Patsiku lotentha la June kuno ku Martin Luther King Jr. National Historic Site, komwe pakali pano kuli chionetsero chomwe anthu amakambirana kwambiri za mbiri ya lynching ku America, bambo wina wachikulire anayamba kulira, kukwirira nkhope yake mโmanja mwake, kenako nโkuthamangira kunja. . Anali atachoka ku Florida kukawona chiwonetserochi, koma adayenera kupepesa. Ali ndi zaka 1, bambo ake anaphedwa. Anabwera kudzaona ngati mwina panali chithunzi cha bambo ake pachiwonetserocho. Koma sanathe kupirira kukhalabe.
Chiwonetsero chapagulu chokhala ndi vuto losasunthika chotere - chomwe katswiri wina wokhudzana nacho amachitcha "kunyansidwa" - ndizomwe mayunivesite ambiri amatha kuyimitsa asanathandizire. Komabe kuthandizira chiwonetserochi ndi zomwe Emory University yachita, mogwirizana ndi tsamba la King, mu "Popanda Malo Opatulika: Kujambula Zithunzi za Lynching ku America," zomwe zikuwonetsedwa mpaka kumapeto kwa chaka. Akatswiri okhudzidwa ndi chiwonetserochi akunena kuti, ngakhale kuti mbiri ya lynching sichinsinsi, imafuna kufufuza kowonjezereka ndi kukambirana pagulu. Mu Okutobala, Emory adzalandira msonkhano wapadziko lonse pankhaniyi.
Njira yomwe inachititsa kuti yunivesite igwire nawo ntchitoyi inali ndi mikangano. Koma akatswiri ena akukhulupirira kuti mapeto ake ndi chinthu chimene chidzawathandize kuchiritsa ndi kuyanjananso.
'Domestic Terrorism'
Ngakhale kuti ma lynchings ambiri anachitika pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1890 ndi 1920, mchitidwewu unayamba m'ma 1870 ndipo unapitirira mpaka m'ma 1960. Ambiri mwa ma lynchings anachitika kumwera, koma adadzipereka m'maboma 46. Amuna ndi akazi omwe anaphedwa, ngakhale kuti ambiri mwa ozunzidwawo anali amuna. Anthu amene anazunzidwa anali akuda. Pafupifupi anthu 5,000 amadziwika kuti adazunzidwa ndi lynching, ngakhale akatswiri ambiri amakhulupirira kuti chiwerengero chenichenicho ndi chokwera kwambiri. Chiwerengero chenicheni sichidziwika. Ngakhale kuti zinali zoletsedwa, mchitidwewu unali wozika mizu kwambiri mโchikhalidwe cha anthu kotero kuti nkhanza zambiri zinkachitika poyera, ndi chidziwitsoโngakhale mgwirizanoโwa apolisi ndi akuluakulu a mโderalo. Kumenyedwa kochuluka kunanenedwa kukhala โimfa yochitidwa ndi anthu osadziwika.โ
Lynchings nthawi zambiri amachitidwa, malinga ndi omwe adawachitira, monga chilungamo chaulonda - kupha mwachidule - poyankha milandu yomwe anthu omwe adazunzidwayo adachita. Koma ambiri mwa ozunzidwa a lynching anaimbidwa mlandu uliwonse. Anangokhala pamalo olakwika pa nthawi yolakwika, kapena ankangoyangโana mzungu. Nthawi zambiri, wozunzidwayo sanachite chilichonse; anali wakuda basi.
Polingalira mbiri ya mbiri ya lynching ndi chiyambukiro chomwe chakhala nacho pa maubwenzi amtundu, pakhala kuchepa kwa maphunziro ndi nkhani zapoyera pankhaniyi, anatero Akinyele K. Umoja, pulofesa wothandizira wa maphunziro a African-American pa yunivesite ya Georgia State. A Umoja, omwe kafukufuku wawo akufotokoza za nkhanza za mafuko mโmbiri ya kumโmwera, ananena kuti chifukwa chakuti chiwawa โchimachotsa zowawa zambiri,โ anthu amazengereza kukambirana. Kwa iye, โndizowawa kwambiri kuposa kunena za ukapolo,โ iye akutero. Chifukwa chimodzi, m'malingaliro ake, ndikuti lynching ndi yaposachedwa kwambiri ndipo kukumbukira kumakhala kwatsopano. Chifukwa china n'chakuti pamene ukapolo unali wovomerezeka mwalamulo ndi zachuma - unali ndi ntchito yomveka bwino: ntchito yosalipidwa - lynching, chodabwitsa, sichinakwaniritse cholinga chilichonse. Zina, ndiko, osati kuchititsa mantha. Ndipo imeneyo inali ntchito yaukapolo, a Umoja akuti: Idagwira ntchito ngati njira yokhazikitsira bata ndi kuwongolera pakalibe ukapolo. Lynching sinali yolunjika kwa zikwi za ozunzidwa, akutero Randall K. Burkett, woyang'anira zosonkhanitsa za African-American pa Emory's Robert W. Woodruff Library ndi mlembi wa Black Redemption: Churchmen Speak for the Garvey Movement (Temple University Press, 1978) .M'malo mwake, "analinganizidwa kukhala mawu kwa African American aliyense."
Theophus Smith, pulofesa wothandizana nawo wachipembedzo ku Emory komanso mkonzi wina wa Curing Violence (Polebridge Press, 1994), akuvomereza. Amatcha lynching mtundu wa "uchigawenga wapakhomo." Nthawi ya Kumanganso idawona gawo lalikulu la chitukuko chakuda ndi kupita patsogolo. Azungu akummwera, makamaka osauka, sanalandire chitukuko chimenecho. Lynching anali kuyesa kuti anthu akuda akhale pansi ndi "m'malo mwawo." Kumapeto kwa Kumanganso ndi kuchotsedwa kwa asilikali a federal ku South, chiwerengero cha lynchings chinawonjezeka kwambiri, mpaka m'ma 1920.
Carnivals of Atrocity
Ngakhale zithunzi zonse mu "Popanda Malo Opatulika" ndizosangalatsa kwambiri, zithunzi zina zimawonekera bwino chifukwa cha ziwawa zamwambo zomwe amajambula. Kwa magulu ena a lynch, sikunali kokwanira kupha kokha; iwo anapita kutali kwambiri kuti awononge matupi a ozunzidwa, ponse paลตiri asanamwalire ndi pambuyo pake.
Wophedwa pa chithunzi chimodzi anadulidwa, ndipo makutu ake adadulidwa. Bambo wina adawaviikidwa m'mafuta asanawotchedwe. Mtembo wa munthu wina unakongoletsedwa mosamalitsa, nkhope yake itapakidwa utoto ngati kuti ili mโchifaniziro cha munthu wamatsenga wachikunja, thupi lake lili pampando ndi kuchirikizidwa ndi ndodo ndi membala wa gulu la anthu achiwawa kaamba ka chithunzicho.
Mโbwalo lina la zisudzo, magulu ambiri a zigawenga ankachita miyambo yawo yokhetsa magazi pamaso pa magulu akuluakulu a anthu oonerera. Zoonadi, anthu akamamva kuti kuphedwa kwatsala pangโono kuchitika, anthu ankayenda pa sitima yapamtunda, ndipo nthawi zambiri ankachokera kutali kwambiri kuti akachite nawo. Mkhalidwe wa carnival unazungulira malo ambiri osangalatsa. Anakhala ziwonetsero zamagulu, zowonera, zochitika za mabanja onse, ngakhale madera onse, kuchita nawo zikondwerero zamwambo.
Zowonadi, mawonekedwe ankhope a ambiri mwa ojambulidwawo ndi ena mwa zinthu zochititsa chidwi kwambiri pachiwonetserocho. Kusakhala pankhope za a lynch mobsters ndi mawonekedwe aliwonse a manyazi kapena kusamvana. Ambiri amasonyeza chisangalalo chenicheni. Mu chimodzi mwazithunzi zochititsa chidwi kwambiri, mtsikana, mwina wazaka 9 kapena 10, akuyang'ana thupi lopachikidwa ndikuwoneka ndi chidwi ndi chisangalalo.
Zithunzizo, zomwe zina zidajambulidwa ndi anthu omwe anali m'magulu ankhanza, zina ndi atolankhani, sizinali zobisika mobisa. Ambiri anasinthidwa kukhala mapositikhadi ndi kufalitsidwa kwambiri. Anthu anapanga makadi ndi zithunzizo, kulemba mauthenga kumbuyo, ndi kuwatumiza kwa mabwenzi ndi achibale awo kupyolera mu makalata a U.S. Mu positikhadi ya 1916 yosonyeza kuphedwa kwa mnyamata wazaka 17 wopunduka maganizo ku Waco, Tex., wotumizayo akunena za "barbecue" usiku watha. Izi zikusonyeza osati chikondwerero chosangalala cha oimba nyimbo koma kuvomereza kwakukulu kwa boma la feduro, akutero Joseph F. Jordan, mkulu wa Sonja Haynes Stone Black Cultural Center, pa yunivesite ya North Carolina ku Chapel Hill, ndi woyangโanira wa "Popanda Malo Opatulika." Kodi zithunzi zosonyeza kupha anthu mwamwambo zikanatumizidwa bwanji kudzera m'makalata aku US ndipo sizinapangitse mantha kwa ogwira ntchito ku positi kapena kulimbikitsa wina kuti afufuze milandu yotereyi? akufunsa bambo Jordan. Pokhapo, iye akuti, ngati mchitidwewu utavomerezedwa ndi anthu ambiri ndipo ochita zoipawo ali ndi chidaliro chakuti palibe chilango.
Tsopano, kulimba mtima kwenikweni ndi kusalimba mtima komwe kunalola kuti zithunzi zijambulidwe, kutumizidwa kudzera mโmakalata, ndi kusungidwa zinathandizanso kuzilowetsa mโmaholo a nyumba yosungiramo zinthu zakale ya Mfumu, kumene anthu zikwizikwi angakhoze kuziwona mosiyana kwambiri.
Bambo Burkett akunena kuti m'zaka zake za 30 za ntchito mu maphunziro a African-American - ntchito yomwe yaphatikizapo "nkhani zovuta kwambiri zandale" - ichi ndi chochitika chachikulu kwambiri. "Ndikuganiza kuti chiwonetserochi chili ndi kuthekera, kuposa chilichonse chomwe ndidachitapo, kuthandiza azungu kumvetsetsa zenizeni za tsankho. Mukayima mโchipinda chimenecho ndi zithunzizo, simungachitire mwina koma kuganizira za malo amene mukukwanira pazithunzizo. Kodi banja lanu limakhala kuti? Mukanakhala kuti?โ
Zithunzizi zimachepetsanso kudzikuza kwa America ngati dziko, akutero a Burkett. "Lingaliro lathu la America ngati malo apadera, mzinda womwe uli paphiri, Israeli watsopano wa Mulungu - zithunzi izi zimatsutsa zachilendozi m'njira yofunikira."
Msewu Wautali ndi Wamagazi
Nambala za opezekapo zikunena izi. Anthu opitilira 50,000 apita ku malo a King kuti akawone chiwonetserochi m'miyezi iwiri yokha kuchokera pomwe idatsegulidwa ku Atlanta, kupitilira anthu obwera ku New York ndi Pittsburgh, komwe adawonetsedwa nthawi yayitali kuposa kawiri.
Kuyambira mu Januwale 2000, gulu la akatswiri ochokera ku yunivesite, omwe ndi woyang'anira gulu la Bambo Allen, adakumana ndi oimira malo a King kuti afufuze ngati agwire chiwonetserochi ndipo, poyembekezera zotsatira zake, momwe angachitire ndendende.
Chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa nkhanizo, zokambiranazo zinatsegukira anthu a mโderalo mโmabwalo a anthu onse. Bambo Burkett akuti akuganiza kuti ntchitoyi idatenga nthawi yayitali. Mโchenicheni, iye ankatsutsa nโkomwe kuchita misonkhano ya anthu. "Ndinaganiza, ndife bungwe la maphunziro, tili ndi zida izi, iyi ndi mbiri yakale yaku America - tiyenera kuwonetsa [zithunzi] izi."
โNdinali wokhutiritsidwa kotheratu,โ iye akutero, โkuti tingathe kuchita ichi moyenera.โ
Sanamve, ndiko kuti, zotsutsa za m'matumbo kapena zotsutsana ndi otsutsa awonetsero ziyenera kuloledwa kulepheretsa ndondomekoyi.
Ambiri oyera a Atlantans adatsutsa chifukwa chakuti pobwerezanso mutuwu m'mbiri, chiwonetserochi chidzalimbikitsa mkwiyo ndi mkwiyo pakati pa anthu akuda - kuti zithandizira kugawanitsa m'malo mogwirizanitsa.
Koma si onse amene ankakhudzidwa ndi chionetserocho anali azungu. Anthu ena aku Africa-America adatsutsanso. Mwamuna wina amene analankhula pamsonkhano wapoyera anati: โNdikayangโana zithunzizi, ndimaona agogo anga aamuna. Kenako ndinawaona bambo anga. Ndiyeno ndimadziwona ndekha ndikupachikika pamtengo. Chifukwa chiyani ndiyenera kugonjera izi? Chifukwa chiyani ndiyenera kubwerera kumeneko?" Mayi wina ankada nkhawa kuti mwana wake wazaka 18 akhoza kukwiyitsidwa ndi zithunzizo nโkuyamba kuchita zachiwawa.
A Umoja wa ku Georgia State akuti funso "Kodi sitiyenera kulola zakale kukhala zakale?" abwera mobwerezabwereza pokambitsirana zachiwonetserocho, makamaka kuchokera kwa azungu. Koma lynching, iye akutero, "imakhazikika m'chikumbukiro cha anthu akuda." โMpaka mutakhala ndi kukambitsirana moona mtimaโ ponena za lynching, iye akutero, โsimungakhale ndi kuchiritsa kwenikweni kulikonse. Tiyenera kunena nkhani izi. "
Town Ikumana ndi Gown
Pamapeto pake, nkhawa za Bambo Burkett zokhudzana ndi mabwalo a anthu zinathetsedwa. Ena mwa akatswiri akuda omwe adachita nawo adamutsimikizira kuti Emory, bungwe lomwe linkawoneka ngati gawo la kukhazikitsidwa koyera kwa Atlanta, kuti liwonetsere chiwonetserochi popanda kufunsana likadatumiza uthenga wolakwika kwa anthu akuda. Tsopano, Bambo Smith akuti, chiwonetserochi chikusangalala ndi "thandizo lalikulu" kuchokera ku Atlantans wakuda. (Akuluakulu a chionetserochi amakhulupirira kuti chikukopa alendo ambiri akuda kuposa azungu.) Chotsatira chofunika kwambiri cha zokambirana za anthu onse, akutero a Smith, chinali chakuti Bambo Jordan ndi Emory anapatsidwa โulamuliroโ wokhudza udindo wa boma. chiwonetsero.
Pofuna kuti "asachitenso zigawenga" kapena "kukhumudwitsanso" owonerera, akuti, panali kuyesa kupeลตa kutengeka maganizo kulikonse. Podziwa kuti achibale a ozunzidwawo adzakhalapo, iye anati, kunali kofunika kulemekeza ulemu ndi umunthu wa ozunzidwawo. Chowonetseracho chidapangidwa mwadala ndi kukongola kocheperako. Pakhala pali chisamaliro chochulukirapo pakuyika chiwonetserochi ku Atlanta kuposa m'malo aliwonse ake am'mbuyomu. M'mawu omwe ali patsamba la King, ozunzidwawo amatchulidwa koyambirira ndi mayina awo onse, kenako "Mr." ndi "Mrs."
Komanso chifukwa cha zokambirana za anthu ammudzi, nyumba yosungiramo zinthu zakale imakhala ndi bwalo lotseguka Loweruka lililonse masana kuti akambirane za chiwonetserochi.
kulimbana Kubwerera
Aafirika Achimereka sanali ongochita zachipongwe; iwonso adasonkhana motsutsa izo. Mogwirizana ndi mafunde amphamvu a lynching, monga momwe zinaliri - kuyambira kumapeto kwa Ntchito Yomanganso mpaka 1920s - kunali kutuluka kwa gulu lokhazikika loletsa mchitidwewu. Mmodzi mwa mphamvu zoyendetsera gululi anali Ida B. Wells, mtolankhani wa ku Africa-America komanso wokonzanso chikhalidwe cha anthu.
Mu 1892 anayamba ntchito yofalitsidwa kwambiri yothetsa lynching. Adapita ku Europe kukalengeza za vutoli ndikulimbikitsa atsogoleri aku Europe kuti akhazikitse zilango zotsutsana ndi malonda akumwera.
Clarissa Myrick-Harris, pulofesa wothandizira mbiri yakale komanso maphunziro aku Africa-America ku Morris Brown College komanso mkulu wa Southern Black Communities Oral History Center, akuti zoyesayesa za Wells ndiye kuyesa koyamba kuchita "nkhondo yapadziko lonse yolimbana ndi uchigawenga."
Mu 1916 NAACP inatsatiranso zomwezo, ndikuyambitsa kampeni yakeyake yotsutsa lynching pofuna kubweretsa nkhaniyi kwa anthu ambiri.
Azungu ambiri akummwera ankateteza lynching ngati mawonekedwe a chivalry, njira yotetezera akazi oyera kwa amuna akuda. Wells anatsutsa akazi achizungu mwachindunji pa mfundo imeneyi, kuwachonderera kuti adzudzule lynching ndi kunena, kwenikweni, zikomo koma ayi zikomo, sitikufuna kuti ulemu wathu utetezedwe motere.
Jessie Daniel Ames adayankha kuyitanidwaku poyambitsa Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. Padakali, mpaka lero, milandu yosathetsedwa ya lynching. Bambo Burkett anati: โEna mwa anthu amene anapalamula milandu imeneyi akadalipobe. Kuti afufuze milandu yomwe yatsalayi, komanso kuti agwirizane ndi zomwe zachitika chifukwa cha kupha anthu, a Smith apempha kuti pakhale bungwe logwirizana ndi bungwe la South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Ndi chithunzi cha Universal Declaration of Human Rights chomwe chili kuseri kwa desiki yawo, a Smith amalankhula modekha koma mwachidwi komanso momveka bwino pankhaniyi, zomwe amawona ngati njira yopita ku zomwe amatcha "chilungamo chobwezeretsa." "Kodi tingabwezeretse bwanji midzi yomwe idasweka ndi nkhanza zamitundu?" akufunsa.
Kuti zimenezi zitheke, chaka chatha a Smith ndi anthu ena anasonkhanitsa nthumwi zochokera mโmizinda imene inali ndi mbiri yowononga zinthu mโdziko lonselo pa msonkhano womwe unali kumapeto kwa mlungu wotchedwa โKukweza Chophimba Chobisala.โ Lingaliro limodzi lomwe linatulutsidwa pamsonkhanowo linali kukhazikitsidwa kwa zikumbutso za ozunzidwa ndi lynching. Lingaliro lina linali lofuna kulipidwa kwa mabanja omwe anazunzidwa.
Eugene D. Genovese, wophunzira wolemekezeka yemwe adapuma pantchito ku University Center ku Georgia komanso mlembi wa The Southern Front: History and Politics in the Cultural War (University of Missouri Press, 1995) komanso Roll classic, Jordan. , Roll: The World the Slaves Made (Pantheon, 1974), akunena kuti ngakhale kuti amalemekeza kwambiri ntchito ya Bambo Smith, amakayikira ngati zimenezi zingakhale zothandiza. Iye akuvomereza kuti, kuti pakhale chiyanjanitso, โzopanda chilungamo zimene zachitidwa kwa anthu akuda ziyenera kukumana nazo.โ Koma amawona nkhani zambiri zamaphunziro pazamitundu pazaka makumi awiri zapitazi ngati "zoyipa," akutero. "Zimachititsa ziwanda ndikuphwanya malamulo a ku South m'njira zomwe sizingabweretse chiyanjanitso."
Adolph Reed Jr., pulofesa wa sayansi ya ndale ku New School University komanso mlembi wa Stirrings in the Jug: Black Politics in the Post-Segregation Era (University of Minnesota Press, 1999), wakhala akutsutsa kuyitanidwa kwa kubwezeredwa kwa ukapolo. . Koma lynching ndi nkhani ina, iye anati. "Ngati pali mlandu woti ubwezeredwe, kutengera zomwe zidachitika kale, zikuwoneka kuti ndi momwe zingakhalire. Pali ozunzidwa omwe ali ndi mayina ndi olakwa omwe ali ndi mayina, ndipo pali vuto lomwe likuwonekera," akutero.
Koma mbali yofunika kwambiri ya ndondomekoyi, akutero a Smith, ndi chiyembekezo chodzakumana ndi "amnesia yakale" yodabwitsa yokhudzana ndi lynching. "Anthu sadziwa chifukwa chake ubale wamtundu uli wovuta kwambiri, wowoneka ngati wosatheka, chifukwa chake sitikuwoneka kuti tapambana, ngakhale titha kutsata mfundo zabwino kwambiri."
Izi, akutero, ndichifukwa chake "Popanda Malo Opatulika" amamveka mozama. "Mukawona zithunzi izi, mumazindikira zenizeni zomwe zachitika - mibadwo yowopsa. Ngati mutasiya izi, simungathe kugwira ntchito yozama yokonza ubale pakati pa akuda ndi azungu. "
Palibe chiyanjanitso, mwa kuyankhula kwina, popanda choonadi.
SCHOLARSHIP PA ZOSANGALATSA ZA LYNCHING
Zolemba za lynching ndizochepa koma zikukula. Kuphatikiza pa Popanda Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Twin Palms Publishers, 2000), voliyumu yogwirizana ndi chiwonetsero cha Martin Luther King Jr. National Historic Site, mabuku aposachedwa okhudza nkhaniyi ndi awa: A Lynching in the Heartland : Race and Memory in America, lolembedwa ndi James H. Madison (Palgrave, 2001) Negrophobia: A Race Riot ku Atlanta, 1906, lolemba Mark Bauerlein (Encounter Books, 2001) On Black Men, lolemba David Marriott (Columbia University Press, 2000) Rituals of Blood: Consequences of Slavery in Two American Centuries, lolemba Orlando Patterson (Civitas/CounterPoint, 1998) Under Sentence of Death: Lynching in the South, lolembedwa ndi W. Fitzhugh Brundage (University of North Carolina Press, 1997) Phwando la Chiwawa: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930, ndi Stewart E. Tolnay ndi E.M. Beck (University of Illinois Press, 1995) Lynching in the New South: Georgia ndi Virginia, 1880-1930, ndi W. Fitzhugh Brundage (University of Illinois) Illinois Press, 1993) Lynching, Racial Violence, and Law, lolembedwa ndi Paul Finkelman (Garland, 1992)
ZNetwork imalandira ndalama kudzera mu kuwolowa manja kwa owerenga ake.
Ndalama