Gwero: New Statesman
Chithunzi ndi metamorworks/Shutterstock
Tech capitalism imalengeza kuti ikupereka kulumikizana m'dziko losungulumwa. Malinga ndi Nick Bilton, wolemba wa Kusintha Twitter (2013), kupambana kwa nsanja kunabwera mu 2006, pamene mmodzi mwa omwe adayambitsa, Noah Glass, adazindikira kuti teknoloji ikhoza "kuchotsa" kusungulumwa - panthawi yamavuto, banja likatha kapena chivomezi chikachitika, padzakhala wina woti alankhule. ku. Kuthetsa kukhala pawekha, ndi "kumanga gulu la anthu padziko lonse lapansi", monga a Facebook Mark Zuckerberg akunenera, akadali masomphenya aakulu a makampani ochezera a pa Intaneti.
Anthu angadalire intaneti pagulu ngakhale popanda zotsekera. Koma pafupifupi palibe amene wapanga ndalama zochuluka kuchokera ku mliriwu monga eni ake aukadaulo. Gawani zikhalidwe ku Amazon, Apple, Facebook, Alphabet/Google ndi Microsoft zidakwera mu 2020, ndikuyendetsa bwino kwambiri Wall Street panthawi imodzi mwazovuta kwambiri m'mbiri ya capitalism.
Koma kupatula mabwana aukadaulo okha, ndi ochepa omwe amasangalala ndi momwe ma media amagwirira ntchito. Mapulatifomu nthawi zonse amasintha malamulo awo ndi mapangidwe awo popanda kuyankha kwa ogwiritsa ntchito. "Malangizo amdera" onena zomwe zili zovomerezeka pamapulatifomu awo ndi osathandiza polimbana ndi kupezerera anzawo, kuponderezana ndi tsankho, komabe sanaperekepo zolankhula "zaufulu". Momwe nsanja zimagwiritsira ntchito mphamvu zawo pazambiri zopangidwa ndi ogwiritsa ntchito ndizobisika.
Madera omwe amawatsogolera samawoneka okondwa, mwina: kafukufuku wambiri walumikiza nthawi yowonekera ndi chiwopsezo chowonjezereka cha kukhumudwa. Kuyambira mchaka cha 2016, makampani ochezera a pa TV akuimbidwa mlandu wolimbikitsa miyambo yachifasist, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti ziwawa zizichitika ngati zipolowe za US Capitol koyambirira kwa chaka chino. Zowopsa kwambiri, Facebook, monga idakakamizidwa kuvomereza mu 2018, idagwiritsidwa ntchito poyambitsa chiwonongeko cha Myanmar motsutsana ndi a Rohingya kuyambira 2016 mpaka 2017. Kwa dziko la "kulumikizana", intaneti ndi malo osungulumwa, osasunthika komanso osakhazikika.
Zovuta izi zidayamba kuyambika m'ma 1990, kuchokera pa zomwe Richard Barbrook ndi Andy Cameron adazizindikira kuti ndi "chitsanzo cha California" chapaintaneti - ndiko kuti, pafupifupi malonda onse komanso osayendetsedwa. Izi zinali pamene madera a pa intaneti adasinthidwa kukhala zinthu zogulitsirana, monga ntchito yotsatsa - yodziwitsidwa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito intaneti - inalimbikitsa ntchito za intaneti kuti zisokoneze ogwiritsa ntchito. Ma feed a media media adasinthidwa mwadongosolo kuti akope anthu kuti achite nawo chinkhoswe. Pamene dongosololi limatipangitsa kuti tisasangalale, m’pamenenso linatikakamiza kwambiri kutenga nawo mbali. Iyi inali njira yopezera phindu.
Patatha zaka makumi atatu kuchokera pamene Tim Berners-Lee adayambitsa intaneti padziko lapansi, timakakamizika kufunsa: kodi intaneti ikanakhala yosiyana? M'mawu amalonda, ndizovuta kulingalira zomwe zingalowe m'malo mwa nsanja zothandizidwa ndi zotsatsa. Pali zolembetsa ndi zolipira, monga Substack ndi OnlyFans. Koma "midzi" yawo ndi omvera ochepa omwe amalipira osati otenga nawo mbali. Substack akuti yafikira theka la miliyoni olembetsa ndi OnlyFans opitilira 120 miliyoni, koma Facebook ili ndi 2.89 biliyoni. Izi ndi zina chifukwa cha "network effect". Kufunika kwa nsanja ngati Twitter kapena Facebook kumadalira kuchuluka kwa anthu omwe amagwiritsa ntchito. Amakhala ndi ogwiritsa ntchito ambiri, m'pamenenso amalumikizana kwambiri ndi aliyense. Mapulatifomu omwe amalipira chindapusa atha kuletsa kuchuluka kwa ogwiritsa ntchito motero amachepetsa mtengo wantchitoyo.
Komabe mbiri yaukadaulo wapaintaneti ikuwonetsa kuti pakhala pali njira zina zosinthira kusokoneza kwathu kwa digito.
The Well anatembenuza nkhawa zachikhalidwe kumanzere - za computing ndi ubale wake ndi mphamvu zankhondo - pamutu pawo. Panthawi ya Cold War, makompyuta ndi ma cybernetics adatuluka m'magulu ankhondo ndi mafakitale omwe adatulutsa mabomba a nyukiliya. Lingaliro lakuti malo ochezera a pa Intaneti anali maukonde azidziwitso, omwe pambuyo pake amatchedwa "gulu lazidziwitso", chinali chida chankhondo chomwe chidapangidwa m'malo ofufuza omwe amathandizidwa ndi boma monga Radiation Laboratory ku MIT.
Koma malinga ndi Fred Turner mu Kuchokera ku Counterculture kupita ku Cyberculture (2006), potengera matekinoloje atsopanowa, a Well adapanga zokhumba za omanga midzi "zogwirizana ndi zomwe zidachitika ku America wamba". Kupambana kwa Well popatsa ogwiritsa ntchito maubwenzi, chithandizo chadzidzidzi komanso madera okonda zosangalatsa komanso macheza andale adalowa nthano.
Chochititsa chidwi, komabe, zina mwazomwe zidapangitsa kuti Chitsimechi chikhale chopambana ndi chomwe chimasiyanitsa ndi intaneti masiku ano. Idalimbikitsa ogwiritsa ntchito kuphatikiza kukambirana pa intaneti ndi "fleshmeets" - kukumana pamasom'pamaso. Izi ndizosiyana ndi intaneti pano, pomwe zokambirana zapaintaneti zimalowa m'malo mwa kukumana kwakuthupi.
"Kulephera" kwa intaneti yamakono nthawi zina kumadzudzulidwa chifukwa cha zikhalidwe za hippy zomwe zidapulumuka ku Well ndi m'madera owononga ku US West Coast m'zaka za m'ma 1980. Wasayansi wamakompyuta Moshe Vardi akutsutsa kuti chikhulupiliro cha hippy pakugawana, lingaliro lakuti "chidziwitso chimafuna kukhala chaufulu", sichinangopanga chidziwitso chodziwika bwino komanso chinayambitsa "tsoka la commons" momwe ogwiritsa ntchito payekha amapezerapo mwayi pazinthu zawo. zolinga. Wasayansi wina wotchuka wa pakompyuta, Jaron Lanier, mofananamo amanena kuti lingaliro la “chidziŵitso chaulere” linasiya makampani aukadaulo opanda chosankha chochepa chandalama koma kulipirira mabizinesi awo mwa kutsatsa.
Kudzudzula uku kumapitilira maziko a hippy onse a intaneti komanso a Well omwewo. Stewart Brand anali kupeza ndalama zambiri akugwira ntchito yokonza misonkhano yamakampani monga Shell, Volvo ndi AT&T atangoyambitsa Chitsime; woyambitsa mnzake Larry Brilliant anali mamiliyoni ambiri omwe anali ndi kampani yomwe idapanga machitidwe amisonkhano yamakompyuta. Masomphenya awo a "mabizinesi apaintaneti", omwe adawadziwitsa ku World Economic Forum ku 1996, adapangitsa kuti zikhalidwe zowolowa manja za counterculture zigwirizane ndi ufulu wamapiko amanja a eni ake aukadaulo ndi oyang'anira. Poganizira za intaneti ngati agora yamagetsi, msika womwe anthu amatha kulankhula momasuka popanda kufufuza, adalonjeza kuti teknolojiyi imapereka mawonekedwe odziimira okha. Munthu akhoza kuyesa zidziwitso, kugonana ndi moyo mu malo omasuka. Koma kudzakhala kudziyimira pawokha malinga ndi msika waulere, ndi malamulo ochepa a boma.
Kwa onse obera ndi okonda ukadaulo omwe adapereka ntchito zaulere ndi zopanga ku West Coast m'zaka za m'ma 1980, ndalama ndi zida zapaintaneti zoyambirira zidachokera ku boma la US kufunafuna njira zolimbikitsira utsogoleri wankhondo ndi mafakitale. Chilichonse kuyambira ukadaulo wosinthira paketi - womwe umathandizira kufalitsa ma data pamanetiweki - kupita ku iPhone zidadutsa magawo a chitukuko chamagulu aboma komanso ndalama zachinsinsi.
Koma palibe chomwe chingalephereke kuti madera a pa intaneti alandidwe kuti achite malonda. Izi zidachitika chifukwa cha zisankho zomwe zidapangidwa ku Washington, DC, kuyambira ndi kuletsa kuletsa ma telecom mu 1980s. M'zaka za m'ma 1990, oyang'anira Clinton adabweza malire pakugwiritsa ntchito intaneti, ndikusamutsa zatsopano zomwe zidapangidwa ndi mabungwe aboma kupita kumakampani azinsinsi. Iyi inali gawo la pulogalamu yandale ya Bill Clinton's New Democrats, yomwe idakomera anthu ambiri.
Omwe adapindula kwambiri ndi Webusayiti 1.0 anali America Online (AOL), yomwe inali yoyamba kuyesa kugulitsa anthu pa intaneti. Inachita zimenezi pogwiritsa ntchito ntchito yaulere ya anthu ongodzipereka oposa 10,000 kuti mauthenga ake apeze phindu. Koma inali Google, ndipo pambuyo pake Facebook ndi Twitter, zomwe zinakhazikitsa chitsanzo chotsatsa potengera deta kuchokera kwa ogwiritsa ntchito. Makampani a chikhalidwe cha anthu, kumene moyo wa anthu umasinthidwa kukhala phindu, unabadwa.
Kodi maloto amtundu wa intaneti adasokonezedwa kuyambira pachiyambi? Zikunena kuti lingaliro la gulu la pa intaneti lidanenedwa muchilankhulo cha "electronic frontier" ndi "virtual homesteading". Iyi ndi intaneti monga atsamunda-atsamunda - maloto omwe amapezeka pakati pa Quakers oyambirira omwe akuthawira ku Dziko Latsopano, kapena ma hippies omwe amapanga midzi yakumidzi m'zaka za m'ma 1960, kuti utopias akhoza kumangidwa poletsa mikangano yachisokonezo. Zowona, palibe kuthawa: adabweretsa maiko akale nawo.
M'zaka za m'ma 1970, kale Silicon Valley isanakhazikitsidwe, dziko la France lidachita upainiya pa intaneti: intaneti isanayambe intaneti. Iwo ankatchedwa Médium interactif par numérisation d'information téléphonique (Minitel). Pambuyo pochoka ku Nato mu 1966, dziko la France likuyembekeza "kukonza makompyuta kwa anthu" ndipo linayamba kufufuza mozama pamtundu wake wa mauthenga omwe anali kufufuzidwa ndi asilikali a US.
Minitel adatuluka mu kafukufukuyu mu 1981. Inali ntchito ya videotex yoyendetsedwa ndi anthu, yoperekedwa pa kabokosi kakang'ono, kowoneka bwino, kofiirira kokhala ndi kiyibodi yomwe idatuluka kuti iwulule chophimba. Ogwiritsa ntchito amatha kupeza malowa kwaulere kwa omwe ali m'dera lawo ndikulipira ndalama zochepa kuti agwiritse ntchito masamba a pa intaneti a zolemba ndi zithunzi. Inali nsanja yotseguka, yotsimikiziridwa ndi mabungwe aboma. Aliyense akhoza kukhazikitsa zofanana ndi webusaitiyi, ntchito, pokhapokha atalembetsa kuti atero. Ogwiritsa ntchito amatha kugula, kucheza, matikiti a konsati, kusewera masewera, kuyang'ana maakaunti awo aku banki komanso - kuwonetseratu "nyumba yanzeru" - kugwiritsa ntchito ma thermostat ndi zida zamagetsi. Zinali zopambana kwambiri. Pofika pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1990 panali ma terminals a Minitel 6.5 miliyoni omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito.
Ngakhale idapangidwa kuti ithandizire kupititsa patsogolo chuma cha France, zidali kudzera ku Minitel pomwe cyber-utopianism yatsopano yakumanzere idatulukira. Mu 1986 mabungwe oyendetsera anthu adapanga ntchito yawoyawo ya Minitel: 36-15 Alter. Inaphatikiza mabungwe 25 omwe akuyimira alimi, ophunzira odana ndi tsankho, odwala matenda amisala ndi ena, omwe adalipira chindapusa cha umembala ndikuwongolera zomwe zili palimodzi. M'chaka chomwecho, ochita ziwonetsero za ophunzira adagwiritsa ntchito intaneti yomwe imaperekedwa ndi mapiko akumanzere tsiku ndi tsiku kumasulidwa kukonza ziwonetsero zotsutsana ndi kusintha kwa nduna ya zamaphunziro Alain Devaquet ku mayunivesite, kukakamiza kusiya ntchito. Patatha zaka ziwiri, anamwino omwe anali pachiwonetsero adagwiritsa ntchito Minitel kugwirizanitsa ntchito zawo zamafakitale motsutsana ndi malipiro ochepa komanso kuchepa kwa antchito. Katswiri wa zamaganizo ndi filosofi Félix Guattari adayamikira momwe anamwino amagwiritsira ntchito Minitel "kulumikizana kwapakatikati", ndipo ankayembekezera "nthawi ya post-media". Anthu sangadalirenso pawailesi yakanema, ndi "malingaliro ake".
Minitel sanali utopia wamanzere, koma msika waulere wosungidwa ndi boma. Ndipo chifukwa zida zake sizinagulitsidwe, ndipo panalibe njira yopezera phindu pakudina, sizinatsogolere kumayendedwe okonda chizolowezi komanso kupondaponda komwe kumadziwika ndi makampani azachuma masiku ano.
Potengera kupambana koyambirira kwa Minitel, njira ina yosinthira malingaliro aku California idadziwonetsa kwakanthawi koyambirira kwa 1990s. France Télécom (yomwe masiku ano imadziwika kuti Orange), inali njira yolumikizirana ndi anthu mdziko muno. Ndikuyembekeza kudzikondweretsa ndi mawonekedwe aukadaulo a West Coast, idalemba ganyu a John Coate, m'modzi mwa omwe adayambitsa Well, kuti apange ntchito yatsopano yapaintaneti.
Kutha kwa Cold War, komanso kukwera kwapadziko lonse kwa US, kudalimbikitsa kukhazikitsidwa kwamakampani ndi zachuma. M'malo mophatikiza ntchito zapaintaneti zapagulu ndi ntchito zomanga anthu ammudzi zomwe zinali zikuyenda bwino ku West Coast, France Télécom idangopanga ntchito ina ya eni ake olemera yotchedwa "101 Online", yofanana ndi ntchito zomwe CompuServe ndi AOL zidaperekedwa. . Icho chinaphwanyika.
Adateronso Minitel. Kuperewera kwa ndalama zokwanira kumatanthauza kuti inali kutsalira m'mbuyo mwaukadaulo komanso mosagwirizana ndi World Wide Web pomwe idatulukira mu 1991. Boma linasiya kupereka ma terminals kwaulere, pomwe European Commission idalimbikitsa kuti mayiko a EU atenge zomwe zinali makamaka mtundu waku California wa "msika waulere" wopereka intaneti. Posakhalitsa, ma terminals a Minitel adachotsedwa chifukwa cha kufalikira kwa mafoni am'manja, komabe dongosololi lidakhala lodziwika modabwitsa mpaka lidapuma pantchito mu 2012.
Kodi pali mwayi wanji woti pakhale kusintha kwakukulu kwa intaneti, popeza "msika waulere" wazaka za m'ma 1990 walowa m'malo pakulamulira mphamvu zamabizinesi? Ngakhale kusintha pang'ono kwa malamulo kumakwiyitsa mabwana amakampani azachuma. Pamene mu 2014 boma la Spain lidayesa kukhazikitsa lamulo laukadaulo lokakamiza Google kuti ilipire opereka nkhani pamalumikizidwe ndi zolemba zomwe zaperekedwa pa Google News, kampaniyo idalengeza kuti isiya ntchito yake ku Spain. Kusuntha komweko kwa boma la Australia kudapangitsa kuti Facebook iletse kwakanthawi masamba atolankhani mdzikolo koyambirira kwa chaka chino.
Ngakhale omasuka ku America amakwiyira Big Tech, olamulira a Biden akuyenera kusunga mphamvu zamafakitale. Ngakhale kusankhidwa kwa magulu awiri odziwika bwino odana ndi kukhulupilira - a Tim Wu ku National Economic Council ndi Lina Khan ku Federal Trade Commission - gulu la Biden ladzaza ndi oyimilira mafakitale, ndipo likukakamizidwa kuseri kwa ziwonetsero. Izi sizodabwitsa: Democratic Party ili pafupi ndi Big Tech. Boma la Clinton lidakhazikitsa maziko opangira intaneti padziko lonse lapansi pamalingaliro aku America, pomwe olamulira a Obama adathandizira zimphona zazikuluzikulu, ngakhale akulimbana nazo paufulu wa boma pakugwiritsa ntchito deta - mwachitsanzo, dipatimenti yazachilungamo, idafuna kuti Twitter ipereke mwayi wopeza. nkhani za anthu odzipereka a WikiLeaks.
Mphamvu zamakampani azachuma ndi ndale, osati zachuma. Ngakhale malo ochezera a pa Intaneti amagwira ntchito kuti apindule, amapanganso magulu a anthu. Samatipanga gulu ngati msika kapena demokalase: m'malo mwake, amatilimbikitsa kuti tipeze zokonda, ma share ndi ma retweets, kupanga otsatira ndikukhala ngati anthu otchuka. Dziko lotentha, lampikisano ndi lopindulitsa, koma limasinthanso omwe tili komanso momwe timakhalira ndi anthu - iyi ndi mphamvu zenizeni zandale. Kudalira kwathu mapulatifomu, komanso moyo wamagulu omwe amalimbikitsa, zimalimbikitsa kusauka kwathu kwa nzika. Zimatisiya osakonzekera, kudalira akatswiri komanso opanda chitetezo ku mphamvu: zomwe katswiri wa chikhalidwe cha anthu Theda Skocpol amachitcha "demokalase yochepetsedwa".
Komabe m'zaka za zana la 20, monga momwe Skocpol akulembera, mazana ndi masauzande a mabungwe aboma adayendetsedwa ndi demokalase, feduro. Titha kuchita chimodzimodzi ndi nsanja zapaintaneti. Mabizinesi monga Facebook ndi Google sizokayikitsa kuti angatengedwe kukhala eni ake. Koma zitha kukhala zotheka kuyesa ma cooperative a digito, kusokoneza mphamvu za ma behemoths ndikuchotsa nthano yoti intaneti yathu ndi yosapeŵeka.
Richard Seymour ndiye wolemba "The Twittering Machine" (The Indigo Press)
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