Chitsime: Boston Review
"Ndinkafuna kupita ku koleji kuti ndisakhale wosamalira m'badwo wachitatu."
Bambo amene ali pasiteji pa holo ya tauni yaku California akufotokoza nkhani yodziwika bwino. Iye tsopano ndi mphunzitsi wamkulu wa kusekondale wokondedwa, koma kuti apeze ndalama zolipirira maphunziro ake, anatenga ngongoleโ$80,000. Choyamba, kubweza malinga ndi dongosoloโzovuta, koma osati zosatheka. Ndiye, tsoka lachipatala; kusakhulupirika; kusowa ndalama. Kenako, kupsinjika maganizo; kusakhulupirika kachiwiri; ngongole pafupifupi kuwirikiza kawiri kuchuluka kwa ngongole yoyambirira. Zinakhala nkhani yabanja: makolo a bamboyo, omwe adagwirizana nawo pa tikiti yoyambira ku maloto aku America, tsopano ali ndi zotsatira za kugwa kwake. Amaona kuti malipiro awo akukongoletsedwa, akuti, chitetezo chawo cha anthu mwachinyengo. Chifundo chimawuka, chomveka, kuchokera pagulu.
Malamulo amakhalidwe amapeza mphamvu kuchokera ku dongosolo lachilengedwe. Koma panthawi yamavuto, makhalidwe abwino ndi masamu a ngongole zatsimikiziridwa kuti ndizosavuta.
Town Hall ndi kampeni yapurezidenti chochitika kwa Bernie Sanders. Pa June 24 Sanders adalengeza kuti akufuna kuletsa ngongole zonse za $ 1.6 thililiyoni za ngongole za ophunzira, kutsatira Elizabeth Warren. pempholo kuletsa kocheperako mu Epulo; miyezi itatu pambuyo pake adalengeza zomwezo za ngongole yachipatala-$ 81 biliyoni mu 2016, yotengedwa ndi munthu mmodzi mwa akuluakulu asanu ndi limodzi a US. Pano pali mfundo zochititsa mantha kwambiri pambuyo pa ziลตerengerozo: amayi osakwatiwa, akulu odwala, ozengedwa mlandu chifukwa cha ndalama zachipatala zosalipidwa, kulandidwa ndalama zachipatala zosalipidwa, kumangidwa chifukwa cha ngongole zachipatala zosalipidwa.
Lerolino mawu akuti โndende ya amangongoleโ amatchulidwa kaลตirikaลตiri kufotokoza chochitika chimenechi cha kukhala ndi ngongole zolanga. Nthawi zina amatanthawuza kwenikweni. Taganizirani za Melissa Welch-Latronica, mayi wosakwatiwa wa zaka 2018, yemwe mu February anaphwanyidwa mโgalimoto yake yaingโono nโkuponyedwa mโndende ya ku Porter County, Illinois, chifukwa cholephera kulipira bilu ya ambulansi. Nkhani yake ndi yachilendo koma si yapadera. ACLU ya XNUMX lipoti adalemba milandu chikwi cha "kuphwanya ngongole zachinsinsi" ndikulemba nkhani zingapo zowopsa kwambiri. Ambiri mwa anthu omwe adawonetsedwa adatsekeredwa kundende chifukwa adalephera kupita kukhothi chifukwa cha ngongole zomwe sanalipidwe, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti apereke chilolezo. Ndiyeno pali chonyansa, mwadongosolo kuzungulira za kumangidwa ndi kutsekeredwa mโndende kwa anthu osaukaโmakamaka anthu osauka amtundu winaโosatha kulipira chindapusa ndi chindapusa kukhothi.
Zimene zikuoneka kuti nโzanzeru masiku ano tingazione ngati zankhanza komanso zachilendo mawa.
Komabe, ndende ya angongole monga chonchoโndende yotsekera anthu amene sangathe kubweza ngongole zawoโyapita kalekale. Zomwe zimachitika kawirikawiri zimafanana ndi za mkulu wa California: kusonkhanitsa zilango kumatenga mawonekedwe a zingwe, zokongoletsa, ndi zotsekera. Kwa ambiri, nkhaniyo sithera mโndende koma mโkulephera kusunga ndalamaโmwina kusowa pokhala, kapena kusankha kosatheka pakati pa chakudya, pogona, mankhwala, ndi malipiro.
Kuthetsedwa kwa ziwerengero zandende zangongole pakusintha kwakukulu kwangongole ku America. Malamulo amakhalidwe amapeza mphamvu kuchokera ku dongosolo lachilengedwe. Koma mu nthawi yamavuto, pamene insolvency yakhala chizolowezi, makhalidwe ndi masamu a ngongole zatsimikiziridwa fungible, atengeke kusintha kwambiri. Tingayangโane mโmbiri imeneyi kuti tipeze malangizo osonyeza mmene kuลตerengera kwa ngongole kungakhazikitsirenso kusinthaโkomanso kutsimikizira kuti zimene zikuoneka ngati zomveka lerolino zikhoza kuonedwa kuti nโzankhanza komanso zachilendo mawa.
Kuti tanthawuzo la ngongole lingasinthe kwambiri likuwonekera kuchokera ku kusintha komwe kwachitika kale, ngakhale isanafike kumpoto kwa America. Ngongole sikuti nthawi zonse imalimbikitsa mabungwe osonkhanitsa ndi ma APR; umboni wakale kwambiri wa ubale wangongole, womwe unachitikira ku mzinda wa Sumerian zaka pafupifupi 5,000 zapitazo, umatanthauza china chake. M'mbiri yake yokulirapo Ngongole: Zaka 5,000 Zoyambirira (2011), katswiri wa chikhalidwe cha anthu David Graeber akusonyeza kuti mgwirizano m'madera oyambirira ukanakula kuchokera mumalingaliro aumulungu, mangawa osalipidwa komanso kuyembekezera kuyanjananso. M'mbiri yambiri ya anthu, uwu unali mtundu wa mangawa omwe anthu ambiri akadazindikira: "chikominisi cha tsiku ndi tsiku," Graeber amachitcha icho, cha kuyang'anira pamodzi ndi kudalirana kosatha.
Chonena chachikulu cha Graeber ndi chakuti zida zolimba za boma zowongolera ngongole - kupanga ndalama zovomerezeka ndi boma, kusinthanitsa ndalama zowerengeka, ndi chilango chakusalipira - zidayenera kupangidwa, motengera kutheka kwa ngongole. Ndipo kwa Graeber, yemwe ali ndi anarchist, imathanso kuthetsedwa. Maziko a makhalidwe abwino a ngongole yamasiku anoโlingaliro lakuti kulephera kubweza ngongole ndi kulakwa kwakukulu kapena kulephera kwa makhalidwe abwino, ndiponso kuti kuyenera kwa wobwereketsa kubweza ndi chiwongoladzanja kumayenderana ndi maudindo ena onseโndizogwirizana ndi mbiri yakale monga momwe mabungwe oumiriza amachirikiza. Ndi kayendetsedwe ka dziko lonse ka akapolo pansi pa mercantile, imperialist paradigm, Graeber akutsutsa, malire a madera omwe amagwirizana kuti azizungulira matupi kapena magulu a mabanja; malonda otengera ndalama omwe anali atachitika kalekale m'mphepete mwa anthu adadzalamulira kusinthana mkati mwake. Panthaลตi ina mโmbiri, pafupifupi aliyense anakhala mlendo.
Aliyense amene ali ndi ngongole ya mwezi uliwonse ya kirediti kadi akhoza kuzindikira maziko achuma chamakono mu mfundo za Calvin ndi Luther.
Wotsutsa zachikhalidwe Lewis Hyde adatsata kusamvana kwa Reformation ku Europe, pomwe malamulo achikhristu okhudza chiwongola dzanja - kaya wobwereka kapena wobwereketsa - adasinthidwa kuti agwirizane ndi zenizeni zapadziko lonse lapansi. Chiwongola dzanja chinalipo nthawi zonse m'malire a Chikhristu, odziwika kwambiri muulamuliro wa Ayuda, omwe udindo wawo wakunja ukanatha kugwiritsidwa ntchito mwanzeru kulola chiwawa ndi mtundu wa kubwereketsa kwa mabizinesi komwe kumathandizira kufalikira kwa ndalama zambiri komanso kuchuluka kwachuma. Koma mโzaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi, John Calvin anatsutsa kuti, chifukwa chakuti ndalama zobwereka zimawonjezera mtengo kwa wobwereketsa, kubwezera zina za mtengowo kwa wobwereketsa monga chiwongoladzanja chinali cholungama kwambiri. Martin Luther nayenso analingalira kuti ngakhale kuti kunali Mkristu kukhululukira ngongole, Chikristu chowona sichinali chogwira ntchito mโgulu loipitsidwa; Motero kunali koyenera kuti boma likhazikitse malamulo a ngongole mosamalitsaโmzere wochepa kwambiri pakati pa anthu ndi nkhanza.
Mu 2019, aliyense amene ali ndi kirediti kadi pamwezi amatha kuzindikira maziko achuma chamakono mu mfundo za Calvin ndi Luther. Koma malangizo awo sanapirire mosayenerera. Lingaliro la kukhala ndi ngongole mwachibadwa - chikominisi cha Graeber cha tsiku ndi tsiku, kapena chomwe Hyde amachitcha "mzere" wa mangawa a onse awiri - zimalamulirabe maubwenzi athu apamtima ambiri, ngati sichonse pamsika. Panthawiyi, kukhalapo kwa chitetezo cha bankirapuse kumasonyeza kuti chuma chathu chamakono chimadalira, kumlingo wina, kupatulapoโpa fungibility ya ngongole.
Pamene Azungu anawoloka nyanja ya Atlantic, anabweretsa malingaliro osakhululukidwa a Kukonzanso a ngongole. Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za kukula kwa ufumu, monga momwe Graeber akulongosolera, mafumu ndi ogonjetsa adadzipeza ali ozama kwambiri m'dzenje mwakuti anapita theka la dziko lapansi kuti adzifukulemo - kapena, m'malo mwake, kukakamiza akapolo ndi ololedwa kukumba. kuwachotsa, kuwononga zitukuko zonse mu ndondomekoyi.
Ngongole idawonjezedwa kudzera mu kulumikizana kwamunthu, ndipo mikangano idakambidwa kudzera muzodandaula zamunthu.
Komabe, mโmbali zina, moyo wachuma mโmadera ena a dziko la America lautsamunda woyambirira unali wofanana ndi chakudya cha mafuko kuposa kusinthanitsa mwankhanza zamalonda. M'zaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi ziwiri ku Connecticut, mwachitsanzo, maubwenzi azachuma ndi azamalamulo pakati pa nzika zaufulu anali osakhazikika, olamulidwa ndi "ngongole zamabuku" -zolemba zolemba za omwe anali ndi ngongole - komanso zomwe wolemba mbiri yazamalamulo Bruce Mann (mwamwayi, mwamuna wa Elizabeth Warren) imatcha "chitsanzo chamagulu" cha kuthetsa mikangano. Monga Mann akufotokozera mu phunziro lake Anansi ndi Alendo (1987), chidaliro chinakhalabe pachimake cha ubale pakati pa omwe ali ndi ngongole ndi omwe ali ndi ngongole. Ngongole zamabuku sizinatanthauze malonjezo olipira, koma kumvetsetsa kuti malipiro adzaperekedwa momwe wobwereketsayo adatha. Ngongole idawonjezedwa kudzera mu kulumikizana kwamunthu, ndipo mikangano idakambidwa kudzera muzodandaula zamunthu.
Chikominisi sichimaletsa mikangano, ndithudi; mikangano inali yofala. Koma pambuyo pochita zinthu mwamwayi, zinthu zikafika poipa mโpamene nkhani zikafika kukhoti. Kumeneko, mboni za makhalidwe zikanachitira umboni, ndipo ngongole za mabuku zojambulidwa zinkangokhala poyambira kukambirana za amene ali ndi ngongole ndi kuchuluka kwake. Komabe, chiลตerengero cha milandu yangongole yomvedwa ndi makhoti akumaloko, Mann akutsutsa, chimasonyeza kufunika kwa ngongole mโchitaganya chachichepere, chosoลตa ndalama. Pomwe Mann adapitilira kufufuza mkati Republic of Debtors (2002), zomwezo zinalinso zowona kwa olemera pang'ono ngati alimi odzidalira. Mโdziko la amalonda odzipangira okha, ngongole inali njira yopezera ndalama, makamaka pamene ndalamazoโgolide ndi silivaโzinali zoonda pansi. Poyamba ngongoleyi inkalamulidwa ndi mtundu wake wa chikominisiโchimene Graeber amachitcha โchikominisi cha anthu olemera.โ Pakati pa magulu akum'mwera ndi amalonda a Kumpoto, zinali zovuta kufuna kubweza ngongole - kusweka kwa mapangano achifundo. Kufanana kunatanthauza kuti ngongole zambiri zidabwezedwa pomaliza.
Pakati pa magulu akum'mwera ndi amalonda a Kumpoto, zinali zovuta kufuna kubweza ngongole - kusweka kwa mapangano achifundo.
Ukominisi uwu ungakhale wanthawi yochepa; kubweza panthaลตi yake posakhalitsa kudzakhala mfundo yachuma yosasokonekera. Zolemba zakale za Mann zikuwonetsa kuti ngongole zangongole, zokhazikika ndikukhudzidwa ndi maubwenzi amunthu, zidalipo cha m'ma 1720 kumidzi yaku Connecticut. Komabe, mkati mwa m'badwo wina, zinali zitaloลตa m'malo mwa "kuzizira" kwa ma bond ndi ma promissory notes. Chifukwa, Mann akutsutsa, chinali kuwonjezeka kwa anthu osiyanasiyana. Mapepala owonetsera ngongole-omwe amatchedwa "script" -akhoza kuthandizira kusinthanitsa ndi osadziwika. Sipanapite nthawi yaitali kuti mawu otsimikizira ngati amenewa anayamba kufalitsidwa. Pamene magulu a anthu oyandikana nawo pang'onopang'ono anayamba kusonkhanitsa anthu osawadziwa, njira zatsopano za apolisi za ngongole zinadzaza mitundu yakale ya kulolerana, ndipo chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe chautsamunda chinalowa m'mavuto omwe timawadziwa lero.
Gulu la mercantile linapezanso ntchito pa ngongole zamapepala, zomwe pamapeto pake zinakhala chinthu chongopeka chopindulitsa. Zolemba zamtengo wapatali zitha kugulidwa ndi "kuperekedwa," kupitilira maubwenzi omwe adayimilira poyambirira ndikupangitsa kuti ngongoleyo ikhale yopanda munthu. Zotsatira zake, ngongole zinasonkhanitsidwa pafupipafupi komanso mwachangu. Ndi zovuta zachuma monga zomwe zinatsatira Nkhondo Yachisinthiko, olemba zolemba adayamba kudalira obwereka, komanso kuda nkhawa kwambiri ndi kuchepa kwa pepala lomwe adagwira. Kukongoletsa pakati pa magulu amalonda kuthetsedwa.
Kumbuyo anabisalira kuopseza ndende amangongole. Kale tsogolo la anthu osauka kwambiri, pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma XNUMX ndende zokhala ndi ngongole zinali zodzaza ndi anthu "olemekezeka". Ngakhale kuti ngongole inali yofala nthaลตi zonse, inakhalabe chinthu chamanyazi, chizindikiro cha kudalira mopanda mwamuna pa kuwolowa manja kwa ena. (Eni minda ya kumโmwera makamaka anaipidwa ndi mmene ngongole ya angongole a ku Britain inawonekera kukhala yowagwirizanitsa ndi anthu aukapolo amene anali kuyesa kumanga chuma chawo mโmisana yawo.) Kutsekeredwa mโndende chifukwa cha kulephera kulipirira kunali kunyazitsa kwakukulu kwa onse. Pamene dongosolo la mapangano a njonda linayamba kufooka ndipo okhometsa ngongole anagogoda, zotsatira zake zinamveka kwambiri ndi omwe pamapeto a ngongole - alimi monga omwe adatsogolera Shay's Rebellion kumidzi ya Massachusetts, omwe anaukira okhometsa ngongole. ataopsezedwa kuti adzalandidwa katundu wawo ndi malo awo chifukwa cholephera kutulutsa mtundu. Koma pamene ndende za angongole zinakhala ulamuliro wa opeza bwino, nkhani yachitukuko ya ngongole inayenera kusintha kuti athetse kusamvanako.
Chikomyunizimu chikanakhala chosakhalitsa; kubweza panthaลตi yake posakhalitsa kudzakhala mfundo yachuma yosasokonekera.
Kuonjezera apo, kutsekeredwa mโndende chifukwa cha ngongole sikunathandize kwambiri munthu amene walephera kubweza ngongoleyo kuti abweze ngongoleyoโimeneyo inali mfundo yaikulu yowatsekera. Kwa amalonda, ndende ya angongole sinatanthauzidwe monga chilango koma monga mtundu wa chisungiko chandalama, kusunga wolakwayo mโmalo mwake kufikira atabwezeretsedwa. Koma popeza siliva ndi golidi sizinali zopezeka mosavuta kuposa kale, kaลตirikaลตiri panalibe wongongole wotsekeredwa mโndende, mkati mwa dzenjelo, akanatha kuchita. Atsamunda ambiri odziลตika bwino amene analephera kubweza ngongole anali kuthera nthaลตi yawo yonse akulemba makalata osonyeza chifundo ali kundende, opempha kuti awachitire chifundo. Madera oyaka moto amaika ongongole amalonda ngati apainiya odziwika bwino pazachuma, kapena ozunzidwa ndi ngozi. Kutsika kwachuma komwe kunayambitsa nkhondo kunapangitsa kuti ziwonekere zoonekeratu kuti kulephera kungagwere amalonda popanda โcholakwaโ chawokha. Motero ngongole pangโonopangโono inayamba kuonedwa monga kulephera kwachuma, osati kwaumwini. Akaidi olemekezeka anadzipanga okha kukhala nzika zolungama, ndipo ngongole zawo monga chizindikiro cha kukhala nzika zamalonda. Mosiyana kwambiri ndi masiku ano, angongole ndi obwereketsa adapezeka kuti akugwira ntchito ngati anzawo komanso ogwirizana kuti athetse vutoli.
Chigamulo cha kusagwirizana kumeneko chikanabwera mu mawonekedwe a Federal Bankruptcy Act ya 1800. Panthawiyo, bankruptcy inali njira yokhayo ya anthu omwe ali ndi ngongole zamalonda, chizindikiro cha chiopsezo chovomerezeka ndi kulephera kwakukulu. Koma ngakhale kubwereketsa pang'ono kumeneku kunawonetsa kusintha kwakukulu kwa malingaliro a anthu pa ngongole. Zinawonetsa kupumula kwakukulu ndi malingaliro akale a Reformation kuti ngongole zonse ziyenera kubwezeredwa mwanjira iliyonse, kupanga gulu langongole zokhululukidwa zomwe zakhala nkhani yakukambirana ndi kutsutsana kuyambira pamenepo. (Lero ngongole za ophunzira zikadali nthawi zambiri wosayenerera kuti achotsedwe mwa bankirapuse.) Chinasonyezanso mfundo yosabwerera mโmbuyo popanga chuma chozikidwa pa ngongole, zongoyerekezera, ndi chiwongola dzanja, komanso kuvomereza lingaliro limene chuma chamakono chimachitenga mopepuka: mabvuto amafuna. mabasi.
M'zaka zonse za m'ma 1837 zotsatira, mabasi anali ochuluka, olimbikitsidwa ndi kusakhazikika kwa kayendetsedwe ka mabanki ogawidwa ndi kuwonjezereka kwa ngongole. Kukhala waku America kunali kudziyesa wochita bizinesi. Pamene wotsutsa banki Andrew Jackson anakana kuyitana kwa ndalama zapakati, mabanki achinsinsi, oyendetsedwa ndi boma adakula ndikutulutsa ndalama zawo, zowotcha kwambiri; Mantha anthawi ndi nthawi adapeza mabanki akulephera kuwombola mapepala amtundu wamtundu, kusiya zolembera zimanjamanja pamene otolera abwera kuyitana. Pamene Jackson adalamula kuti anthu azigwiritsa ntchito malo kumadzulo kokha, kuthamanga kwa mabanki mu XNUMX kudayambitsa kuwonongeka kwakukulu kwachuma m'mbiri ya US. โZikwizikwi amene anadzilingalira kukhala mamiliyoni, pamene anakhala otero, anadzuka ndi chenicheni chakuti anali opanda ndalama,โ analemba motero mkonzi wa nyuzipepala ya New York City yemwenso ndi wandale Horace Greeley.
Pamene ndende za angongole zinakhala ulamuliro wa opeza bwino, mbiri yachitukuko ya ngongole inayenera kusintha kuti athetse kusamvanako.
Pamene ngongole inkachulukirachulukira, koteronso kusagwirizana kwa chikhalidwe kunayambanso pa tanthauzo lake. Malinga ndi kafukufuku wa Philip Gura wa antebellum moral philosophy, Angelo Abwino a Munthu: Okonzanso Achikondi ndi Kubwera kwa Nkhondo Yapachiweniweni (2017), akatswiri ambiri azaka za m'ma XNUMX anali ndi nkhawa chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa ngongole pamakhalidwe adziko, ngakhale kupitilira kuphulika kwa bankirapuse ndi kusowa kwa ntchito komwe kumatsatira kulephera kwa banki. Ena ankaona kuti chuma cha mapepala chinali โcholakwikaโ moti n'kungoyerekezera utsi ndi magalasi pakati pa ndalama ya banki ndi mulingo wa tirigu. Ena adawona kuchepa kwachuma kwa mapepala kudzetsa katangale. Albert Brisbane, katswiri wa zachikhalidwe cha anthu, analemba za zida za ngongole monga โmachitidwe ndi luso,โ akudzudzula โmzimu wosakhazikika wopezera ndalama, ndi umbombo ndi kudzikonda kumene kumadza chifukwa cha zochita za anthu odzipatula ndi makampaniโ kukhala malo achonde achinyengo. Komabe ambiri okonzanso adawonanso phindu la chuma cha pepala ku mtundu watsopano, ndikulingalira za chikhalidwe cha anthu chomwe chinaphatikizirapo.
William B. Greene, katswiri wa maphunziro a zaumulungu ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu ogwirizana ndi gulu la Transcendentalist, anadzudzula ochita mabanki osasunthika, anagwirizana ndi anarchist wa ku France Pierre-Joseph Proudhon polengeza kuti "katundu ndi kuba," ndipo anatsutsa mtunda womwe ukukula pakati pa likulu ndi antchito. Komabe Greene sanali socialist; ankakhulupirira kuti chuma chapakati ndi kulowerera kwa boma m'moyo wachinsinsi ndizopanda ufulu. M'malo mwake, adaganiza kuti ufulu ndi makonzedwe a Mulungu zitha kuchitika kudzera mumsika waulere komanso wampikisano wamsika womwe umaperekedwa ndi mabanki otopetsa. (Kwa Greene, dongosolo lazachumali lidakhala ngati mabanki ogwirizana, omwe adakhulupirira kuti atha kusunga mwayi wokulirapo wa pepala limodzi ndi mfundo zachikomyunizimu, pomwe obwereketsa amangolipira chiwongola dzanja chamwadzidzidzi komanso ndalama zomwe zidasudzulidwa.) Horace Greeley, panthawiyi, adanyansidwa ndi lamuloli. kulekanitsa ndi atomization ya chuma potengera zofuna za munthu payekha, koma ankaona khama monga kofunika makhalidwe, ndipo anapeza kuti otuluka chikapitalist dongosolo lopanda mphamvu ndi kuwononga, komanso masuku pamutu. Greeley anakomera lingaliro la "mgwirizano" wopangidwa ndi wotsogolera Socialist wa ku France Charles Fourier: mgwirizano pazachuma, wophatikizidwa ndi dongosolo lamabanki adziko lonse, ukhoza kukulitsa chuma chamagulu ndikubweretsa ndalama ndi ntchito kuti zigwirizane.
Ngongole pangโonopangโono inayamba kuonedwa monga kulephera kwachuma, osati kwaumwini.
Ngati ena mwa malingalirowa amalira belu lodziwika lero, nawonso sanakhalepo kutali kwambiri. Nkhondo Yapachiweniweni, Gura akutsutsa, inayimitsa masomphenya ena m'njira zawo. Zomwe zidachitika pambuyo pake - kusalingana kwakukulu, kudyerana masuku pamutu, chuma chamakampani chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma XNUMX ndi kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma XNUMX - zidatsimikizira mantha oipitsitsa a oganiza bwinowa.
Komanso kuwonetseratu kuopsa kwa chuma chongoganizira chabe, mavuto a ngongole a zaka za m'ma 1800 adathandiziranso kuwonetsetsa khalidwe latsopano la ngongole, mwa njira yowonjezera chitetezo cha bankirapuse. Mu 1841 aphungu a federal adakulitsa malamulo osowa ndalama kwa onse obwereka. Mkati mwa zaka ziลตiri anthu pafupifupi 41,000 anali atasumira ku bankirapuse. Mkati mwa anayi, lamulo la feduro linali litathetsedwa, koma mfundo yake inalipo: mayiko anapitiriza kupereka chitetezo cha bankirapuse, ndipo pamapeto pake ndende za omwe anali ndi ngongole zikanakhala zitatha. Ngongole zachuma zidatsala pang'ono kukhala. Kutulutsidwa kwa ndalama yoyamba ya federal "greenback" mu 1862 ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa Federal Reserve mu 1913 kunabweretsa nthawi ya zowawa zazikulu, zomwe maboma ndi maboma adalimbana kuti aziyang'anira mabanki, kubwereketsa, ndi ndalama, kulimbitsa udindo wa ngongole zamalonda pakukula kwachuma.
Nkhondo yoyamba yapadziko lonse itatha, komabe, zidakhala zovomerezeka kuti mabanki azibwereketsa anthu kuti apindule, zomwe zikuwonetsa kusintha komaliza kuchuma changongole chomwe tikuzindikira lero. Monga wolemba mbiri ya zachuma Louis Hyman akunenera mu Dziko Lokongola: Mbiri ya America mu Red Ink (2011), kwa ogwira ntchito m'mafakitale otsika mtengo, ngongole inali gawo losapeลตeka la moyo. Ngakhale kuti ma capitalist, kwenikweni, anali okhoza kupeza ngongole zaumwini kuchokera ku mabanki omwe amapereka ndalama zamakampani awo, ogwira ntchito omwe amayendetsa mafakitale ndi mafakitale ankalipira obwereketsa chiwongoladzanja chodabwitsa kuti athe kupeza zofunika pamoyo wawo. Ogula ogwira ntchito ndi ogulitsa nawonso adadalira njira zongongoleredwa zosavomerezeka ngati ngongole zamabuku zomwe zidayendetsa chuma cham'deralo ku Connecticut, koma kusintha kwachuma chokhazikika pamapepala kudabweretsa kusintha kosasinthika pamayendedwe angongole.
Kusintha kwachuma chamalonda, chozikidwa pamapepala kunabweretsa kusintha kosasinthika m'ntchito ya chikhalidwe cha ngongole.
M'malo mongoyang'anira gulu lomwe limamangidwa chifukwa chogwirizana, ngongole zamabuku izi zinali zotulukapo za "mpikisano" -ngongole idalanda makasitomala ambiri, komanso kuyika pachiwopsezo chotaya ndalama kwa obwereka osadalirika. Kuteteza obwereketsa ndi amalonda chimodzimodzi, pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1910 ndi kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 20, malamulo oyendetsa ngongole zazing'ono potsiriza anapangitsa ogula kubwereketsa kukhala bizinesi yovomerezeka ndi yopindulitsa. Ndalama zamagalimoto zidatsatiridwa posakhalitsa, limodzi ndi kuchulukira kwa malamulo ena komanso kubwereketsa kwakukulu kwa eni nyumba pambuyo pa Kupsinjika Kwakukulu. Anali kupita ku mipikisano.
M'zaka za zana la makumi awiri, kukhala nzika zachuma ku America motero kunatanthauza ufulu wokhala ndi ngongole (kwa obwereka) ndi ufulu wachiwongoladzanja (kwa obwereketsa). Zowonadi, mwayi wofanana wolandira ngongole ungakhale kulira kwakukulu kwa magulu odana ndi tsankho m'zaka zapakati pazaka. Koma zomwe zidagulitsidwa ngati mwayi zidasinthidwa kukhala udindo. Monga Hyman akufotokozera, pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za zana lino, kusatenga nawo mbali pazachuma cha ngongole sikunali kotheka; Mkulu aliyense wa ku Amereka anapatsidwa chiwongola dzanja, ndipo kudzikwanira kowonekera kwa moyo wotchedwa "wapakati" kunafikirako kokha mwa kukwera makwerero a ngongole zandalama. Inali njala ya mabungwe azachuma yomwe idapangitsa kuti ngongole ziwonjezeke m'mbali zonse za moyo waku America.
Choyambitsa chachikulu cha metastasis iyi chinali kusungitsa ngongole: kusonkhanitsa ngongole za konkriti monga ngongole zanyumba kukhala chinthu chatsopano chomwe, ngakhale chanthawi yayitali, chikhoza kugulidwa, kugulitsidwa, ndi inshuwaransi kuti apindule, ndipo chomwe sichinadziwike konse, chomwe sichimafuna kudziwa zambiri. chigawocho ngongole zokha. Ngakhale kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa ukonde wovutawu womanga mtolo, kugulitsanso, ndi khungu losankha zitha kuyambitsa mavuto azachuma a 2008, njirayi idayamba ndi kuyesetsa kulimbikitsa misika yayikulu kuti ikulitse umwini wanyumba komanso chitukuko chachuma mkati mwa kutsika kwamatauni.
Inali njala ya mabungwe azachuma yomwe idapangitsa kuti ngongole ziwonjezeke m'mbali zonse za moyo waku America.
Pochita izi, mabanki adapanga zomwe Hyman amachitcha "sayansi ya alchemical yosinthira zinthu kukhala zotetezedwa," zomwe, "ndi masamu oyenera, ngongole imatha kusinthidwa kukhala chilichonse." Momwe njira yomweyi idakhazikitsidwa ndikukonzedwanso pamsika wama kirediti kadi pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1970 ndi 1990, ndale zotsutsana ndi malamulo komanso zokonda zamabanki zidathetsa mwadongosolo malamulo a pambuyo pa Kukhumudwa omwe adalekanitsa ndalama ndi mabanki ogula. Kuchotsedwa kwa Glass-Steagall mchaka cha 1999 kunakhudza kwambiri chuma pamasewera ongoyerekeza, ndipo, malinga ndi katswiri wazachuma a Joseph Stiglitz, adalola kuti chikhalidwe chokhala pachiwopsezo chachikulu, chotsogozedwa ndi kubweza ndalama zamabanki kuti chikhazikikenso.
Monga momwe zinaliri m'mapepala azaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi zinayi, ngongoleyo inakhala yopangira ndalama-koma kwa obwereketsa, nthawi ino. Ndi makhadi a ngongole, mโmalo moletsa kubwereketsa ngongoleโmonga momwe โngongoleโ yoipa ingakhalire pakati pa mabwenzi a mโchigawo chautsamunda cha Connecticutโngongole yaikulu ya wobwereka inafika ponena za njira ina yolipirira. Mabungwe obwereketsa adapanga njira zawo zakukulira pakukweza ngongole yonse ya ogula mwanjira iliyonse yofunikira - kuphatikiza makamaka kukulitsa ngongole kwa iwo omwe mwina sangathe kubweza ngongole zawo. Pa nthawiyi, malipiro amene ankalipira ankasokoneza mgwirizano wa ngongole imene munthu wanyamula ndi ndalama zimene ankayenera kubweza. Pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la makumi awiri, Hyman akutsutsa, kukulitsa, kugula, ndi kugulitsa ngongole kunakhala injini yoyamba yopangira ndalama mu chuma cha US. Ngongole zolemetsa zamunthu aliyense zidakwera kwambiri.
Pamene angongole adadzaza Zuccotti Park mu 2011, adalipira chiwongola dzanja chotsimikizika: obwereketsa adachita izi, adachita modziwa, ndipo adachita kuti apindule.
Kuyambira m'zaka za m'ma 1990, ziwongola dzanja zochulukirachulukira zidapangitsa kuti abwerere ku chikhalidwe cha Reformation. Kukula kwa makhadi a ngongole m'misika yomwe kale inkawoneka ngati "yowopsa" idasokoneza mbiri ya ogula, ndipo njira zotsatsira tsankho zitha kukhazikitsidwa kuti zikhazikitse udindo wolephera. (Kusayeruzika kwa mafuko kumatsimikizirabe kuti ndani amene ngongoleyo imamulemetsa kwambiri, ndi amene amapeza bwino kwambiri ngongole zomwe amalipeza.) Kuda nkhawa kuti ngongole yonseyo idzabwezedwe bwanji sikunasinthe, koma momveka bwino; kwa mbali zambiri, mgwirizano wangongole-wongongole unapitilirabe mosasokonekera. Kukhala ndi ngongole kunali koyenera. Panali lingaliro la ndondomeko, kupeza zomwe mumalipira pa ndondomeko ya magawo.
Mpaka 2008. Mofanana ndi alimi opanduka a Shay, omwe anali ndi ngongole zanyumba anavutika ndi vuto lachuma chifukwa cha kubweza ngongole. Kunali kusagwirizana, mwina, kwa kugunda kwa umwini wa nyumba - kubetcha kotsimikizika, chizindikiro cha chitetezo - ndi kuthetsedwa kwadzidzidzi kwa pangano la ngongole. Kapena mwina chinali chakuti nyumba zokhala ndi ndalama zokwanira zomwe zidapangitsa msika kukhala ndi zofunikira zofunika, zokhala pachiwopsezo komanso kupezeka kwa owopsa okha - ndi phindu kwa wobwereketsa wotsimikizika - adayamba kuwonekeranso, akukayikira zamakhalidwe. Pamene angongole adadzaza Zuccotti Park mu 2011, adalipira chiwongola dzanja chotsimikizika: obwereketsa adachita izi, adachita modziwa, ndipo adachita kuti apindule.
Zikunena kuti Graeber ndi Hyman adasindikiza maphunziro awo a ngongole mu 2011, akukwera mofanana ndi momwe amachitira gulu la Occupy. Patadutsa zaka khumi kuchokera pamene chivomezi chinachitika, mphamvu yonse ya fundeyi sinathe. Ngongole zolemetsa komanso mitengo yotsala pang'ono kubweza zonse zikuchulukirachulukira. Koma kusamvana kwathu pachikhalidwe pa ngongole sikunathe. Kwa ena, kukhala ndi ngongole kwa Amereka amakono kumasonyeza dongosolo la mtengo wadziko mโmawu abwinoโchikhumbo chofuna kulota zazikulu. Komabe mgwirizano ukuwoneka kuti ukuyenda bwino: ngongole zathu sizingapitirire.
Ngongole masiku ano zimakhudza aliyense. Monga grist kwa mphero zachuma, iwo ndi vuto la aliyense.
Kuthetsa ngongole mwaunyinji kukanakhala kosatheka kwa wogula nyama wa mโzaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi ziลตiri kapena wamalonda wa mโzaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi zitatu, koma mโzaka zana limodzi, kaลตerengedwe kake kanasinthiratu. Ngongole lero ndi yosiyana kwambiri. Komabe kusintha komwe kukuchitika pa nkhani ya ngongole ya anthu onseโmkhalidwe wa wobwereketsa ndi wobwereketsa ku bungwe, osatchulanso za bizinesi yonse yopanga phinduโkumafuna kuyerekezera.
Ngakhale kuti kusokonekera kudakhala ngozi yapadziko lonse kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma XNUMX, masiku ano kukuwonekera ngati vuto lalikulu. Sichisankho chowerengeredwa, osati kulephera kwaumwini, koma china chake chochitidwa kwa anthu ndi gulu lopanda ngongole lomwe lili ndi mphamvu zochulukirapo. Ngongole masiku ano zimakhudza aliyenseโmonga grist yachuma, ndivuto la aliyenseโkomanso sizidziwika ndi kunenedwa, zokulirakulirana ndi ukapitawo wogwirizana womwe ngongole zozungulira zikadathandizira.
Graeber analemba kuti ngongole nthawi zambiri yakhala โmgwirizano wapadera pakati pa anthu aลตiri ofanana kuti sadzakhalanso ofanana, kufikira nthaลตi yoti adzakhalenso ofanana.โ Ndithudi izi zinali zoona kwa nzika zambiri zachuma za New World midzi yaulimi ndi mabizinesi amalonda. Koma pansi pa kayendetsedwe ka ngongole zopezera phindu mwaukatswiri komanso zosathawika, pali maulamuliro okhawo omwe amasungidwa ndi chinyengo cha kufanana kwamtsogolo, ndipo chinyengo chimenecho chikulephera.
Ngongole ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu, chosavuta kusintha, ndipo zomwe sizingayende bwino ziyenera kuwonedwa ngati zachiwerewere.
Zotsalira za manyazi zomwe zidazungulirabe omwe adangongolewa pomaliza pake zikugwa. (Pang'onopang'ono, komabe-zambiri za mawu okhudza ngongole ya ophunzira ndi ngongole zachipatala zimapanga zigamulo zamtengo wapatali ndi kusiyanitsa pakati pa mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya ngongole. Ophunzira a ku koleji ndi odwala ndi abwino, m'maakaunti awa, pamene anthu omwe akulimbana ndi ngongole ya kirediti kadi sangakhale. ) Mabungwe monga Strike Debt!, yomwe idabwera pambuyo pa Occupy, idafuna kukana kubwereketsa kwamtundu uliwonse; zawo Debt Resistors' Operations Manual (2014) mwatsatanetsatane ndondomeko ndi othandizana nawo pa kukana kulipira, kuchokera ku ngongole zachipatala ndi za ophunzira kupita ku ngongole zanyumba ndi zolipirira galimoto.
Iwo amatsatira mu chachikulu miyambo, kuyambira ku Sumerian chitukuko cha 2400 BC. Hammurabi, wopanga malamulo woyambirira, analamula kuti mangawa onse a nzika zake akhululukidwe kanayi muulamuliro wake wonse, poyankha kuukira kofala kofala. Ngongole ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu, chosavuta kusintha, ndipo zomwe sizingayende bwino ziyenera kuwonedwa ngati zachiwerewere. Koma pamene ngongole imakhala yolemetsa kwambiri, ndipo pamene Achimereka akudzipeza okha kumapeto kwa msewu wautali wopangidwa ndi malo onama, kusankha kumakhalabe: kukonzanso masikelo, kapena kukambirananso tanthauzo la ngongole kwathunthu.
ZNetwork imalandira ndalama kudzera mu kuwolowa manja kwa owerenga ake.
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