhazikika. Lingaliro lomwe lili kumbuyo kwa lingaliroli ndi lambiri komanso lopanda nzeru chifukwa ku Europe komweko kudataya gawo limodzi mwa magawo atatu kapena theka la anthu ake chifukwa cha matenda opatsirana m'zaka zapakati pazaka zapakati. Chifukwa chomwe lingaliro la mgwirizano ndilolakwika komanso lodziwika bwino ndikuti limachotsa zotsatira za utsamunda wa atsamunda ndi zoyambira zake mu "Reconquest" ya Chisipanishi ndi kugonjetsa kwa Chingerezi ku Scotland, Ireland, ndi Wales. Panthaลตi imene dziko la Spain, Portugal, ndi Britain linafika kudzalanda mayiko a ku America, njira zawo zowonongera anthu kapena kuwakakamiza kuti azidalirana ndi kuwaika muukapolo zinali zitazika mizu, zinali zosavuta komanso zogwira mtima.
Ziribe kanthu kusagwirizana komwe kungakhalepo ponena za kukula kwa Amwenye asanayambe kukoloni, palibe amene amakayikira kuti kuchepa kwa chiwerengero cha anthu kunachitika m'zaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi ndi khumi ndi zisanu ndi ziwiri, nthawi yake kuchokera kudera kupita kudera kutengera nthawi yomwe kugonjetsa ndi kulamulira kunayamba. Pafupifupi madera onse a anthu a ku America anachepetsedwa ndi 90 peresenti pambuyo poyambitsa ntchito zautsamunda, kuchepetsa chiwerengero cha Amwenye a ku America kuchokera pa XNUMX miliyoni kufika pa XNUMX miliyoni. Zomwe nthawi zambiri zimatchedwa tsoka lalikulu kwambiri la anthu - lopangidwa ngati lachilengedwe - m'mbiri ya anthu, silinkatchedwa kupha anthu mpaka pomwe kukwera kwa magulu amtundu wazaka zapakati pazaka za m'ma XNUMX kunayambitsa mafunso atsopano.
Katswiri wina wa ku United States, Benjamin Keen, anavomereza kuti akatswiri a mbiri yakale โamavomereza mosakayikira mawu akuti โmliri ndi kusowa chitetezo chokwaniraโ cha kuchepa kwa Amwenye, popanda kuganizira mozama za chikhalidwe cha anthu . . . zimene zinapangitsa kuti anthu a mโdzikoli atenge matenda angโonoangโono.โXII Akatswiri ena amavomereza zimenezi. Katswiri wodziลตa za malo William M. Denevan, ngakhale kuti sakunyalanyaza kukhalapo kwa matenda a miliri ofala, wagogomezera mbali ya nkhondo, zimene zinalimbitsa chiyambukiro chakupha cha matenda. Panali zochitika zankhondo pakati pa mayiko aku Europe ndi Amwenye, koma ena ambiri adawona maulamuliro aku Europe akukanganitsa dziko limodzi lachikhalidwe ndi linzake kapena magulu amitundu pakati pa mayiko, ogwirizana nawo aku Europe akuthandiza mbali imodzi kapena mbali zonse ziwiri, monga momwe zidalili pakulamuliridwa kwa anthu aku Ireland, Africa ndi Asia, ndipo inalinso chifukwa cha kuphedwa kwa Nazi. Opha ena omwe atchulidwa ndi a Denevan ndikugwira ntchito mopitirira muyeso m'migodi, kupha nyama pafupipafupi, kusowa kwa zakudya m'thupi komanso njala chifukwa cha kusokonekera kwa mabizinesi achikhalidwe, kupanga chakudya chokhazikika komanso kutaya malo, kutayika kwa kufuna kukhala ndi moyo kapena kubereka (ndipo kudzipha, kuchotsa mimba, ndi kupha ana. ), ndi kuthamangitsidwa ndi ukapolo.xiii Katswiri wina wa zachikhalidwe cha anthu Henry Dobyns ananenapo za kusokonekera kwa malonda a Amwenye. Olamulira atsamunda atalanda njira zamalonda, kupereลตera kwadzaoneni, kuphatikiza zakudya, kudafooketsa anthu ndikuwakakamiza kudalira atsamunda, ndi zinthu zopangidwa ku Europe zomwe zidalowa m'malo mwa Amwenye. Dobyns ayerekeza kuti magulu onse amtundu wa anthu akuvutika ndi njala chaka chimodzi mwa zinayi. Mโmikhalidwe imeneyi, kuyambika ndi kuchirikiza moลตa kunatsimikizira kukhala koloลตerera ndi kupha, zomwe zinawonjezera kusokonekera kwadongosolo ndi udindo.xiv Zowonadi izi zimapangitsa kuti nthano ya "kusowa chitetezo," kuphatikizapo mowa, kukhala woopsa.
Wolemba mbiri Woodrow Wilson Borah adayang'ana kwambiri gawo lalikulu la atsamunda aku Europe, omwe adachepetsanso anthu ku Pacific Islands, Australia, Western Central America, ndi West Africa.xv Sherburne Cook-wogwirizana ndi Borah mu Berkeley School yokonzanso, monga momwe idatchulidwira - adaphunzira kuyesa kuwononga Amwenye aku California. Cook akuti anthu 2,245 afa pakati pa anthu a kumpoto kwa Californiaโmitundu ya Wintu, Maidu, Miwak, Omo, Wappo, ndi Yokutsโchakumapeto kwa nkhondo zankhondo za mโzaka za mโma 5,000 ndi Asipanya pamene anthu pafupifupi 4,000 anafa ndi matenda ndipo ena 4,000 anasamutsidwa kupita ku mishoni. Pakati pa anthu omwewo mโzaka za mโma 6,000, asilikali a ku United States anapha anthu 1852, ndipo enanso 1867 anaphedwa ndi matenda. Pakati pa 4,000 ndi XNUMX, nzika zaku US zidabera ana amwenye XNUMX ochokera m'magulu awa ku California. Kusokonekera kwa chikhalidwe cha anthu wamba pansi pazimenezi komanso chifukwa chosowa chuma chinakakamiza amayi ambiri kuti achite uhule m'misasa ya goldfield, zomwe zinawononganso moyo wabanja womwe unatsalira m'magulu okonda matriarchal awa.
Akatswiri a mbiri yakale ndi anthu ena amene amatsutsa zoti kuphedwa kwa mafuko akugogomezera kuchulukana kwa anthu chifukwa cha matenda, ndipo zimenezi zimafooketsa mphamvu zakuti anthu a m'dera lawo azikana. Pochita zimenezi amakana kuvomereza kuti ulamuliro wa dziko la America unali kupha fuko mwa dongosolo, osati tsoka lomvetsa chisoni la anthu amene alibe chitetezo chokwanira ku matenda. Ngati matenda akanatha kugwira ntchitoyi, sizikudziwika chifukwa chake dziko la United States linaona kuti nโkoyenera kuchita nkhondo zolimbana ndi Amwenye kuti apeze malo alionse amene anawalandaโlimodzi ndi nthawi ya mโmbuyomo ya ulamuliro wa atsamunda a ku Britain, pafupifupi. zaka mazana atatu za nkhondo yothetsa nkhondo.
Pankhani ya Chipululutso cha Ayuda, palibe amene angakane kuti Ayuda ochuluka anafa ndi njala, kugwira ntchito mopambanitsa, ndi matenda mโndende ya Nazi kuposa amene anafera mu uvuni wa gasi kapena kuphedwa mwa njira zina, komabe zochita za kupanga ndi kusunga mikhalidwe imene inachititsa kuti imfayo iwonongeke. zikuonekeratu kuti kupha anthu. Ndipo palibe amene amabwereza nkhani yomaliza yokhudzana ndi Amwenye Achimereka, kapena Achiarmeniya, kapena Achibosnia.
Sizinthu zonse zomwe zanenedwa mumgwirizano wakupha anthu omwe akuyenera kukhalapo kuti apange kupha anthu; Iliyonse mwa izo ikukwanira. Pazochitika za ndondomeko ndi zochita zophera fuko la United States, chilichonse mwazofunikira zisanu chikuwoneka.
choyamba, Kupha mamembala a gulu: Msonkhano wa kupha anthu sukunena kuti anthu ambiri ayenera kuphedwa kuti aphedwe, m'malo mwake kuti mamembala a gululo aphedwe chifukwa ndi mamembala a gululo. Kuwunika momwe zinthu zilili poletsa kupha anthu, kuphana kwamtunduwu ndi chizindikiro choti alowererepo.
Chachiwiri, Kuwononga kwambiri thupi kapena m'maganizo kwa mamembala a gulu: monga njala, kuwongolera kagayidwe ka chakudya ndi kusunga chakudya monga chilango kapena ngati mphotho ya kutsatira, mwachitsanzo, kusaina mapangano olanda anthu. Monga momwe wolemba mbiri yankhondo John Grenier akunenera mu zake Njira Yoyamba Yankhondo:
Choncho, zaka 200 zoyambirira za nkhondo yathu yankhondo, Amereka ankadalira luso lankhondo limene asilikali amakono amakono amati amanyansidwa nalo: kuwononga ndi kuwononga midzi ndi minda ya adani; kupha adani akazi ndi ana; kuwononga midzi ya anthu ogwidwa; kuwopseza ndi nkhanza adani osamenyana; ndi kupha atsogoleri a adani. . . . Pankhondo zam'malire pakati pa 1607 ndi 1814, Achimereka adapanga zinthu ziwiri - nkhondo zopanda malire ndi nkhondo zosakhazikika - kukhala njira yawo yoyamba yankhondo.xvi
Grenier akutsutsa kuti njira iyi yankhondo sinapitirirebe m'zaka zonse za 19th pankhondo zolimbana ndi mayiko achikhalidwe, koma idapitilira m'zaka za zana la 20 ndipo pakadali pano pankhondo zotsutsana ndi anthu ku Latin America, Caribbean ndi Pacific, Southeast Asia, Middle and Western. Asia ndi Africa.
Kuwononga mwadala pagulu la moyo womwe umawerengedwa kuti uwononge thupi lonse kapena gawo lake: Kukakamizidwa kuchotsedwa kwa mayiko onse akum'maลตa kwa Mississippi kupita ku Indian Territory panthawi ya utsogoleri wa Jackson inali mfundo yowerengeka yofuna kuwononga maubwenzi a anthuwa kumayiko awo oyambirira, komanso kulengeza kuti anthu amtundu wawo omwe sanachotsedwe kuti asakhalenso Muskogee, Sauk. , Kickapoo, Choctaw, kuwononga kukhalapo kwa theka la mtundu uliwonse kuchotsedwa. Sukulu zovomerezeka zogonera, Kugawa ndi Kuthetsa - mfundo zonse zaboma - zilinso m'gulu ili laupandu wopha anthu. Kuchotsedwa mokakamizidwa ndi kutsekeredwa mโndende kwa zaka zinayi kwa anthu a ku Navajo kunaphetsa theka la anthu awo.
Kukhazikitsa njira zoletsa kubadwa m'gulu: Chodziwika bwino, mu nthawi ya Kutha, boma la US lomwe limayang'anira Indian Health Service lidayika patsogolo kwambiri zachipatala kuletsa amayi achikhalidwe. Mu 1974, kafukufuku wodziyimira pawokha wochitidwa ndi asing'anga ochepa Achimereka Achimereka, Dr. Connie Pinkerton-Uri, Choctaw/Cherokee, adapeza kuti m'modzi mwa amayi anayi amtunduwu adatsekeredwa popanda chilolezo. Kafukufuku wa Pnkerton-Uri anasonyeza kuti bungwe la Indian Health Service โlidasankha amayi aku India amagazi athunthu kuti azitha kulera.โ Poyamba anakanidwa ndi Indian Health Service, patapita zaka ziwiri, kafukufuku ndi US General Accounting Office anapeza kuti 4 12 Indian Health Service zigawo 3,406 Native akazi popanda chilolezo pakati 1973 ndi 1976. The GAO anapeza kuti 36 akazi pansi. wazaka 21 adatsekeredwa mokakamiza panthawiyi ngakhale khoti lidalamula kuti aletse kulera kwa amayi osakwana zaka 21.
Kusamutsa ana agululo mokakamiza kupita ku gulu lina: Mabungwe osiyanasiyana aboma, makamaka ma municipalities, zigawo, ndi madera, ankachotsa ana Amwenye mโmabanja awo nthaลตi ndi nthaลตi nโkuwaika kuti aleredwe. Mโmabungwe a Native resistance movement a zaka za mโma 1960 ndi 1970, zofuna zoletsa mchitidwewu zinalembedwa mu Indian Child Welfare Act ya 1978. zothandizira maboma amtundu kuti akhazikitse maziko oti atenge ana kuchokera kumakampani olera, momwe makanda aku India amafunidwa kwambiri. Ngakhale zili zolepheretsa kukakamiza, kuzunza koipitsitsa kunachepetsedwa pazaka makumi atatu zotsatira. Koma, pa June 25, 2013, Khoti Lalikulu la ku United States, mu chigamulo cha 5-4 chomwe Justice Samuel Alito, adagwiritsa ntchito mfundo za Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) kunena kuti mwana, yemwe amadziwika kuti Baby Veronica, ayenera kukhala ndi abambo ake enieni a Cherokee. Chigamulo cha khoti lalikulu chinatsegula njira kwa Matt ndi Melanie Capobianco, makolo olera, kupempha Makhoti a ku South Carolina kuti mwanayo abwezedwe kwa iwo. Khotilo lidasokoneza cholinga ndi cholinga cha Indian Child Welfare Act, kusowa lingaliro la ICWA, chitetezo cha chikhalidwe ndi chuma chomwe ndi ana Native; sikuteteza mabanja omwe amati ndi achikhalidwe kapena nyukiliya. Ndiko kuzindikira kufalikira kwa mabanja ndi zikhalidwe.xviii
Nanga nโcifukwa ciani Msonkhano wa Kuphedwa kwa Genocide uli wofunika? Mayiko amtunduwu akadali pano ndipo akadali pachiwopsezo cha kupha fuko. Iyi si mbiri yokha yomwe idachitika msonkhano wa Genocide wa 1948 usanachitike. Koma, mbiriyi ndi yofunika ndipo iyenera kuulutsidwa kwambiri, kuphatikizidwa m'malemba a sukulu za boma ndi zolengeza zautumiki wapagulu. The Doctrine of Discovery akadali lamulo ladziko. Kuchokera pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1455 mpaka pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1492, mayiko ambiri omwe sanali a ku Ulaya adalamulidwa ndi Doctrine of Discovery, imodzi mwa mfundo zoyambirira za malamulo apadziko lonse a Christian European monarchies omwe adalengezedwa kuti avomereze kufufuza, kupanga mapu, ndi kudzinenera minda. kwa anthu akunja kwa Europe. Idachokera mu chikalata cha papa chomwe chinaperekedwa mu 1494 chomwe chinalola ufumu wa Portugal kulanda West Africa. Pambuyo pa ulendo wapanyanja woipitsitsa wa Columbus mu XNUMX, mochirikizidwa ndi mfumu ndi mfumukazi ya dziko lakhanda la Spanish, ngโombe ina ya papa inapereka chilolezo chofananacho kwa Spanya. Kusamvana pakati pa maufumu a Portugal ndi Spain kunachititsa kuti pakhale Pangano la Tordesillas (XNUMX) lokhazikitsidwa ndi papa, lomwe, kuwonjezera pa kugawa dziko lapansi mofanana pakati pa maufumu aลตiri a Iberia, linamveketsa bwino kuti maiko osakhala Achikristu okha ndi amene anagwa pansi pa chiphunzitso cha kutulukira zinthu.chakhumi ndi chisanu ndi chinayi Chiphunzitsochi chimene mayiko onse a ku Ulaya ankadalira chinayamba chifukwa cha kukhazikitsidwa kosagwirizana ndi kogwirizana kwa mafumu a Iberia omwe amatsatira malamulo achikhristu olamulira anthu akunja, ndipo ufulu umenewu unatengedwa ndi mapulojekiti ena a ku Ulaya olamulira atsamunda. Dziko la France lidagwiritsa ntchito chida chovomerezekachi pamapulojekiti awo atsamunda azaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi zinayi ndi makumi awiri, monga momwe adachitira United States yomwe idangodziyimira pawokha pomwe idapitiliza kulamulira dziko la North America komwe a Britain adayambitsa.
Mu 1792, patangopita nthawi yaitali kuchokera pamene dziko la United States linakhazikitsidwa, Mlembi wa boma Thomas Jefferson ananena kuti Doctrine of Discovery yopangidwa ndi mayiko a ku Ulaya ndi malamulo apadziko lonse omwe amagwira ntchito ku boma latsopano la US. Mu 1823 Khoti Lalikulu Kwambiri ku United States linapereka chigamulo chake Johnson v. McIntosh. Polembera anthu ambiri, Chief Justice John Marshall ananena kuti Doctrine of Discovery inali mfundo yokhazikitsidwa ndi malamulo a ku Ulaya ndi malamulo a Chingerezi omwe ankagwira ntchito ku Britain kumpoto kwa America komanso linali lamulo la United States. Khotilo linafotokoza za ufulu wa katundu umene dziko lina la ku Ulaya linapeza potulukira zinthu zina kuti: โKupeza zinthu kunapatsa boma udindo umene anthu ake, kapena ulamuliro wawo unapangidwa, motsutsana ndi maboma ena onse a ku Ulaya. kukhala nacho.โ Choncho, โotulukira zinthuโ a ku Ulaya ndi ku Yuro-America anali ndi ufulu wopeza chuma chenicheni mโmayiko a Amwenyewo mwa kungobzala mbendera. Ufulu wachibadwidwe, mโmawu a Khotilo, โsananyozedwe konse; koma analidi opunduka, kumlingo waukulu.โ Khotilo linanenanso kuti โufulu wa eni eni wofuna kukhala wodzilamulira, monga mayiko odziyimira pawokha, unachepetsedwaโ. Anthu amtunduwu amatha kupitiriza kukhala pamtunda, koma udindo umakhala ndi mphamvu zotulukira, United States. Chigamulocho chinatsimikizira kuti maiko Obadwa kumene anali โmitundu ya kwawo, yodalira.โ
The Doctrine of Discovery imatengedwa mopepuka kotero kuti sichimatchulidwa kawirikawiri m'malemba a mbiri yakale kapena azamalamulo omwe amafalitsidwa ku America. Bungwe la UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Peoples, lomwe limakumana chaka chilichonse kwa milungu iwiri, linapereka gawo lake lonse la 2012 ku chiphunzitsochi.xx Koma ndi nzika zochepa zaku US zomwe zikudziwa kusatetezeka za mkhalidwe wa Amwenye a ku United States.
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i Patrick Wolfe, "Settler Colonialism ndi Kuthetsa Native," Journal of Genocide Research 8, buku. 4 (December 2006), 387.
ii Gary Clayton Anderson, Kuyeretsa Fuko ndi Amwenye: Mlandu womwe Uyenera Kuwononga America. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.), 4.
iii "Convention on the Prevention and Chilango of the Genocide, Paris, 9 December 1948," Audiovisual Library of International Law, http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/ha/cppcg/cppcg.html (yofikira December 6, 2012). Wonaninso Josef L. Kunz, โThe United Nations Convention on Genocide,โ American Journal of International Law 43, ayi. 4 (October 1949) 738-46.
iv April 17, 1873, wogwidwa mawu mu John F. Marszalek, Sherman: Msilikali Wokonda Kukonzekera (New York: Free Press, 1992), 379.
v Onani Umboni wa Pat McLaughlin, Wapampando wa boma la Standing Rock Sioux, Fort Yates, North Dakota (May 8, 1976), pamilandu ya American Indian Policy Review Commission, yokhazikitsidwa ndi Congress mu Act ya Januware 3, 1975.
vi Onani: Kenneth R. Philp, John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954.
vii King adatchulidwa mu Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, The Great Sioux Nation: Kukhala mu Chiweruzo ku America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2013), 156.
viii Kuti mumve bwino za neocolonialism pokhudzana ndi Amwenye aku America komanso dongosolo losungitsa malo, onani a Joseph Jorgensen, Chipembedzo Chovina Dzuwa: Mphamvu kwa Opanda Mphamvu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 89-146.
ix Pali kusamuka kosalekeza kuchokera ku malo osungitsako kupita kumizinda ndi matauni akumalire ndi kubwerera ku malo osungidwirako, kotero kuti theka la anthu aku India nthawi iliyonse amakhala kutali ndi malo osungidwirako. Komabe, nthawi zambiri, kusamuka sikokhalitsa ndipo kumafanana ndi ntchito yosamukira kudziko lina kuposa kusamuka kosatha. Izi zachokera pa zomwe ndawona komanso pa kafukufuku yemwe sanasindikizidwe wa Amwenye awo ku San Francisco Bay Area ndi Los Angeles.
x Walter R. Echo-Hawk, M'Mabwalo a Wogonjetsa (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2010), 77-78.
xi Colin G. Calloway, ndemanga ya Julian Granberry, Ma America Amene Angakhalepo: Native American Social Systems kupyolera mu nthawi (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005), Ethnohistory 54, ayi. 1 (Zima 2007), 196.
XII Benjamin Keen, "The White Legend Revisited," Mbiri Yakale ya ku Puerto Rico 51 (1971): 353.
xiii Denevan, โThe Pristine Myth,โ 4โ5.
xiv Henry F. Dobyns, Chiwerengero Chawo Chimachepa: Native American Population Dynamics ku Eastern North America (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press mogwirizana ndi Newberry Library, 1983), 2. Onaninso Dobyns, Native American Historical Demography, ndi Dobyns, โEstimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate,โ Anthropology Yamakono 7 (1966), 295โ416, ndi โReply,โ 440โ44.
xv Woodrow Wilson Borah, "America monga Model: The Demographic Impact of European Expansion on the Non-European World," mu Actas y Morรญas XXXV Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Mรฉxico 1962,3 mawu. (Mexico City: Mkonzi Libros de Mรฉxico, 1964), 381.
xvi John Grenier, Njira Yoyamba Yankhondo: Nkhondo Yaku America Kupanga Pa Frontier, 1607-1814 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 5, 10.
xviii http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/06/25/supreme-court-thwarts-icwa-intent-baby-veronica-case-150103
chakhumi ndi chisanu ndi chinayi Robert J. Miller, โThe International Law of Colonialism: A Comparative Analysis,โ mu โSymposium of International Law in Indigenous Affairs: The Doctrine of Discovery, United Nations, and the Organization of Americas States,โ magazini yapadera, Lewis ndi Clark Law Review 15, ayi. 4 (Zima 2011), 847-922. Onaninso Vine Deloria Jr., Wa Chikhulupiriro Chabwino Kwambiri (San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1971), 6-39; Steven T. Newcomb, Akunja mu Dziko Lolonjezedwa: Kufotokozera Chiphunzitso cha Kupezeka kwa Chikhristu (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2008).
xx Eleventh Session, United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, http://social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/UNPFISessions/Eleventh.aspx (yofikira pa October 3, 2013).
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