Pachikumbutso chachisanu cha chiyambi cha nkhondo ya Afghan ya ulamuliro wa Bush, Mlembi wa Chitetezo Rumsfeld analemba zolimbikitsa. adasinthidwa mu Washington Post Pamkhalidwe wa โchiyembekezo ndi wodalirikaโ wa dzikolo. Anatchula zinthu ziwiri zokha zomwe ndi zochepa kuposa "zolimbikitsa": "nkhawa yoyenerera kuti kuwonjezeka kwa poppy kungakhale chinthu chosokoneza" komanso "kuchuluka kwachiwawa kum'mwera kwa Afghanistan."
Ziwawa zomwe zikuchulukirachulukira - kuukiridwa kwathunthu ndi a Taliban omwe abwereranso - idabweza Afghanistan pamitu yankhani chilimwechi ndikubweretsa chisokonezo ku maboma a NATO (kuchokera ku Canada kupita ku Australia) omwe asitikali awo akumwalira m'dziko lomwe adawatsogolera kukhulupirira kuti linali lamtendere. "nkhani yopambana." Lt. General David Richards, mkulu wa asilikali a ku Britain a asilikali a NATO omwe analanda chitetezo kum'mwera kwa Afghanistan kuchokera ku US mu July, anachenjeza panthawiyo, โTikhoza kwenikweni kulephera apa." Mu Okutobala, adatsutsa kuti ngati NATO sinabweretse chitetezo ndi kukonzanso kwakukulu ku Pashtun yomwe ili kumwera mkati. miyezi isanu ndi umodzi - ntchito yomwe US โโidalephera kukwaniritsa zaka zisanu zapitazi - anthu ambiri atha kusintha chifundo ku a Taliban.
Koma kubwera pakati pa nkhawa za NATO ndi ziwawa za Taliban, titani ndi "nkhawa yovomerezeka" ya Rumsfeld yokhudza kupanga poppy ya Afghanistan yomwe chaka chino idzapereka 92% ya heroin padziko lapansi? Ndipo titani pa chisankho cha Purezidenti wa George W. Bush, chomwe chinaperekedwa pulezidenti wa Afghanistan Hamid Karzai asanayambe ulendo wa September ku Washington, kuti boma la Afghanistan liyenera kukhala. โanayankha mlanduโ kukolola poppy; kuti sichiyenera kokha โkulepheretsa ndi kuthetseratu kulima poppyโ mโdzikolo, koma โkufufuza, kuimbidwa mlandu, ndi kutulutsa anthu onse ozembetsa moลตaโ mโdzikolo?
Mosakayikira, malonda a poppy ndi kuyambiranso kwa a Taliban ndi ogwirizana kwambiri, kwa a Taliban, omwe adaletsa kulima poppy mwachidule mu 2000 pofuna kuzindikirika ndi kuthandizidwa ndi US, tsopano akuthandizira ndikupeza chithandizo kuchokera ku mbewu yopindulitsa. Komabe mfundo zaku Western zomwe zimayang'ana a Taliban ndi poppy ndizosiyana ndipo zimasemphana. Pomwe asitikali a NATO akukangana, pakati pa nkhondo, kuti amangenso zomangamanga zakumidzi, alangizi aku US akulimbikitsa apolisi aku Afghanistan odana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo kuti athetse moyo wa alimi osauka mamiliyoni awiri.
Pakadali pano pulogalamu yochotsa poppy, yomwe imathandizidwa kwambiri ndi US, sinachitepo kanthu. Chaka chatha, idati idawononga mahekitala 38,000 a poppies, kuchokera pa 12,000 chaka chatha; koma nthawi yomweyo kulima poppy kunakwera kuchokera ku mahekitala 104,000 kufika mahekitala 165,000 (kapena maekala 408,000).
Pamene olamulira a Bush adalanda dziko la Afghanistan mu Okutobala 2001, ma poppies adalimidwa pa mahekitala 7,600 okha. Pansi pa ulamuliro waku America womwe unatsatira kugonjetsedwa kwa a Taliban, kulima poppy kunafalikira kuchigawo chilichonse, ndipo kupanga kwathunthu chawonjezeka kwambiri kuyambira pamenepo - chaka chino ndi 60%.
Komabe, pulogalamu yochotseratu zinthu zopanda phindu imapambana pa chinthu chimodzi. Zimapangitsa moyo kukhala wachisoni kwa mazana a zikwi za alimi ang'onoang'ono. Kodi chimachitika ndi chiyani kwa iwo? Bungwe la Senlis Council, lomwe ndi bungwe lapadziko lonse loona za malamulo okhudza kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, linanena kuti pulogalamu yothetsa mankhwalawo imawononga alimi angโonoangโono okha komanso imawalowetsa mโmanja mwa a Taliban amene amawapatsa ngongole, kuwateteza, ndi mwayi wobzalanso. Kumbali ina, alimi akuluakulu sakhumudwa ndi pulogalamu yothetsa poppy; amangolipira apolisi ndi akuluakulu ogwirizana nawo, kufalitsa katangale ndi kuthetsa chiyembekezo cha boma loona mtima.
Mu 2002, Purezidenti Bush adalengeza, โTiyenera kuchepetsa kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo pa chifukwa chimodzi chachikulu cha makhalidwe abwino. Tikamalimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo, timamenyera miyoyo ya anzathu aku America. Pali zododometsa zambiri pano. A US muzaka za m'ma 1980 adamenya nkhondo yolimbana ndi Soviet Union pa nthaka ya Afghanistan, kulimbikitsa achisilamu ochita zinthu monyanyira (omwe panthawiyo anali asitikali "athu") ndikuthandizira kukhazikitsa njira ya a Taliban. Tsopano, olamulira ena aku Republican akhazikitsa Afghan motsutsana ndi Afghan kachiwiri mu mtundu wankhondo ya proxy ya cockamamie yomwe imati ndi miyoyo ya omwe ali ndi heroin aku America. Kuyambira liti anthu aku Republican akufuna kuchita chilichonse kwa omwe aku America omwe amamwa mankhwala osokoneza bongo koma kuwatsekera?
Uwu ndi mtundu wa "ndondomeko yakunja" yodabwitsa yomwe mumapeza pomwe maziko anu ali ndi chidwi pa Nkhondo Yolimbana ndi Mankhwala Osokoneza Bongo ndipo pali zinthu zambiri zenizeni zomwe simungathe kuzikamba kunja kwa Oval Office - kapena, nthawi zina, mmenemo. Monga, mwachitsanzo, momwe a Taliban tsopano akulamulira mzinda wakumalire wa Pakistani wa Quetta, mutu womwe sunatchulidwe mwaulemu posachedwa pomwe Bush adasangalatsa Purezidenti wa Pakistani Pervez Musharraf ndi Karzai waku Afghanistan ku White House. Monga momwe Pakistani imaperekera monyinyirika maofesala a al-Qaeda ku US, koma amangoyang'ana maso ndi maso pamagalimoto amtundu wa Taliban kudutsa malire opita ku Afghanistan. Imachitanso ndi akulu a Talibanized mdera lawo la Waziristan, lomwe limaganiziridwa kuti ndi malo a Al Qaeda komanso mwina Osama bin Laden mwiniwake. Monga mfundo yakuti palibe dziko lomwe likulimbana kwambiri ndi malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku Afghanistan kuposa mdani wathu woipa Iran, pamene "mnzathu wodalirika" Pakistani amapereka chithandizo ku malonda ndi a Taliban.
Ngati tiyenera kuda nkhawa ndi kupanga poppy pomwe gehena yonse ikuphulika kumwera kwa Afghanistan ndi mabomba odzipha akukantha Kabul, likulu la dziko, kodi pali njira "yovomerezeka" kapena yothandiza yodera nkhawa?
Bizinesi Yotukuka
Choyamba, titha kuyiwala zodetsa nkhawa zilizonse za okonda heroin aku America. Patha zaka 100 ndendende kuchokera pamene akuluakulu aboma anakumana koyamba ku London kuti aletse malonda apadziko lonse a opium. Zaka XNUMX zakuchepetsa kupanga poppy kuyambira ku Southeast Asia Golden Triangle kupita ku Central Asia's Golden Crescent kupita ku Mexico zatsimikizira mfundo imodzi yofunikira pazachuma zaulimi. Kupereka kukadulidwa kwinakwake, malo ena omera poppy amatuluka mwachangu kuti akwaniritse zofunikira. Mufafanize ma poppies ku Afghanistan mawa ndipo -รขโฌโ mwachangu kuposa momwe munganene kuti "ntchito yakwaniritsidwa" - Achimereka omwe ali pachiwopsezo adzakhala akuwombera heroin kuchokera ku Pakistan kapena Thailand kapena mwezi. Izi ndi zoona.
Koma palibe chifundo chabodza chimenecho kwa omwerekera ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo aku America chomwe chimakhudza "nkhawa yovomerezeka" ya Rumsfeld. Akuda nkhawa ndi "kusokoneza" zotsatira za malonda a mankhwala okha - pa boma la Karzai, Afghanistan, ndi dera la Central Asia.
Zodabwitsa ndizakuti amuna ambiri mumsewu ku Kabul amanena poppy monga gwero la ntchito, chuma, chiyembekezo, ndi bata monga Pulezidenti Karzai panopa akusangalala. Karzai mwiniwake nthawi zambiri amalonjeza kuchotsa boma ndi dziko la ogulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo, koma monga Pastun ndi wowona, amasunga adani ake pafupi. Njira yake ndi kupeลตa mikangano, kupanga ubwenzi ndi adani, ndi kuwapatsa maudindo, nthawi zambiri mu nduna zake.
Monga Musharraf ku Pakistan, Karzai amayenda pamzere pakati pa ndale zapakhomo ndi zofuna za ku America kuti achitepo kanthu -รขโฌโ monga kuthetsa malonda a mankhwala - momveka bwino kuposa mphamvu zake. Malonda amalowa ngakhale Nyumba Yamalamulo yosankhidwa yomwe ili ndi anthu omwe amawakayikira. Pakati pa mamembala 249 a Wolesi Jirga (nyumba yapansi) pali anthu osachepera 17 ozembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kuphatikiza pa akuluakulu 40 a magulu ankhondo, mamembala 24 a zigawenga, ndi amuna 19 omwe akukumana ndi milandu yayikulu yamilandu yankhondo ndi kuphwanya ufulu wachibadwidwe. onse omwe angakhale ogwirizana ndi bizinesi ya poppy. Kwa zaka zambiri mphekesera za Kabul zakhala zikutsatira malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku banja la Purezidenti mwiniwake.
Kupyolera mu maulamuliro ambiri, boma la US nalonso likukhudzidwa ndi malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku Afghanistan. Panthawi ya ulamuliro wa Soviet m'zaka za m'ma 1980, CIA inalimbikitsa anthu otsutsa-Soviet Islamist, ndipo kuti apeze ndalama zogwirira ntchito zawo mobisa, inalimbikitsanso malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Pamaso pa American ndi Pakistani-adathandizidwa mujahidin idatenga ma Soviet mu 1979, Afghanistan idangotulutsa opium pang'ono pamisika yam'madera, ndipo palibe heroin konse. Pamapeto pa jehad motsutsana ndi gulu lankhondo la Soviet, linali lopanga kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi mankhwala onse awiriwa. Monga Alfred W. McCoy akunenera mu Ndale za Heroin, Afghanistan mujahidin - anyamata omwe Purezidenti Ronald Reagan adawafanizira ndi "makolo athu oyambitsa" - adalamula alimi aku Afghanistan kuti azilima poppy; Olamulira aku Afghanistan ndi ogwira ntchito zanzeru zaku Pakistani adayenga heroin; gulu lankhondo la Pakistani lidatengera ku Karachi kuti likatumizidwe kutsidya lanyanja; pomwe CIA idapanga zonse zotheka popereka chivundikiro chalamulo pazochita izi.
US italanda Afghanistan mu 2001, olamulira a Bush adagwiritsa ntchito ogwirizana athu akale achisilamu, kuwalipira madola mamiliyoni ambiri kuti asaka Osama bin Laden, ntchito yomwe sakuwoneka kuti adadzipereka kwathunthu. Atafunsidwa mu 2004 chifukwa chomwe US โโโโsinali kutsatira mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku Afghanistan, mkulu wina waku US yemwe sanatchulidwe dzina adauza. mtolankhani wa New York Times kuti akuluakulu a mankhwala osokoneza bongo anali "anyamata omwe anatithandiza kumasula malowa mu 2001," anyamata omwe tinkadalirabe kuti tipeze bin Laden. Anafunsidwa ndi British Independent, msilikali wa ku United States anapereka chifukwa china: "Timayamba kugulitsa anthu osokoneza bongo, ndipo ayamba kutulutsa anyamata athu." Posafuna kusokoneza omwe timagwirizana nawo pankhondo yapadziko lonse lapansi pa zoopsa kapena kuyika miyoyo ya asitikali aku US pachifuwa chotere, olamulira a Bush adatsata alimi ang'onoang'ono m'malo mwake.
M'mbuyomu, a British, omwe anali ndi udindo pa ntchito zapadziko lonse zotsutsana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku Afghanistan, anayesa kunyengerera alimi a ku Afghanistan kuti apeze "njira zina zopezera ndalama" - ndiko kuti, kulima mbewu zina - ngakhale kuti palibe mbewu ina yomwe imafuna ntchito yochepa kapena imatulutsa mbewu. gawo la phindu la poppy. Osati kuti alimi okha amalemera. Mkati mwa Afghanistan, kumene mwina anthu 3 miliyoni amapeza ndalama mwachindunji kuchokera ku poppy, phindu likhoza kufika $3 biliyoni chaka chino; koma ogulitsa padziko lonse lapansi pamsika wapadziko lonse lapansi apanga zochuluka kuwirikiza kakhumi, osachepera.
Ndalama zochepa zomwe zimatsalira ku Afghanistan zimalemeretsa makamaka mafumu: olamulira ankhondo, akuluakulu a boma, ozembetsa ndale. Koma pamene ochita mankhwala osokoneza bongo amamanga nyumba zazikulu ku Kabul - zokongoletsedwa ndi "Palass waku Pakistani" za matailosi opakidwa ndi magalasi achikuda - amapanga ntchito ndi malonda ochulukirachulukira amitundu yonse yazinthu zovomerezeka kuyambira simenti mpaka mapoto ndi mapoto. Kuphatikiza apo, phindu laling'ono la m'dzikolo limawonjezera pafupifupi 60% yazinthu zonse zapakhomo ku Afghanistan, kapena kupitilira theka la ndalama zomwe dzikolo limalandira pachaka. Ndiwopitilira kuwirikiza kawiri kuposa momwe US โโidapangira zaka zisanu zapitazi kuti imangidwenso ku Afghan, ambiri mwa iwo. sanafikebe kudziko.
Muyenera kufunsa: bwanji ngati malonda osokoneza bongo ndikanathera kuyimitsidwa? Nanga bwanji za kusokoneza kwake?
Kuopa Maluwa
Momwe zinthu zilili, mlimi wa poppy amakhala ndi moyo wabwino. Ma poppies amamupangitsa kuti agwire malo ake. Akhoza kudyetsa banja lake komanso kutumiza ana ake kusukulu. Komabe, zaka ziwiri zapitazo alimi ena a poppy m'chigawo cha Nangahar adakakamizika kusiya poppy kuti adye tomato. Iwo anapanikizidwa ndi ndawala yaukali ya ku America yopopera mbewu mโmlengalenga mopanda masamba a poppy amene anapha mapopi ndi kudwalitsa ana ndi ziweto. A US akukanabe udindo pazochitikazo ndi zofanana kuukira kwa ndege zomwe zinasakaza ziweto mโchigawo cha Helmand mu February 2005.
Mawu atamveka kuti Koran Yoyera yatayidwa m'chimbudzi cha Guantanamo, alimi a Nangahar anali m'gulu la anthu aku Afghanistan omwe adachita zipolowe ku Jalalabad. Kwa iwo kudetsedwa kwa Koran kunali udzu womaliza. Iwo anali atakwiya kale ndi tomato. Anakolola mbewu zabwino, kenako amaziwona zikuwola chifukwa mlatho wolonjezedwa womwe amafunikira kuti tomato wawo agulitsidwe usanamangidwe. Chodabwitsa, alimi a Nangahar adayesabe "njira zina", koma adapeza ndalama zochepa kuti adyetse ana awo. Chaka chino iwo analengeza kuti iwo ali kubzala ma poppies kachiwiri.
Munda wa maluwa a poppies ndi owoneka bwino kwambiri - makamaka ku Afghanistan komwe maluwa ake obiriwira komanso oyera ndi ofiirira amayima motsutsana ndi malo osawoneka bwino amiyala ndi mchenga, umboni wowoneka bwino wa lonjezo lazochita za anthu ngakhale zinthu zitavuta kwambiri. Zitha kukhala kuti alimi aku Afghan amalingalira za minda yawo ngati fanizo, anthu aku Afghan kukhala okonda ndakatulo. Koma ndi othandiza komanso osimidwa, kotero adapanga dongosolo.
Alimi aku Afghanistan adapempha akuluakulu aku Britain odana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo kuti apatsidwe chilolezo cholima poppy ndikupanga opiamu kuti amange malo oyeretsera aboma ndi thandizo lakunja. Malo oyeretserawo, amatha kupanga mankhwala a morphine ndi codeine kuti agulitse mwalamulo padziko lonse lapansi, motero amakwaniritsa zosowa zapadziko lonse za opha ululu wachilengedwe otsika mtengo. (Posachedwapa kuchipatala ku US, nditha kuchitira umboni kuti morphine imagwira ntchito bwino kwambiri, ngakhale ndi yokwera mtengo chifukwa, mosiyana ndi heroin, ndiyosowa.)
Alimi sanapezepo pena paliponse ndi lingaliro ili, ngakhale ndizovuta kulingalira za ndondomeko iliyonse yomwe ikanatha kumangirira anthu akumidzi ku boma lofooka la Karzai, kukhazikika ndi kulilimbitsa. Tsopano, a Senlis Council apanganso dongosolo lomwelo, koma ndizothekanso kuwuluka. Sikuti Big Pharma ingakhumudwitse mpikisanowo. Ganizirani za maziko a Republican omwe "mankhwala ovomerezeka" ali oxymoron.
Mu November 2004, George W. Bush, mothandizidwa ndi utsogoleri wa Pentagon ndi amphamvu Republican Congressmen monga Henry Hyde wa Illinois, mwadzidzidzi anawonjezera ndalama za US zomwe zinaperekedwa ku nkhondo ya Afghanistan pa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kasanu ndi $780 miliyoni, kuphatikizapo $ 150 miliyoni. zopangira kupopera mbewu mankhwalawa mumlengalenga. Hyde, akadali pamlandu ngati wapampando wa Komiti Yanyumba Yowona za Ubale Wapadziko Lonse, posachedwapa apereka lingaliro losintha malingaliro kuchokera kwa alimi kupita ku "mafumu," koma palibe m'boma yemwe ali wokonzeka kuyimitsa nkhondo.
Zaka ziwiri zapitazo ku Kabul ndinakambirana ndi mlangizi wa ku America yemwe anatumizidwa ndi oyang'anira kuti awone "vuto la mankhwala" ku Afghanistan. Chigamulo chake chosalembedwa: โNjira yokha yanzeru yopulumutsira ndiyo kuvomereza mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Koma palibe amene akufuna kumva izi ku White House. โ Iye anavomereza kuti mfundo yomvekayo siipezeka mu lipoti lake.
Kotero mukuwona zomwe ndikutanthauza za ndondomeko zodabwitsa zomwe boma monga lathu lingathe kupanga pamene silingathe kuyankhula zenizeni zenizeni. Zikafika kwa anthu zimati zikutsutsana nazo. Ikalimbana ndi anthu omwe mitima ndi malingaliro awo ikuyembekeza kupambana. Ikalipira akatswiri kuti inene zabodza ikufuna kumva. Zikawononga mabiliyoni ambiri kuti ziwononge miyoyo ya anthu osauka a ku Afghanistani monga momwe ogwirizana athu a NATO amapempherera kupuma polimbana ndi a Taliban kuti - nthawi itatha - athe kumanganso.
Ann Jones adakhala gawo labwino lazaka zinayi zapitazi ku Afghanistan, akugwira ntchito pamaphunziro ndi ufulu wa amayi - ndikuwonera. Adalemba zomwe adaziwona Kabul ku Zima: Moyo Wopanda Mtendere ku Afghanistan (Mabuku a Metropolitan, 2006).
[Nkhaniyi idawonekera koyamba Tomdispatch.com. Woyambitsa Pulogalamu ya American Empire Project ndi wolemba Mapeto a Chikhalidwe Chogonjetsa, mbiri ya kupambana kwa America mu Cold War, buku, Masiku Otsiriza a Kusindikiza, ndi kugwa, Ntchito Yosakwaniritsidwa (Nation Books), gulu loyamba la zoyankhulana za Tomdispatch.]
ZNetwork imalandira ndalama kudzera mu kuwolowa manja kwa owerenga ake.
Ndalama