Zofunsira kusukulu ya zamalamulo zili mchaka chino zomwe ena amazitcha kuti โLipenga la Trump,โ popeza pafupifupi gawo limodzi mwa magawo atatu aliwonse omwe adalembetsa adalimbikitsidwa kuti alembetse ntchito ndi chisankho cha Trump. Pafupifupi theka a iwo amadzizindikiritsa iwo eni monga ziwalo za kagulu kakangโono. Awona maloya akulimbana ndi ndondomeko za kayendetsedwe ka Trump zomwe zimasankha madera awo ndipo akufuna kuchita chimodzimodzi. Ngati olembetsa ochepawa apambana, atha kusintha mphamvu zamagulu aku America. Ngati alephera, adzapeza kuti ali ndi ngongole ya moyo wawo wonse. Koma ndi ochepa omwe akudziwa kuti akutenga njuga yayikuluyi mumasewera ovutitsidwa.
Pa avareji, ophunzira angโonoangโono amapita mโmasukulu azamalamulo otsika, omwe amalipira ndalama zambiri kuti akaphunzireko kuposa ophunzira achizungu, zomwe zimachititsa kuti pakhale ngongole zambiri. Omaliza maphunziro azamalamulo ochepa amakhala ndi miyeso yotsika ya mayeso a bar, kuchuluka kwa ntchito, komanso kuchuluka kwa ndalama. Chifukwa cha mpikisano waukulu wa maudindo olipidwa a chilungamo cha chikhalidwe cha anthu, ochepa a iwo adzakhala ndi ntchito zomwe angathe kudzithandiza okha pamene akulimbana ndi zolinga zomwe zinawabweretsa ku sukulu ya zamalamulo poyamba.
Maphunziro azamalamulo walephera ndipo adzapitiriza kulephera ochepa. Izi siziyenera kudabwitsa, popeza dongosolo lonse la ku America loletsa kuloledwa kulowa m'malamulo lapangidwa kalekale, momveka bwino kapena mosabisa, kuti asasankhe anthu ochepa. Masiku ano, ndithudi, anthu angโonoangโono sakuletsedwanso kulowa sukulu ya zamalamulo. M'malo mwake, dongosololi limadzaza ambiri aiwo ndi ngongole zazikulu asanaphe ziyembekezo zawo, kuwasiya atapachikidwa pazida zomwe amayembekezera kuti adzakwera.
Kuukira ku Sukulu za Usiku
Ngati mukufuna kuchita zamalamulo lero, muyenera kumaliza maphunziro awo ku koleji, kenako sukulu yamalamulo, kenako ndikupambana mayeso a bar. Izi ndizotalikirana kwambiri ndi 1851, pomwe, potengera malingaliro odana ndi osankhidwa a demokalase ya Jacksonian, Indiana idalengeza kuti nzika zake zonse zili ndi ufulu wotsatira malamulo, chofunikira chokhacho kukhala "makhalidwe abwino." Mpaka 1932 pomwe boma lidavomereza kuti maloya ake angafunikire maphunziro ena - ndipo izi sizinali zachilendo monga zimawonekera. Zaka za zana la makumi awiri zisanafike, maloya ambiri aku America anali asanaphunzirepo masukulu ochepa azamalamulo omwe analipo panthawiyo. (Ambiri a iwo anali asanapite ku koleji ndipo ena anali asanamalize nkomwe kusekondale.) Mโmalo mwake, monga Abe Lincoln, ambiri amaphunzira mu ofesi ya loya ndipo anaลตerenga malamulo a boma asanadutse mayeso aafupi a oral bar. Ophunzila anafunika kunyengerera loya kuti awatenge, ayenela kumโlipilila, ndipo sakanatha kucita nchito ina kuti azipeza zofunika pa umoyo pamene akuphunzila.
Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za mโma 1900 kunachulukanso masukulu azamalamulo atsopano omwe anakhazikitsidwa kuti athandize anthu amene mikhalidwe yoteroyo inali yovuta kwa iwo, makamaka angโonoangโono, osamukira kudziko lina posachedwapa, ndi akazi. Kaลตirikaลตiri mโmatauni, masukulu amenewo ankalipiritsa ndalama zolipirira maphunziro ochepa ndipo anali ndi maloya amene amaphunzitsidwa pambuyo pa maola ogwirira ntchito, kotero kuti ophunzira awo adzipezera zofunika pa moyo.
Panali mantha ochuluka ponena za chiyembekezo cha masukulu ausiku kulola khamu la anthu osafunikira kukhala maloya omwe atha kulipiritsa chindapusa chotsika mtengo ndikuchepetsa maloya odziwika bwino. Zotsatira zake, Association of American Law Schools, yoimira mabungwe okwera mtengo kwambiri, ogwirizana ndi yunivesite, adagwirizana ndi American Bar Association (ABA) kuti achite kampeni kuti mayiko akweze zofunikira kwa omwe akufuna kukhala maloya. Cholinga: kuletsa anthu ochepa kuti asagwire ntchito.
Mwachitsanzo, nkhondo yoyamba ya padziko lonse itangotha โโkumene, loya wina wa ku New York ananena kuti โkunali koyeneraโ kulamula kuti ofunsira kusukulu ya zamalamulo apite kukoleji kapena kuti dzikolo lisakhale ndi maloya โwotha kuwerenga, kulemba, ndi kulankhula Chingelezi. - osati Bohemian, osati Gaelic, osati Yiddish. Mofananamo, pamsonkhano wa ABA wa 1929, membala wina ananena kuti madandaulo ambiri omwe bungwe la Philadelphia Bar Association analandira anali okhudza โanyamata achiyuda achi Russiaโ ndipo anaumirira kuti โanthu amene atuluka mโngalandeโ ayenera kumaliza maphunziro a ku koleji. "kutengera malingaliro aku America."
Njira yoletsa kuloledwa kulowa mu bala inatenga zaka zambiri. Mu 1923, ngakhale kuti ambiri ofuna kukhala maloya anapita kusukulu ya zamalamulo, palibe boma linawalamula kutero. Pokhapokha pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yadziko Lonse zaka zidachita zonse koma a ochepa mayiko amaumirira pa digiri ya zamalamulo kwa aliyense amene akufuna kuchita zamalamulo. Pakadali pano, ABA idzasankhidwa kukhala bungwe lovomerezeka m'masukulu azamalamulo pafupifupi m'madera onse ndipo masukulu otsika mtengo, ofikirika kwambiri ausiku amatha kutseka mashopu kapena kudzisintha kukhala masukulu apamwamba momwe angathere - ndikukweza maphunziro awo kuti agwirizane.
Chifukwa chiyani Ophunzira Ochepa a Law Law Amalipira Zambiri pa Maphunziro Oyipitsitsa?
Mu 1968, chaka chomwe Martin Luther King, Jr., adaphedwa, 1% yokha ya maloya aku America anali akuda. Magulu ena ang'onoang'ono anali ndi maloya ochepa kwambiri kotero kuti manambalawo sanawerengedwe nkomwe. Kuyambira nthawi imeneyo, ziwerengerozi zakwera pang'onopang'ono, koma chiwerengero cha ophunzira ochepa m'masukulu apamwamba a zamalamulo omwe amapereka mwayi wabwino kwambiri wa ntchito yapamwamba, yolipidwa bwino. otsika kwambiri kuposa kwa omwe si apamwamba. (Zimodzimodzinso zakhala zikuchitika kwa amayi: pamene, mu 2016, ophunzira azamalamulo achikazi ochuluka amuna kwa nthawi yoyamba, zisanu ndi chimodzi zokha mwa masukulu 20 apamwamba a zamalamulo anali ndi magulu a ophunzira osachepera theka.)
Chifukwa: Mayeso a Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Ophunzira ochepa komanso osowa nthawi zonse akhala ndi ma LSAT otsika kuposa omwe amayesa azungu komanso olemera, ngakhale njira zina zoyezera luso lawo ndi zomwe adakwanitsa sizinawonetse kusiyana. Zakhalapo kutsutsana kwambiri za zomwe zimayambitsa kusiyana kwa magoli. Kuwonongeka kwa maphunziro okonzekera omwe amaphunzitsa luso lotenga LSAT ndi chifukwa chimodzi. Ena amati mayesowo ali ndi tsankho lobisika, chifukwa amafunikira kusanthula komwe kungachitidwe mosiyana ndi omwe ali ndi zikhalidwe zosiyanasiyana. (Kapena mwina sizinabisike kwambiri: mochedwa mu 1986, otenga LSAT adayenera kuyankha mafunso okhudza a kuwerenga ndime anakhazikitsidwa mโdziko limene ukapolo unali wovomerezeka mwalamulo, wokhala ndi akapolo amene amaumirira kuti apeza mkhalidwe wawo โwokondweretsa kwambiri.โ)
Kusiyana kwa mphambu ya LSAT kumatanthauza kuti masukulu azamalamulo aku America apanga mtundu wa tsankho lamaphunziro: ocheperako amapita kusukulu zamalamulo ochepa. Mu 2017, mwachitsanzo, Arizona Summit Law School idakwera ma chart ngati sukulu yamalamulo yosiyana kwambiri ku America, pomwe idapezanso mbiri ina: kuchuluka koyipa kwambiri kwa bar. Pokhapokha pozungulira 27% mwa omaliza maphunziro ake adapambana mayeso a bar pa kuyesa kwawo koyamba komanso kokha 34% adapeza ntchito zalamulo zanthawi yayitali.
Ophunzira ochepa nthawi zambiri amalipira zambiri kuti apeze mwayi wopita kusukulu zazing'ono izi, chifukwa cha LSAT. Masukulu amapereka maphunziro oyenerera kwa ophunzira omwe ali ndi zigoli zambiri kuti awonjezere masanjidwe awo. Ophunzira omwe ali ndi zigoli zochepa amalipira mtengo wonse wa zomata ndipo motero, kwenikweni, amapereka ndalama zamaphunzirowa, omwe amapita ku gulu lolemera, locheperako la ophunzira mu zomwe otsutsa ena ali nazo. atchulidwa zotsatira za Robin Hood.
Kugwiritsiridwa Ntchito Kumabisidwa Ngati Mwayi
Elie Mystal, katswiri wazamalamulo, upangiri sukulu ya zamalamulo ikuyembekeza kuti pa masukulu azamalamulo oposa 200 ku America, โalipo mwina Masukulu 20 omwe ali oyenera kulipira mtengo wonse. Pali mwina masukulu ena 20 omwe ali oyenera ngati mukuchepetsedwa, maphunziro apamwamba. Ndipo ndiko kukhala wowolowa manja kwambiri. โ Nanga nโchifukwa chiyani ophunzira angโonoangโono ambiri amapita kusukulu zazingโono zomwe zimawapatsa mwayi wochepa kwambiri wochita bwino? Mu zake buku laposachedwa Law Mart: Chilungamo, Kufikira, ndi Sukulu Zopeza Phindu, pulofesa wa zamalamulo Riaz Tejani akutsutsa momwe masukulu azamalamulo omwe ali otsika amadzipangira okha kwa ophunzira omwe ali ndi ziphaso zotsika za LSAT polonjeza kuti apereka "mpata wopeza chilungamo." Kuvomereza ophunzira omwe amalephera kwambiri kupeza ntchito zamalamulo m'dzina lowalola mwayi wopeza maphunziro azamalamulo, Tejani akuti, chizindikiro cha maphunziro azamalamulo a neoliberal, omwe amapereka "kuphatikizidwa kwa anthu" pamtengo wokwera "wopanda chitetezo cha anthu."
Phindu loti lipange kuchokera kwa ophunzira ocheperako ndizofunika kwambiri, chifukwa maphunziro samasiyanasiyana pakati pa masukulu azamalamulo mosasamala kanthu za mtundu wawo. Zowonadi, mu 2011, New York Law School, yomwe idakhala pagulu lotsika kwambiri la mabungwe oterowo, inali. kulipiritsa zambiri kuposa Harvard Law School. Gulu la omaliza maphunziro a 2010 a Western Michigan University Cooley Law School, bungwe lina lapamwamba kwambiri, anali ndi maphunziro. ngongole yonse kuposa $87 miliyoni. Pafupifupi kubwereketsa konseku kunachokera ku mapulogalamu a ngongole a boma ndipo, poganizira ziwerengero za Cooley za ntchito, ndizotheka kuti okhometsa msonkho ayenera kulipira gawo lalikulu lomwe silidzabwezeredwa. Ngakhale ziwerengero zotere, kalasi yomwe Cooley adalembetsa mu 2017 inali yachitatu pakukula mdziko muno, kuseri kwa Georgetown ndi Harvard okha.
Omaliza maphunzirowa adzakhala atatenga ngongole yoposa $100,000 (ndalama zomwe mkazi anthu ambiri chaka chatha kuti alipire zomwe anali nazo atamaliza sukulu ya zamalamulo kuti akwaniritse cholinga chake chatsopano chokhala sisitere wodzisunga). Ngongole yotereyi ndi yolemetsa kwambiri kwa anthu angโonoangโono, chifukwa ndandanda ya masukulu amene ali ndi chiลตerengero chapamwamba kwambiri cha iwo ndi amene ali ndi chiลตerengero chochepa kwambiri cha omaliza maphunziro amene amalembedwa ntchito zamalamulo anthaลตi zonse amasonyeza kuphana kwakukulu. Mwachitsanzo, mu 2015, Charlotte School of Law anali ndi chachinayi chapamwamba kwambiri ophunzira aku Africa-America pakati pa masukulu azamalamulo (36%) komanso a kuchuluka kwambiri mwa omaliza maphunziro a 2016 omwe mwina anali osagwira ntchito, olembedwa ntchito zosakhalitsa kapena zanthawi yochepa, kapena amagwira ntchito zopanda ntchito (59.12%). Maloya ochepa omwe amapeza ntchito zamalamulo zamalipiro apamwamba apita kusukulu yapamwamba ya zamalamulo. Magawo atatu mwa anayi omwe akugwira nawo ntchito zamalamulo akuda adapita ku imodzi mwasukulu 12 zapamwamba zamalamulo, ndipo pafupifupi theka linapita ku Harvard kapena Yale.
Sangalalani ndi Kusiyana kwa Justice
mu buku amene amadziลตika kuti ndiwo anayambitsa mkangano wopitirizabe wokhudza tsogolo la masukulu a zamalamulo, a Brian Tamanaha akunena kuti โmolakwika, United States ili ndi anthu ochuluka omaliza maphunziro a zamalamulo panthaลตi imodzimodziyo kuti chiลตerengero chachikulu cha anthuโosauka ndi otsika apakatiโ kupita popanda thandizo lalamulo. " โChilungamoโ chimenechi, mwa zina, ndi chifukwa cha kukwera mtengo kwa maphunziro a zamalamulo. Ngakhale iwo omwe adapita kusukulu ya zamalamulo kuti athandize anthu amdera lawo pafupipafupi amapeza kuti sangathe kutero - ngati akufuna kukwaniritsa ngongole zawo za mwezi uliwonse.
Kupeza chithandizo chazamalamulo chotsika mtengo kumapereka chilimbikitso chaching'ono koma chofunikira kwambiri kwa mabanja omwe akulimbana ndi umphawi ndi tsankho. Monga maphunziro ngati a Matthew Desmond Kuthamangitsidwa: Umphawi ndi Phindu mu Mzinda wa America kusonyeza, omwe alibe chochita koma kudziyimira okha amakumana ndi ndalama zazikulu zachuma, zachikhalidwe, komanso zamalingaliro pazochitika zokulirapo zomwe aluza m'bwalo lamilandu la nyumba kapena poyesa kupeza mpumulo wangongole kapena kumasulidwa kusanachitike mlandu kapena chiletso. Sosaite yonse ndiye imalipira mtengo wa kutayika kogwirizana ndi zokolola ndi mtengo wa kumangidwa kopanda maziko kapena kopanda ntchito. Kuyimira kotsika mtengo kungakhale nkhani ya moyo ndi imfa. Monga Woweruza wa Khothi Lalikulu Ruth Bader Ginsburg wanena, โAnthu amene amaimiridwa bwino pamlandu salandira chilango cha imfa.โ
Pakhala pali malingaliro angapo ochepetsa mtengo wokhala loya, kuphatikiza kupanga sukulu yamalamulo kukhala yaifupi, kubwereranso ku mtundu wophunzirira, kapena kukhazikitsa mapulogalamu ophunzitsa "akatswiri azamalamuloโ mโmbali zoลตerengeka za lamulo. Koma ngakhale mutha kuthana ndi kuthamangitsidwa bwino ndi maphunziro azamalamulo otsika mtengo komanso mwachidule, simudzakhala woweruza mwanjira imeneyo. Kwa maudindo oterowo, maphunziro otakata, ozikidwa pamalingaliro operekedwa ndi masukulu azamalamulo ndiwofunikira kwenikweni. Otsutsa, kwenikweni, akuda nkhawa kuti kubwereranso ku mapulogalamu afupikitsa, otsika mtengo kungapangitse zomwe zikuwoneka kale ngati tsankho la maphunziro. Olembera ochepa atha kutayidwa m'mapulogalamu aukadaulo ndikusiyidwa opanda chiyembekezo chokwera pa maudindo omwe kusintha kungayambike kuchitika m'malamulo.
Mayankho si ophweka, koma kusintha n'kofunika momveka bwino m'madera kuyambira miyezo yovomerezeka ndi maphunziro a sukulu ya malamulo mpaka chikhalidwe cha mayeso a bar omwewo - ndipo mosakayikira amangoyamba kukhudza zozama zomwe zimayikidwa mu dongosolo. M'buku lake lodziwika bwino la 1977, Chilungamo Chosafanana: Ma Lawyers ndi Social Change mu Modern America, wolemba mbiri Jerold Auerbach ananena kuti kukondera mโntchito yazamalamulo kuli ndi โzotulukapo zazikulu makamakaโ mโdziko limene timadalira maloya kumasulira ndi kugwiritsira ntchito mfundo ya chilungamo chofanana pansi pa lamulo. Kusiyana komwe kukwera kwa oweruza aakazi kwapanga kwawonekera kale. Chifukwa chimodzi, oweruza achimuna ndi 10% mwinamwake kuposa akazi kuti azilamulira zotsutsana ndi tsankho.
Ndiye tangoganizani kusiyana kwa oweruza ochepa kwambiri. Pokhapokha ngati maphunziro amakono asintha, komabe kusiyana kumeneko kudzakhalabe lingaliro lalamulo.
Erin L. Thompson, atatha kuchita ngati loya, tsopano ndi wothandizira pulofesa wa zojambulajambula komanso mlangizi wa malamulo ku John Jay College (CUNY). Adalembapo kale TomDispatch on kukonza chiwonetsero zaluso zopangidwa ndi akaidi ku Guantรกnamo Bay. Tsatirani iye pa Twitter pa @artcrimeprof.
Nkhaniyi idawonekera koyamba pa TomDispatch.com, tsamba lawebusayiti la Nation Institute, lomwe limapereka kusuntha kwazinthu zina, nkhani, ndi malingaliro kuchokera kwa Tom Engelhardt, mkonzi wanthawi yayitali pakusindikiza, woyambitsa nawo American Empire Project, wolemba Mapeto a Chikhalidwe Chogonjetsa, monga za novel, Masiku Otsiriza a Kusindikiza. Buku lake laposachedwa ndi Mtundu Wopanda Nkhondo (Mabuku a Haymarket).
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