"Robert Zoellick, yemwe wasankhidwa kukhala pulezidenti wa World Bank, adanena kuti adzaika Africa patsogolo pake," International Herald Tribune inanena posachedwapa. "Mwachiwonekere, payenera kukhala chidwi chachikulu ku Africa", Zoellick adatero poyankhulana. “Izi sizatsopano.” (1)
Mawu awa ndi owopsa kwa makontinenti osauka kwambiri padziko lapansi. Monga momwe mawu a Zoellick akutanthauza, Banki - ndi bungwe lake, International Monetary Fund - ili ndi mbiri yayikulu ku Africa. "Africa yawona kugwiritsa ntchito kwambiri komanso mobwerezabwereza mapulogalamu osintha machitidwe m'zaka makumi awiri zapitazi", lipoti la UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), ponena za 'kusintha kwamisika yaulere' komwe kukuchitika padziko lonse lapansi. "dziko lachitatu") ndi Bank ndi Fund. (2)
"Kuyang'ana kwakukulu" kumeneku kwakhala ndi zotsatira zoopsa, ndipo palibe chifukwa chomveka chokhulupirira kuti kukankhira kwatsopano kwa Zoellick kudzatha mosiyana. Ngakhale kudzipereka kwake momveka bwino ku 'kulimbana ndi umphawi', 'kuthandizira utsogoleri wabwino' ndi 'kulimbikitsa chitukuko', Banki Yadziko Lonse idakali Trojan horse yogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi mayiko olemera kuti apeze mwayi ndikugwiritsanso ntchito chuma cha Kumwera kwa dziko lonse lapansi. Ndondomeko zake zathandizira kwambiri kutsekera Africa m'ndende ya kusowa chitukuko ndi kudalira; kuwononga kwawo kukuwululidwa ndi mfundo yakuti mayiko olemera omwe akuyendetsa Banki amanyalanyaza mwadongosolo malamulo omwe amakakamiza osauka. Ngati zowona, chitukuko chokhazikika chachuma ndicho cholinga, mbiri imasonyeza kuti Africa iyenera kufunafuna zochepa, osati zowonjezereka, kulowererapo kwa Banki.
Mbiri yaposachedwa yazachuma ku Africa nthawi zambiri, koma osati mofanana, yakuda. Zaka makumi awiri pambuyo pa kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1950, pamene funde loyamba la kuchotseratu atsamunda linasesa kontinenti yonse, linali lodziwika ndi kukula kwachuma kwachuma komanso kusintha kwabwino kwa zizindikiro zachuma ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu mamiliyoni ambiri a ku Africa. Maboma ambiri odziyimira pawokha adatsata njira yachitukuko yomwe imadziwika kuti import-substitution industrialization, yomwe ikugogomezera kuthandizira kwa boma pazogulitsa zapakhomo pazogulitsa kunja kuti apange zinthu zomwe zimathandizira kukula kwa mafakitale apakhomo komanso kupita patsogolo kwaukadaulo.
M'zaka zomwe nthawi zambiri zimatchedwa 'zaka zachitukuko', kukula kwachuma kunali kosasinthasintha pafupifupi 4% pachaka, pamene kupanga kumawonjezeka ndi 7% pachaka. Kulembetsa kwamaphunziro ndi zaka zoyembekeza za moyo zidakwera pomwe kufa kwa makanda ndi kusaphunzira zidatsika. Kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1960 mpaka kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1970, GNP pa munthu aliyense ku sub-Saharan Africa inakula ndi pafupifupi 20%. M’zaka za m’ma 3, anabwereketsa ndalama mwachidwi kwa maboma a ku Africa omwe anali ndi chidwi chofanana koma osowa ndalama omwe akufunafuna chitukuko cha mafakitale - omwe, zotsatira zake, adakhala ndi ngongole pang'onopang'ono.
Chiyembekezo chachikulu cha chitukukochi chinatha mofulumira kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1970. Kusokonekera kwa mafuta kunayambitsa kutsika kwachuma kumpoto, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti kufunikira kwa katundu waku Africa kuume pomwe mitengo yazinthu idatsika. Nthawiyi inali yoipa makamaka ku Africa - kuchepa kunachitika panthawi yomwe derali linali lofunitsitsa kwambiri kupeza ndalama zakunja - zomwe zinayamba kuona kusintha kwake pang'onopang'ono pa chitukuko cha zachuma ndi moyo zikuchepa chifukwa cha kuchepa kwachuma. Obwereketsa omwe sali okonzeka kubwereketsa adakhala ofunitsitsa kubweza ngongole za mayiko osauka. Iwo anathandizidwa kwambiri m’zimenezi ndi World Bank ndi International Monetary Fund, amene maboma ambiri a mu Afirika anafunikira kutembenukirako kuti alandire ndalama zofunika kwambiri. Vuto ndilakuti ngongolezi zidabwera pamtengo waukulu.
Chaka cha 1980 nthawi zambiri chimatengedwa ngati chiyambi cha nthawi ya "kusintha kwadongosolo", komwe kudapitilira zaka za m'ma 1990 ndipo, mosakayikira, kukupitilirabe mpaka pano. Mawuwa akutanthauza mapulogalamu omwe Banki Yadziko Lonse ndi IMF adakakamiza Africa ndi mayiko ambiri kumwera kwapadziko lonse lapansi kuchita kuti athe kulandira ngongole. Chochititsa chidwi n'chakuti, zaka za m'ma 1980 (ndipo, mocheperapo, zaka za m'ma 1990) amadziwikanso kuti "zaka khumi zotayika", chifukwa cha mavuto azachuma omwe mayiko a Kumwera adakumana nawo padziko lonse lapansi - zikomo kwambiri ku Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs).
Kunena mwachidule, cholinga cha ma SAP chinali kukonzanso chuma cha Kummwera motsatira mizere ya "msika waulere". Kusintha kolamulidwako nthawi zambiri kumakhudza kutsegulidwa kwa chuma chamayiko osauka kupita ku Northern import and Investment; kukhazikitsidwa kwa mabizinesi aboma; kuletsa kwakukulu kwa ndalama zomwe boma limagwiritsa ntchito pa mapulogalamu a chikhalidwe cha anthu; komanso kuchotseratu thandizo la boma pamakampani apanyumba. Banki Yadziko Lonse inanena kuti njira zimenezi zithandiza kuti chuma chikwere mofulumira, ndiponso kuchepetsa umphaŵi.
Malonjezo akuluakulu a Banki sanakwaniritsidwe. Potchulapo ziwerengero za Banki, UNCTAD inanena kuti, patatha zaka makumi awiri za "kusintha kwapangidwe", chiwerengero cha anthu a ku sub-Saharan Africa omwe amakhala muumphawi wadzaoneni (osakwana dola imodzi patsiku) chawonjezeka kuchoka pa 217 miliyoni kufika ku 291 miliyoni. Ndalama zapakati pa munthu aliyense wa ku Africa zatsika ndi 10% nthawi yomweyo; Osauka kwambiri 20% adawona kuti ndalama zawo zatsika kuwirikiza kawiri kuchuluka kwa anthu ambiri. (4)
Malinga ndi katswiri wa zachuma wa ku Philippines, Walden Bello, mkulu wa bungwe loganiza bwino la Focus on the Global South, avareji ya GNP ya ku sub-Saharan Africa inatsika ndi 2.2 peresenti pachaka m’ma 1980; pofika m’chaka cha 1990, ndalama zopezera munthu aliyense m’kontinenti zinatsika kufika pamlingo wake m’zaka za m’ma 1960. (5) Mu 2000, patatha zaka makumi aŵiri kuchokera pamene “kusintha kwadongosolo” kunabwera, bungwe la United Nations Economic Commission for Africa linanena kuti kontinentiyo “ili ndi ndalama zoipitsitsa. kugawa padziko lonse lapansi”, pomwe 59% ya anthu akumidzi ndi 43% ya okhala m’mizinda akukhala ndi moyo ndi ndalama zosakwana dola imodzi patsiku. Mayiko osauka anali atakula kuwirikiza kakhumi m’zaka makumi atatu zapitazo.
Kuphatikiza apo, kumasula mabizinesi mwachangu - mfundo yayikulu pakusintha kwadongosolo - kwadzetsa mtengo wowopsa wachuma ku kontinenti. Kafukufuku wa Christian Aid adawonetsa kuti njirazi zidawonongera madera akumwera kwa Sahara ku Africa $272 biliyoni pazaka makumi awiri zoyambilira zakusintha, pafupifupi ndalama zofanana zomwe dera lidalandira thandizo. Akadapanda kukakamizidwa kuphwanya malamulo a zamalonda, mayiko a m’derali akanasunga ndalama zokwanira “kuchotseratu ngongole zawo ndi kulipira kuti mwana aliyense akatemere katemera ndi kupita kusukulu.” (8)
Mosakayikira, kufufuza kozama kwambiri kwa Structural Adjustment Programs zomwe zachitikapo zinali za Structural Adjustment Participatory Review International Network (SAPRIN), mgwirizano wa mabungwe apadziko lonse, World Bank, ndi maboma a mayiko. Mothandizidwa ndi mabungwe odziwika bwino monga European Union, UN Development Program, Kellogg Foundations ndi ena, lipoti la SAPRIN ndi loopsa kwambiri, lomwe limafotokoza chifukwa chake Banki idayesa kupondereza ntchitoyi ndi zomwe zapeza.(09)
Kulemba zotsatira za SAPs ku South ambiri, SAPRIN akulemba kuti "Kuchuluka kwa ndalama zawonjezeka kwambiri monga malipiro ndi ntchito pakati pa magulu opeza ndalama zochepa kwambiri zatsika kwambiri", pamene umphawi "wakula ndikukulitsidwa ndi privatization" ya boma- mafakitale omwe ali nawo. Malamulo okhwima okhudzana ndi kagwiritsidwe ntchito ka ndalama ndi boma lomwe Banki Yadziko Lonse idafuna - yomwe cholinga chake chinali kumasula ndalama zobweza ngongole - zidabweretsa ndalama zowononga kwambiri. "Kutsika kwa ndalama za anthu pa maphunziro ndi zaumoyo kumapangitsa kuti osauka akhale m'badwo wina waumphawi", pamene "ndalama zogwiritsira ntchito maphunziro ndi zaumoyo zakhazikitsidwa panthawi yomwe kuvutika kwa anthu osauka kwakula kwambiri ndipo ntchito zothandizira anthu ndizofunikira kwambiri. ”
Potchulapo kafukufuku wa bungwe la United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, yemwe kale anali katswiri wazachuma wa IMF, Davison Budhoo, akuti "ndalama zothandizira zaumoyo m'maiko omwe adapangidwa ndi IMF-World Bank zidatsika ndi 50% mzaka za m'ma 1980, ndipo ndalama pamaphunziro zidatsika ndi 25%", zomwe zikuwonetsa kufalikira. Kummwera kwapadziko lonse.(10) Zotsatira zake zikukambidwa ndi Bello, yemwe anatchula kafukufuku wa bungwe la UN kuyambira kumapeto kwa zaka za m’ma 1980 akusonyeza kuti njira zothandizira zaumoyo m’kontinenti yonseyo “zinali kugwa chifukwa cha kusowa kwa mankhwala,” pamene “sukulu zilibe mabuku, ndi mayunivesite. akuvutika ndi kusoŵa kwa laibulale ndi ma laboratory mofooketsa.” Panthawiyi, bungwe la WHO linachenjeza kuti kolera inayambanso kuyambiranso, kufalikira pa 'liwiro loopsa' chifukwa cha kuwonongeka kwa madzi ndi zimbudzi komwe kunayambika chifukwa cha mavuto azachuma. (11).
Zotsatira zake zinali zofanana ndi machitidwe ambiri azaumoyo padziko lapansi. Monga "anthu ochulukirapo tsopano amafunafuna chithandizo chamankhwala pokhapokha matenda awo ayamba kale", SAPRIN imanena kuti, pakhala pali "kuwonjezeka kwa chiwerengero cha anthu omwe amafera m'nyumba zawo chifukwa cha matenda ochiritsira, nthawi zambiri amapanga zoopsa za thanzi la anthu pofalitsa matenda. m’malo mwawo.” Kumangirira lamba wandalama ndi kuyambitsa kapena kuwonjezereka kwa malipiro a sukulu kunachititsa kuti chiwerengero cha osiya chiwonjezeke "m'mayiko ambiri, makamaka pakati pa atsikana", SAPRIN ikupitiriza.
Izi ndi zina mwazotsatira za "kulingalira kwakukulu" kwa World Bank ku Africa, kugwiritsa ntchito mawu a Zoellick. Ngakhale mwachiwonekere sikungakhale kolakwika kuyika masautso a kontinenti kokha pakhomo la Banki, zikuwonekeranso kuti ndondomeko za Banki zakhala ndi zotsatira zoopsa zachuma ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu osauka a ku Africa. M’malo molimbikitsa kukula kwachuma, monga momwe analonjezedwa, iwo afulumizitsa mavuto a kontinentiyo ndi kulimbikitsa kudalira kwake ndalama maiko olemera.
Ofufuza ena anganene kuti masiku amdima akusintha kwadongosolo tsopano ali kumbuyo kwa Bank ndi Fund. Chifukwa cha kulimbikitsana kwapadziko lonse motsutsana ndi zotsatira za SAPs, mabungwe akakamizika kusintha njira; onsewo amanena kuti achepetsa kwambiri kugwiritsa ntchito kwawo malamulo enieni a zachuma m’mapulogalamu obwereketsa ndalama kuyambira m’chaka cha 2000. (12) Tsopano akuti amagwiritsidwa ntchito pokhapokha ngati zitetezero ziŵiri zakwaniritsidwa. Choyamba, mikhalidwe iyenera kukhala gawo la njira yokulirapo yachitukuko 'yake' ya dziko lolandira; chachiwiri, ziyenera kukhazikika pakuwunika momwe zingakhudzire anthu osauka.
Oxfam, Christian Aid ndi UNCTAD (14) onse aphunzira - ndipo anakaniza - zomwe Bank ndi Fund zikunena kuti asiya kugwiritsa ntchito mikhalidwe. Christian Aid ndi UNCTAD adalemba zonse zomwe zikupitilira kubwereketsa kwamtundu wa SAP, kuphatikiza mitundu "yatsopano". Oxfam ikunena kuti zaka zaposachedwa zawona kuwonjezeka, osati kuchepa, kuchuluka kwa mfundo zachuma zomwe zimaphatikizidwa ndi ngongole za Bank ndi Fund.
Ponena za kudzipereka kwa Bank ndi Fund pakulamulira bwino ndi kuchepetsa umphawi, chitsanzo cha Mali chikuwonetsa kuti bungwe lililonse silinakhudzidwe ndi zolinga zonse ziwiri, ndikuti chofunikira kwambiri ndikukulitsa mphamvu zamabizinesi ndi chuma cha 'msika waulere' kudera lonselo. Padziko Lonse South. Kuwonetsa izi, Oxfam ikufanizira mfundo za Banki Yadziko Lonse ku Mali ndi Senegal.
Pakuwunika kwaposachedwa kwa Bank ndi Fund, Mali, amodzi mwa mayiko osauka kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi, adasankhidwa kukhala achinyengo kwambiri m'maiko onse osauka omwe ali ndi ngongole zambiri. Senegal, pakadali pano, ndi yachinyengo komanso yolemera kuposa Mali. Chifukwa chake, ngati mabungwe azachuma padziko lonse lapansi adadzipereka kwambiri pakuchepetsa umphawi komanso utsogoleri wabwino, ndiye kuti Mali adzalandira ndalama zambiri kuposa Senegal. M'malo mwake, Mali amalandira theka la mnansi wake.
Chifukwa chake? Mali yakana kupanga bizinesi yake ya thonje, yomwe ndi yofunika kwambiri pazachuma komanso chikhalidwe cha dziko. Thandizo la $ 72 miliyoni likubisidwa m'dzikolo (momwe 90% ya anthu amakhala muumphawi) pachifukwa ichi. Mu 2004, Banki idakana $50 miliyoni chifukwa cha kukana kwa boma la Maliya kuthetsa njira zothandizira alimi a thonje, zomwe zidapangidwa kuti zichepetse zovuta za kutsika kwamitengo komwe kunayambika pang'onopang'ono ndi thandizo lamayiko olemera la mafakitale awo (onani pansipa). Pamene Bamako adagonja ndikuvomera kuti awonetse alimi ake osauka ku dongosolo lopanda chilungamo la mayiko, mitengo nthawi yomweyo idatsika ndi 20% ndipo umphawi udakwera ndi 4.6%.(15).
Chimodzi mwazofunikira kwambiri pazachitukuko chanthawi yayitali, chokhazikika ku Africa ndikukhazikitsa maubwenzi ogwirizana pazachuma pakati pa kontinenti ndi dziko lonse lapansi, zomwe zimayendetsedwa mosamalitsa m'njira zomwe zimathandizira zosowa za anthu ovutika. Bank ndi Fund zalephera kupereka mgwirizano wabwino wachuma ku kontinenti. M'malo mwake, kuletsa kwawo kuchepetsa kulowererapo kwa boma pazachuma kwavumbula malamulo amalonda opanda chilungamo omwe amakomera maboma olemera. Zotsatira zake zakhala, mosadabwitsa, zatsoka.
Zambiri mwazofunikira komanso zodziwika bwino kuchokera ku tsoka la Africa zitha kutsegulidwa nthawi yomweyo, ngati mayiko olemera ndi mabungwe azachuma padziko lonse lapansi ali ndi chidwi. Mu lipoti lalikulu la 2002 la machitidwe a malonda apadziko lonse, lotchedwa "Rigged Rules and Double Standards", Oxfam inalemba kuti "Ngati Africa, East Asia, South Asia, ndi Latin America aliyense angawonjezere gawo lake la katundu wapadziko lonse ndi 128 peresenti, kupindula kwa ndalama zimene amapeza kungakweze anthu 70 miliyoni mu umphaŵi.” Africa idzapanga ndalama zowonjezera zokwana madola 16 biliyoni - pafupifupi kuwirikiza kasanu kuposa momwe imalandirira chithandizo ndi ngongole chaka chilichonse.(XNUMX)
Pamene Africa yakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi mabungwe azachuma padziko lonse lapansi, komabe, udindo wake pazachuma padziko lonse lapansi ukupitilirabe. Mu 1950, kontinentiyi inkawerengera zoposa 3% ya malonda apadziko lonse; chiwerengero chaposachedwapa ndi 1.2%, ngati South Africa ichotsedwa.(17) Gawo la Africa la katundu wapadziko lonse lapansi linatsika kuchoka pa 6% mu 1980 kufika 2% mu 2002; Panthawi yomweyi, gawo lake lazogulitsa kunja kwa dziko lapansi linakhalabe lokhazikika pa 1%, pamene mtengo wake unakula ndi theka la chiwerengero cha mayiko omwe akutukuka kumene.(18).
Pofuna kupititsa patsogolo chitukuko chenicheni, zogulitsa zamitundu yonse ku Africa ziyenera kupatsidwa mwayi wopeza misika ku North padziko lonse lapansi, ndipo maiko aku Africa nthawi imodzi ayenera kuloledwa kukhazikitsa zotchinga kuti ateteze mafakitale awo omwe akuvutikira ku mpikisano wopanda chilungamo. Maboma a mayiko osauka akuyeneranso kuloledwa kuthandiza alimi ndi thandizo la mitengo ndi njira zina zopewera kusinthasintha kwa msika wapadziko lonse lapansi. Mwachidule, Africa (ndi mayiko ena onse a Kummwera padziko lonse lapansi) ayenera kuloledwa kugwiritsa ntchito ndondomeko zomwe mayiko olemera adagwiritsira ntchito kuti alimbikitse chitukuko chawo.(19)
Tsoka ilo, kutuluka kwa Africa ku tsoka lazachuma pakadali pano kwasindikizidwa ndi mfundo zoteteza mwamphamvu kumpoto kwa dziko lonse lapansi. Mayiko olemera omwewo omwe amakakamiza osauka kuti atsegule chuma chawo popanda chitetezo amasunga zoletsa zomwe zimalepheretsa mayiko omwe akutukuka kumene kutumiza kunja kumisika yawo yopindulitsa. "Maboma akumpoto amasungira zotchinga zawo zoletsa kwambiri zamalonda kwa anthu osauka kwambiri padziko lapansi", Oxfam ikulemba mu "Rigged Rules and Double Standards". Ngakhale kuti dziko la US limapereka msonkho wochepa wa 0-1% pazinthu zazikulu zochokera ku Germany, Britain, Japan ndi France, misonkho ya 14-15% imasungidwa ku mayiko osauka monga Bangladesh, Cambodia ndi Nepal.(20)
Mabungwe azachuma padziko lonse lapansi akakamiza mayiko akumwera kwa Sahara ku Africa ndi South Asia kuti achepetse mitengo yawo yapakati pakati, ndipo Latin America ndi East Asia achite chimodzimodzi ndi 2/3rd. Komabe, potumiza kumayiko olemera, mayiko osauka amakumanabe ndi mitengo yamitengo yomwe imakwera kuwirikiza kanayi kuposa imene mayiko olemera amachitira akamatumiza kumayiko osauka. Zolepheretsa izi zimawononga dziko lonse la South $ 100 biliyoni pachaka - kuwirikiza kawiri ndalama zomwe amalandira pothandizira. Kummwera kwa Sahara ku Africa, dera losauka kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi, likuvutika kwambiri.(21)
Mayiko olemera amadzipatsanso mwayi wopereka ndalama zothandizira mafakitale awo a zaulimi; komabe, monga chitsanzo cha Mali (pamwambapa) chikuwonetseratu, mayiko osauka nthawi zambiri amalandidwa mwayi womwewo ndi World Bank. M'zaka zaposachedwa, US yawononga pafupifupi $ 19 biliyoni pamafamu ake, (22) pomwe European Union pachaka imadya $47 biliyoni - 40% ya bajeti yake yonse. (23) Izi zimachitika ngakhale kuti 24 peresenti yokha ogwira ntchito ku EU, ndipo ochepera pa gawo limodzi mwa magawo XNUMX aliwonse a ku America, amagwira ntchito zaulimi.(XNUMX) Poyerekeza, moyo wa mabiliyoni a anthu osauka kwambiri padziko lapansi umadalira ndalama zomwe amapeza m'mafamu.
Kudzipereka kwake ku "malonda aulere" ngakhale, olamulira a Bush adatulutsa "mphatso yabwino kwambiri yamafamu m'mbiri ya US" mu 2002, The Financial Times idatero. (25) Ndalama zatsopanozi zinali zamtengo wapatali pafupifupi $83 biliyoni pazaka khumi, zomwe zikuyimira kuwonjezeka kwa ndalama zonse ndi 80%.(26) Zambiri za ndalamazi zimapita kwa alimi olemera kwambiri; olemera khumi pa zana aliwonse a alimi aku US amalandira 2/3rds ya zothandizira zonse, (27) pomwe ku Europe, 80% amapita kwa olemera 20%.(28)
Vuto lalikulu la thandizo laulimi ndi loti amalimbikitsa kuchulukitsa kwa mbewu, ndiyeno kuchulukitsa. Mayiko olemera nthawi zambiri amataya zokolola zawo zambiri m'mayiko a Kumwera kwa dziko lonse lapansi, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti mitengo ya zinthu izitsika pansi. Pamene maboma awo amaletsedwa kulowererapo kuti athandizidwe ndi ndondomeko zokhazikitsidwa ndi mabungwe a zachuma padziko lonse, ndipo popeza maboma a Kumpoto nthawi zambiri amachotsa kunja kwa mayiko osauka kunja kwa misika yawo, alimi a Kum'mwera amapeza kuti sangathe kupikisana ndi kugwa mu umphawi.
Thonje, kachiwiri, ndi chitsanzo. M'zaka zaposachedwa, dziko la US lawononga ndalama zokwana $5 biliyoni pachaka pothandizira alimi athu a thonje 25,000. (29) Monga momwe zimakhalira ndi chithandizo chaulimi, unyinji umapita kwa olemera kwambiri; Potchulapo ziwerengero za US Department of Agriculture, UNCTAD ikunena kuti 10% ya alimi olemera kwambiri amalandira ndalama zoposa 73% za ndalama zonse za thonje. kuthetsa kungakweze mitengo pakati pa 30 ndi 30%, malinga ndi kafukufuku waposachedwapa wa Oxfam.(12) Kuyerekezera kwina kumapita patsogolo. Komiti ya International Cotton Advisory Committee yati mitengo ikanakhala yokwera ndi 6% mu 14-30% popanda thandizo la boma la makampani.
Thandizo limeneli limabweretsa mavuto aakulu kwa alimi ambiri a ku Africa 20 miliyoni omwe amadalira thonje kuti apeze zofunika pamoyo wawo. Mukakhala ndi dola imodzi patsiku, monga momwe alimi ambiri aku Africa amachitira, ngakhale kutsika pang'ono kwamitengo kumakhala kofunika kwambiri. Ndalama zotayika chifukwa cha mitengo yachisoni zimachititsa ana mamiliyoni angapo a Kumadzulo kwa Afirika kukhala ndi njala komanso osaphunzira chaka chilichonse. Ngati kutsika kwa mtengowo kukanasinthidwa, ana ameneŵa akanatha kudyetsedwa ndi kuphunzitsidwa, ndipo ndalama zambiri “zikanatha kulipira mankhwala opulumutsa moyo, kugona m’zipatala, ndi kukambitsirana kwa anthu anayi mpaka 10” m’mabanja ambiri a Kumadzulo kwa Afirika, Oxfam ikulemba motero.(33)
Chifukwa cha mbiri ya Banki Yadziko Lonse ku Africa, komanso chikhalidwe cha malonda apadziko lonse omwe amapangidwa ndi mayiko olemera omwe amawalamulira, Zoellick "kuika patsogolo" kwa Africa sikumayendera bwino osauka a kontinenti.
Jake R. Hess, wophunzira womaliza maphunziro ku Brown University, akulandira ndemanga pa JakeRHess(at)gmail.com
magwero
(1) Christopher Swann ndi Janine Zacharia, "Africa ili pamwamba pa Zoellick", International Herald Tribune, June 11, 2007.
(2) Msonkhano wa UN pa Zamalonda ndi Zachitukuko, "Chitukuko cha Economic ku Africa: Kuchokera Kukonzekera Kuchepetsa Umphawi: Kodi Chatsopano N'chiyani?", 2002. Nicolas Van de Walle, katswiri wamaphunziro a ku Africa, analemba kuti "Pofika 1989, oposa theka Mayiko a mu Afirika anali pakati pa mapologalamu okonzedwa ndi Banki, ndipo m’mayiko pafupifupi 36 a m’chigawochi anasaina ngongole zokwana 49, kuphatikizapo ngongole zina zokwana 41 zosinthira magawo a banki.” Onani Van de Walle, "Africa ndi World Economy", ku Harbeson ndi Rotchild (eds.), Africa mu World Politics: The African State System in Flux (Westview, 2000), p. 274.
(3) Onani Frederick Cooper, Africa Kuyambira 1940: Past of the Present, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
(4) UNCTAD (2002), ibid.
(5) Walden Bello, Kupambana Kwamdima: United States ndi Global Poverty, Pluto Press (ed.), 1999.
(6) UN Economic Commission for Africa, "Transforming Africa Economies: Economic Report on Africa 2000", 2000.
(7) Onani Paul Hofheinz, "Economy: World Bank's Economists Recommend Njira Yambiri Yolimbana ndi Umphawi", The Wall Street Journal, September 26, 2000.
(8) Christian Aid, "Economics of failure: The real cost of 'free' trade for poor countries", June 2005.
(9) SAPRIN, The Policy Roots of Economic Crisis and Poverty: A Multi-Country Participatory Assessment of Structural Adjustment, April 2002. Lipotilo linasindikizidwa mu bukhu la Zed ndipo likupezeka kwaulere pa intaneti.
(10) Davison Budhoo, “IMF/World Bank Wreak Havoc on Third World”, mu Kevin Danaher (ed.), 50 Years is Enough: The Case Against The World Bank and International Monetary Fund, South End Press/Global Exchange, 1994 .
(11) Bello, ibid.
(12) Onani Christian Aid, “Business as usual: The World Bank, IMF and the liberalization agenda”, September 2005.
(13) Oxfam, Kicking The Habit: Momwe Banki Yadziko Lonse ndi IMF ndidakondabe kulumikiza mfundo zachuma kuti zithandizire ”, Novembara 2006.
(14) Kwa Oxfam, onani cholemba Na. 12; za Chistian Aid, onani cholemba Na. 11; ndi UNCTAD, zindikirani ayi. 2.
(15) Oxfam, "Kicking the Habit", ibid.
(16) Oxfam, “Rigged Rules and Double Standards: Trade, Globalization and the Fight Against Poverty”, March 2002.
(17) Cooper, Africa Kuyambira 1940, ibid.
(18) UNCTAD, "Economic Development in Africa: Trade Performance and Commodity Dependence", 2003.
(19) Onani, mwachitsanzo, Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking Away Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective (Anthem, 2002).
(20) George Monbiot, "Nthawi zoipitsitsa", The Guardian (England), September 02, 2003.
(21) Oxfam, "Rigged Rules and Double Standards", ibid.
(22) Elizabeth Becker, "A New Villain in Free Trade: The Farmer on the Dole", The New York Times, August 25, 2002.
(23) The Economist, "Europe's farm follies", December 10, 2005.
(24) Zithunzi zotengedwa ku CIA World Factbook. Asanalowe ku Romania ndi Bulgaria ku EU, chiwerengerochi chinali chochepera 2% (The Economist, ibid.)
(25) Edward Alden ndi Deborah McGregor, "Zomera zandalama: Bilu yaulimi yaku US yakhumudwitsa mayiko ena posintha zomwe zidachitika kale zolimbikitsa malonda aulimi", The Financial Times, Meyi 10, 2002.
(26) David E. Sanger, "Reversing Course, Bush Signs Bill Raising Farm Subsidies", The New York Times, May 14, 2002.
(27) Alden ndi McGregor, The Financial Times, ibid.
(28) The Economist, ibid.
(29) Oxfam, "US iyenera kusintha pulogalamu ya subsidy yaulimi", September 01, 2006.
(30) UNCTAD (2003), ibid.
(31) Oxfam, "Kulipira Mtengo: Momwe ndondomeko zamafamu aku US zimapwetekera alimi a thonje aku West Africa - komanso momwe kusintha kwa subsidy kungathandizire", June 21, 2007.
(32) UNCTAD (2003), ibid.
(33) Oxfam, "Kulipira Mtengo", ibid.
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