Suzanne Simon
kuchokera
1972 mpaka 1992, Texaco Corporation yochokera ku US idatsogolera kupanga mafuta.
ntchito ku Ecuadorian Amazon. Iwo ankatsogolera ntchito kufufuza, anamanga
misewu ndi mapaipi a trans-Ecuadorian, omwe amachokera ku tawuni yamafuta ya Lago
Agrio kupita ku doko la Esmeraldas. Zaka makumi awiri izi za kuchotsa mafuta ndi
kupanga kwapangitsa kuti pakhale kuipitsidwa kwa chilengedwe ndi
chiwonongeko chimene chiri chodabwitsa ngakhale kwa mbadwo wozolowera kumva
za nkhanza ndi imperialism zochitidwa ndi US ndi mayiko osiyanasiyana
makampani padziko lonse lapansi. Pambuyo kugwiritsa ntchito ambiri a
Malo osungira mafuta aku Ecuador, Texaco mwadala anasiyidwa ndi
chilengedwe choipitsidwa ndi maenje opitilira mazana atatu amafuta osalumikizidwa, omwe ali
zodzaza ndi zinyalala zapoizoni ndi carcinogenic. Maenje awa - ndi wamba
kutayika kwa mafuta - kunachititsa kuti awononge mitsinje, mitsinje, ndi nthaka
madzi. Iwo adasiyanso anthu onse odzaza ndi matenda osachiritsika komanso ovuta
matenda, kuphatikizapo khansa, mwa anthu omwe analipo kale
kulibe, ndi ana obadwa ndi chilema mu majini. Kwa zonsezi,
Texas yakana kunena udindo uliwonse.
The
Amazon ya ku Ecuador
The
Ecuadorian Amazon ndi dera lokhala ndi anthu ochepa lomwe lili ndi theka
m'madera onse a Ecuadorian. Anthu okhala kumeneko ndi pafupifupi onse
kwawo ndi colonos-atsamunda omwe anasamukira ku Oriente panthawi ya
mafuta ochepa. Makoloni kupanga osauka padziko lonse ndipo poyamba alibe malo
anthu ochokera kumadera ena a Ecuador. Kutsatira zolephera
Kuyesa kusintha kwa nthaka mu 1964, kuyesa koyamba kukonzanso chigawo cha Ecuador
mgwirizano wapamtunda, colonos
anapatsidwa malo oti atsatire atsamunda, mu a
ndondomeko yofanana ndi American Homestead Act ya 1861. The Ecuadorian
Zolinga za boma pochita izi zagona pakulamulira dziko mwachitukuko
kapena kukankhira magulu a anthu omwe amakhala kumeneko mozama m'nkhalango ndi
potero amapereka ntchito kwa mafakitale amafuta ndipo, makamaka, kupanga
malo otetezeka ntchito zochotsa mafuta.
Mpaka mafuta
Zaka zamphamvu zakumayambiriro kwa zaka za mโma 1970, nkhalango ya Amazon ya ku Ecuadorโmonga nkhalango yamvula ya mโmadera otentha
komanso komwe kwakhala magulu ambiri amtunduwu, kunali kosatheka. Zotentha
magulu azikhalidwe, monga Cofan, Siona-Secoya, Shuar-Jivaro, ndi Huaorani,
adateteza bwino
madera awo motsutsana ndi ma incursions a Inca ndi Spanish Empires, monga
komanso zoyesayesa za boma la Ecuador muzaka zonse za 19th kuti
kulanda dera. Kupezeka koyamba kwachilendo kwachilendo m'derali
zidachitika kumapeto kwa 20th
zaka zana pa nthawi ya rabara. Panthawiyo, ogula mphira anabweretsa Quechua
anthu otsika kumapiri kukagwira ntchito monga akapolo, antchito olembedwa, ndi
perekani dongosolo la encomienda. Chiwerengero chachikulu cha anthu ammudzi
Ecuadorian Amazon tsopano ndi Chiquechua chakuchigwa.
Mafuta oyamba
kampani yopita ku Ecuador kukasaka nkhokwe zamafuta inali Royal Dutch Shell
m'zaka za m'ma 1930. Kusachita bwino ku Amazon ndikupeza mafuta
ku St. Elena, anasamukira ku gombe kuti akagwiritse ntchito mafuta kumeneko. The
Kupezeka kwakukulu kwamafuta akunja mpaka pano kwakhala Texaco-kapena momwemo
amakonda kutengera gawo lake la phantom, "Texpet." Mafuta ndi
zinthu zachilengedwe zoyambirira zotengedwa ku Oriente, ndipo zinali
Ntchito zopanga mafuta ku Texas zomwe zidasintha mawonekedwe ndi
kuchuluka kwa anthu m'derali.
Texas mu
Ecuador
Texaco
idayamba kulamulira makampani opanga mafuta polimbana ndi
Ulamuliro wankhondo wadziko komanso wodziwika bwino wa General Rodriguez Lara. The
Ulamuliro wa Rodriguez Lara udalanda ulamuliro wa Ecuador yemwe nthawi zambiri amakhala wosakhazikika
boma mu 1972 kuti akwaniritse kupanga mafuta kuchokera kwa anthu ambiri mdziko
ndi malo odana ndi imperialist, ndikuwonetsetsa kuti zipatso zamafuta zikuchulukirachulukira
idzayikidwa bwino m'masukulu, misewu,
ndi zipatala. CEPE (Coporacion Estatal de Petrolera Ecuadoria) anali
kukhazikitsidwa pofuna kukambirana ndi kuphunzira zida zamalonda kuchokera
Texaco, ndikumanga gulu la akatswiri aku Ecuadorian akatswiri amafuta.
Oyembekezera
malingaliro a ulamuliro wadziko lino sanakhalitse pansi pa chitsenderezo cha Texaco.
Mkhalidwe wamphamvu wadziko laulamuliro wa Rodriguez Lara udapanga
mikhalidwe, yomwe mabungwe ang'onoang'ono sakanatha kukumana nawo, kusiya Texaco mu a
udindo waukulu. Texaco idaphatikiza mphamvu zake ndi chikoka
Pamakonzedwe akupanga pokakamiza kuletsa mafuta mu 1975, kukakamiza
Chuma cha Ecuador muvuto lalikulu lazachuma komanso nthawi yake yoyamba
kubwereka kwakukulu. CEPE pambuyo pake idagula magawo a Texaco-Gulf (the
mpikisano wina waukulu) kusiya CEPE ngati ogawana nawo ambiri, komabe mu a
udindo wocheperako vis-a-vis Texaco, ndi Texaco ngati kampani yamafuta yakunja
kulamulira makampani. Mwanjira imeneyi, Texaco anakakamiza Ecuadorian
boma kuti ligwirizane ndi zomwe likufuna kukhala lokhalo lopanga mafuta mdziko muno,
ndipo anathetsa zilakolako za dziko mโzaka zochepa chabe. Ngakhale
kuyambira koyambirira kwa zaka za m'ma 1970 CEPE idakhala ndi ogawana nawo ambiri (Petroecuador
ndiye kampani yayikulu yamafuta pano, popeza idatenga zonse zomwe Texaco ili nazo mu 1992
malinga ndi mgwirizano), zinali zodziwika kuti kuwongolera makampani amafuta mu
Ecuador idapumula m'manja mwa Texaco chifukwa champhamvu yawo
bungwe lapadziko lonse lapansi โ Ecuador idasowa kwambiri ndalama zakunja โ ndipo
chifukwa Texaco yekha anali ndi chidziwitso, ukadaulo komanso ukadaulo wotsata mafuta
Kupanga.
Ngakhale zili choncho
zowona kuti dziko la Ecuador limagawana mlandu ndi Texaco Corporation chifukwa cha
kuipitsidwa kwa chilengedwe mdera la Oriente, momveka bwino Texaco Corporation
adapanga zisankho za komwe angabowole komanso ukadaulo woti agwiritse ntchito. Iwo
Pachifukwa ichi, anthu 30,000 adapereka chigamulo cha kalasi
okhala ku Oriente adasungidwa ku New York Chigawo Chachiwiri
Federal Court, pomwe akuti zigamulo zonse zofunika zinali
idapangidwa ku likulu la Texaco ku Westchester County. The Ecuadorian
boma lidachita gawo lawo poganizira maiko awa (omwe anali anthu
ndi anthu amtundu) monga "opanda munthu," pochotsa miyoyo yawo ngati yotheka
Amitundu omwe anali atakhala kale kumeneko ndi atsopano
adasamukira ku gulu la osamukira kwawo, komanso pogwiritsa ntchito asitikali aku Ecuador kuti apange
madera osowa pokhala otetezeka kupanga mafuta.
Zili bwino
kudziwika kuti makampani mafuta mothandizidwa ndi Ecuadorian asilikali mokakamiza
anachotsa eni eni ndi alimi mโminda yawo. Mayi wina anandiuza
momwe, posachedwapa mu 1990, asilikali a ku Ecuador anabwera kunyumba kwake ndipo
anachotsa banja lake mokakamiza. Ana ake atatu anamenyedwa asanakhalepo
onse okhoza kuthaลตa mwa kusambira kuwoloka mtsinje ndi kuthaลตira mโnkhalango.
Usiku umenewo, iwo anakhala mโkanyumba kena ka mnansi komwe kunali mwana wake wazaka zitatu
mwana wamkazi adagwa pamoto wophikira. Mpaka lero ali ndi zipsera kwambiri. Mu
Guayaquil mayi wa banjalo anatsutsa molimba mtima pachifundo
pawailesi yakanema, kuti moyo wake womwewo uwopsezedwe ndi asitikali akumaloko
akuluakulu a boma ndi kuuzidwa kuti akanamupha โwachabechabeโ
Mwana wamkazi waku India. Pambuyo pake, anayenera kupita kukakhala mโmapaki a mumzinda ndi kukapempha
ndalama ndi chakudya, zonse chifukwa amakhala pafupi kwambiri ndi mzere (zonse kupanga mafuta
madera ku Oriente amalembedwa ndi "midadada") komwe Texaco ndi ina
makampani ang'onoang'ono aku France ankafuna kubowola.
Siziyenera kutero
Dziwani kuti ndi nkhani zingati ngati izi zilipo, koma tanthauzo lake linapangidwa
zomveka kwa ine, monga wofufuza, kuti izi zinali, ndipo ziri, malo wamba kwambiri
chochitika. Kuyang'anira ankhondo kumalo opangira mafuta ndikowona; Ndinaimitsidwa
ndipo anafunsidwa ndi gulu lalikulu la asilikali loyenda pamtunda wa makilomita makumi asanu kuchokera pachitsime
kumene ndinajambula zithunzi, kutanthauza kulankhulana kwambiri pawailesi pakati pa
alonda omwe akuwoneka kuti ali okhaokha komanso asitikali aku Ecuadorian.
Ngakhale zili choncho
zomvetsa chisoni kuti boma la Ecuador silinakhudzidwe ndi
Ubwino wa anthu wamba ndi colonos omwe amakhala m'derali, zinali
nthawi zonse ankaganiza kuti, polemekeza bizinesi yeniyeni yaukadaulo ya
kufufuza, kubowola, kupopa mafuta, ndi kutaya zinyalala zapoizoni, Texaco
angatsatire miyezo yabwinobwino, yovomerezedwa ndi makampani. Kodi izi sizinali ndendende
udindo womwe Texaco amayenera kukhala nawo motsutsana ndi dziko la Ecuadorian ndi
CEPE, kuti awayambitse kubizinesi yopanga mafuta momwe amachitira
chikuchitika mu dziko lonse lapansi?
Kenako idafika ngati a
kudabwitsa kwa anthu ambiri aku Ecuador kuti aphunzire izi, m'malo mogwiritsa ntchito odalirika komanso
Miyezo yovomerezedwa ndi mafakitale pakupanga mafuta ku Amazon, Texaco anali nayo
osankhidwa kudula ngodya ndikugwiritsa ntchito ukadaulo wosakwanira komanso wosayenera. Texas
mwadala anasankha kuti asayike ukadaulo wa reinjection, womwe udalipo
ndi de jure ntchito yopanga mafuta kuyambira koyambirira kwa zaka za zana la 20
United States. Pochita izi, adapulumutsa pafupifupi $ 1 miliyoni pachitsime chilichonse
pa zitsime zoposa 300 zimene anakumba kumeneko.
Zoyambitsa
Kuwonongeka kwa Mafuta
pobowola
chifukwa mafuta amakhudza kugwira ntchito zingapo za poizoni, kuyambira osiyanasiyana kwambiri
madzi oopsa "opangidwa" kapena mapangidwe, omwe amachotsedwa pamodzi ndi
code mu kubowola ndondomeko kenako anapatukana pa processing, kuti
mankhwala osiyanasiyana owopsa omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito pobowola ndi kupatukana
ndondomeko. Nthawi zambiri, "madzi opangidwa" onse apoizoni amalowetsedwanso mu
nthaka pamlingo womwewo wapansi pa nthaka umene mafutawo anatengedwako. Texas
analola madzi osiyanasiyana opangidwa ndi otayidwa kuti asonkhane mโmaenje opanda mzere
osayamba kukanda padziko lapansi, kupanga zomwe Judith Kimmerling,
mu ntchito yake 1990 Amazon Crude amatchedwa "poizoni
supuโ ya brine, crude, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsโodziลตika kwambiri
carcinogen) ndi VOCs (zosakhazikika organic mankhwala).
Ngakhale izi
maiwe angakhale owopsa kwa chilengedwe kulikonse, makamaka
mโchigawo cha Amazon, kumene nkhalango yowirira imakhala yokoma kwambiri
anagwiridwa limodzi kupyolera mu zikwizikwi za mitsinje yofanana ndi intaneti ndi ma rivulets. Mafuta nawonso
analowera mโmadzi apansi panthaka, akuyenda kutali ndi malo amene poyambapo
maenje. Kodi kuipitsidwa kwa maenjewa sikunali kokwanira Texaco anawonjezera
kunyozetsa pochita nkhanza zoopsa kwambiri. Zinthu za gasi
zomwe zimasonkhanitsa pamwamba pa zinyalala maenje nthawi zambiri kuwotchedwa, cresting
zomwe anthu akumaloko amatcha "mvula yakuda" ndikumasula ngakhale
ma PAH ochulukirapo mu mawonekedwe awo akupha kwambiri omwe amawuluka mumlengalenga, ndipo zonyansa zochulukirapo zimatsanuliridwa
misewu yopanda phula pofuna kuwongolera fumbi mโnyengo yachilimwe. Anthu amene
kuyeretsa maenje kapena amene akuyenda m'misewu iyi ayenera kugwiritsa ntchito mafuta kuyeretsa mafuta,
ndipo nthawi zambiri amalandila chithandizo ku zipatala zapafupi. Paipi imaganiziridwa
kukhala osamangidwa bwino, popanda ma spigots okwanira, omwe angalamulire
kutayika panthawi yopuma mapaipi. Kutayika kwa mafuta ndizochitika zofala m'mabanja
Ecuadorian Amazon. Zimakhala zofala kwambiri moti munthu wa mโderalo akamalankhula mmene
famu yawo ikupita patsogolo, atha kunena za kutayika kwa mafuta mwachisawawa
ngati amakamba za nyengo yoipa.
Mu izi
malo onyowa modabwitsa ndi magwero amadzi zikwizikwi,
Amwenye ndi atsamunda a m'derali ali ndi mwayi wopeza
mitsinje yoipitsidwa ndi mitsinje yomwa, kusodza, kusamba, ndi kuchapa zovala.
Panopa akudwala matenda otsekula m'mimba komanso kusowa kwa zakudya m'thupi, ndi a
chiwerengero cha matenda amalembedwa kwambiri pakati pa anthu, kuphatikizapo:
mowiriza kuchotsa mimba, kupuma matenda, aakulu ndi zonse mutu ndi
kuwawa kwapakhosi, kusinthika kwa khungu, leukemia yaubwana, ana obadwa nawo
kuwonongeka kwa majini, khansa ya m'phuno, ndulu, mmero, m'mimba, m'mapapo,
ndi m'mimba. Mlingo wa khansa ndi 130 peresenti kuposa momwe ungakhalire
kuyembekezera muzochitika zabwinobwino. (Kuti mumve zambiri za kufalikira kwa
khansa, onani lipoti la Yana Curi lomwe likupezeka.) Anthu ambiri atero kale
anafa, ndipo mliri wa khansa ukuyembekezeka kufalikira kudera lonselo
koma zaka.
Kuphatikiza pa
kugwiriridwa malo awo komanso matenda osiyanasiyana omwe sanadziwikepo kale
mโziลตerengero zawo, matauni aakulu amafuta a OrienteโCoca ndi Lago
Agrioโtsopano akuyangโanizana ndi kukwera kwa ulova ndi chiwawa. Chifukwa cha Ecuador
Zodziwika bwino zamavuto azachuma, kampani yomwe ili ndi boma pano, Petroecuador, yatero
kuchepetsa ntchito yokonza mapaipi ndi zina zokhudzana ndi mafuta
ntchito, kuchotsa gwero lofunikira la ntchito kwa atsamunda
amene amakhala mโderali, makamaka mโmatauni. Atsamunda ambiri amadalira a
kuphatikiza kulima dothi losauka la Ecuadorian Amazon ndikugwira ntchito
makampani amafuta kuti apulumuke. Kuchepetsa kwa Petraecuador, kuphatikiza
kuti nkhokwe zamafuta zikutha ndipo zikuyembekezeredwa kutha
zatheratu pofika chaka cha 2010, zikuwonetsa kuti ulova udzatha
pitirizani kuwuka. Munthu akhoza kungolingalira zomwe zidzachitike kwa awiriwo
mizinda ikuluikulu ndi madera ena achitsamunda omwe ali kutali ndi ena onse
chuma cha Ecuadorian chomwe chimadalira pafupifupi mafuta. za
ndalama zofunika kuti munthu akhale ndi moyo. Ndi zotsimikizika kuti momveka bwino kudula kwa
Nkhalango ya Amazonโโmapapo a maiko, magwero a zinthu zambiri
asayansi amaona ngati zotheka ethnobotanical mankhwala a khansa, ndi mmodzi wa
"malo otentha" achilengedwe osankhidwa ndi Norman Myers chifukwa chake
Kuchulukirachulukira kwa zamoyo ndi zamoyo zosiyanasiyanaโzidzapitirirabe
kuwonongedwa. Zonse kuti Texaco ipange ndalama zochepa. Ndi chifukwa cha ichi
kuti anthu ambiri amatchula zochita za Texaco monga โzachilengedwe
uchigawenga.โ ndipo chigaza ndi mafupa opingasa amajambula pafupi ndi dzinalo
Petroecuador pa payipi yaikulu yomwe imagwirizanitsa Oriente ndi gombe.
Anthu ambiri
omwe ndinalankhula nawo anali odziwa bwino komanso amalankhula za Ecuadorian
boma ndi Texaco anagwiririra malo awo, ndi kuti phindu chuma mafuta
chitukuko chinasangalatsidwa ndi anthu ochepa chabeโolemera olemekezeka ndi
akuluakulu ankhondo kapena andale achinyengo. Pang'ono ndi pang'ono kupanga mafuta
ndalama zinabwezeredwa m'madera omwe anali ogwirizana kwambiri ndi
Bizinesi yapamtunda yochotsa mafuta: msewu umodzi - wopitilira umodzi
Makilomita zana kutalika - omwe amalumikiza matauni awiri amafuta a Lago Agrio ndi
Coca - amangopangidwa mwa apo ndi apo. Magawo ambiri amsewu ndi odzaza kwambiri
okhala ndi maenje kuti apange kuyendetsa koopsa kwambiri. Mlatho womwe unagwiritsidwa ntchito
kulumikiza msewu wodutsa mtsinje wa Aguarico kupita ku Lago Agrio unakokoloka
chivomezi cha 1987, ndipo sichinasinthebe. M'malo mwachikale kwambiri
boti limanyamula magalimoto ndi mabasi kuchokera mbali imodzi kupita ku ina. Lago Agrio ali basi
misewu yochepa yopangidwa ndi tawuni, ndipo Coca alibe. Zipatala nthawi zambiri zimakhala
osauka, monga masukulu, dongosolo madzi, ndi zina zothandiza anthu ndi
zipangizo. Monga momwe munthu wina adandiuza, "Ndalama zonse zamafuta zidapita
mizinda, kumene anthu olemera kale amakhala. Palibe chomwe chinabwera kwa ife, kumene
anthu osauka amakhala- ife amene ntchito mafuta. Ndipo tsopano kuchuluka kwa mafuta
zathaโnthawi yatha kwa ife ndipo sitipeza kalikonse.โ
Imakhalabe kuti
ziwonedwe ndendende momwe "Colombia Plan" idzakhudzire dera lino, koma izo
ndikutsimikiza kuti zitero. Mu mlungu wachiwiri wa July 1999, monga momwe zinalili
kutukuka kuzungulira pano IJS airbase ku Manta, nkhani zambiri
ku mbali ya kumpoto chakumโmaลตa kwa Orienteโโdera limene nthaลตi zambiri silimalinyalanyaza
dziko lonselo-zinasindikizidwa m'manyuzipepala akuluakulu a tsiku ndi tsiku.. Lago
Agrio adayang'aniridwa ngati malo otumizira zida ndi kutumiza (mafuta adawonjezeredwa
moto ndi gulu lalikulu la zida zomwe zidapezeka pamenepo), ndi a
nkhaniyo idawonekera momveka bwino kuti anthu amderali ali pachiwopsezo
zosokoneza za FARC. Kukhala ndi njira zochepa zopezera ndalama,
adanenedwa kuti atha kuchita zinthu zosayenera komanso
ndale zoukira boma. Kukhalapo kwa asilikali kwakhala kale kwambiri
kuchuluka m'madera amenewa, kuti onse "kuletsa kuyenda" kwa katundu ndi
zida, ndikuwonjezera malire a Ecuador mu chiyembekezo chomwe Colombia
mavuto sadzatha. Bungwe la Clinton la Colombia Plan lachita
tsopano apereka $12 miliyoni kaamba ka โmudziโ ndi โchitukuko cha chikhalidwe cha anthuโ (monga
komanso $13 miliyoni za zida zankhondo ndi $86 miliyoni za
Air Base yoyendetsedwa ndi US ku Manta). Kulowa kale ndi kutuluka m'maderawa
ikuyang'aniridwa mwatcheru.
Milandu
As
tamโtchula poyamba paja, mu 1993, mlandu wotsutsana ndi Texaco unaperekedwa
New York ndi loya waku Ecuadorian-America wosamalira zachilengedwe m'malo mwa 30,000
anthu amtundu waku Ecuadorian Amazon. Mu Epulo 1994, Texas idasamukira
kuthetseratu mlanduwo ponena kuti mlandu mโdera lawo unali
"kuzunzidwa." Woweruza Vincent Broderick adakana pempho loti achotsedwe,
kutchula 1992 Rio Declaration, yomwe, monga 1972 Stockholm declaration,
adalengeza kuti ndi ufulu wokhala ndi malo aukhondo ndi abwino ngati chinthu chofunikira komanso chofunikira
Woweruza waufulu waumunthu Broderick adavomereza ulamuliro pa Texaco
mlandu mosazengereza, ndipo nthawi yomweyo adapempha kuti kutulukira kuchitidwe
kuti mudziwe kuchuluka kwa ulamuliro wa Texaco pamafuta aku Ecuador
makampani opanga. Woweruza Broderick adamwalira chaka chimodzi pambuyo pake ndikuwongolera
mlanduwu unaperekedwa kwa Woweruza Jed Rakoff, wodziwika bwino wosamalira zachilengedwe
nkhani.
Ngakhale
Boma la Ecuador lidasaina mgwirizano ndi Texaco mu 1995 pamtengo wa $ 40 miliyoni
kuyeretsa, zimadziwika kuti kuyeretsa kochitidwa ndi Texaco kunali
kwenikweni chiwonetsero cha PR komanso kuyesetsa kukhazika mtima pansi boma la Ecuador.
Ntchito zawo zoyeretsa zakale komanso zamakono nthawi zambiri zimakhala zophimba
maenje opanda mzere ndi dothi ndi zomera kuti zisawonekere
kwa maso amaliseche, ndi kuchotsa zinyalala ku payipi kutayira kuti
kuwoneka kuchokera pamsewu kupita kumalo osawoneka bwino (nthawi zambiri kumangotsatira
phiri).
Kuyambira 1995, a
Mlandu wa Texas - woperekedwa ngati Aguinda v. Texasโwabwerera mmbuyo ndi
pakati pa khoti la Judge Rakoff ndi Second District Court of
Zodandaula. Pofika mchaka cha 1996, Texaco idapereka zifukwa zitatu zotsutsa mlanduwu
maziko a mayiko comity, maphwando ofunikira, ndi forum ayi
zabwino. Mu November 1996, Woweruza Rakoff anavomera kuchotsa mlanduwo
maziko a mfundo zimenezi, koma mu October 1998 Khoti Loona za Apilo ku United States
chifukwa khoti lachiwiri la Circuit lasintha chigamulo cha Judge Rakoff. Chakumapeto
November 1999, Woweruza Rakoff anathetsa mlanduwo kachiwiri, akuloza
kusagwirizana kwa kaimidwe ka boma la Ecuador pankhaniyi: the
Purezidenti wa Sixto Duran Ballen adasaina mgwirizano ndi Texaco mu 1998,
kusiya zonenedweratu za kampaniyo. Udindo umenewu unatsutsidwa ndi
Purezidenti wotsatira ndipo boma la Ecuadorian latuluka
kuthandizira mlandu. Kumayambiriro kwa December 1999 khoti lachiwiri la US Circuit
a Apilo adavota mogwirizana kuti mlanduwo ubwerere kwa Judge Rakoff, ponena kuti
kuti analibe chifukwa chokwanira chomuchotsa ntchito.
Pali awiri
mbali za mlanduwu zomwe - ngati mlanduwo wapambana - ukhoza kukhazikitsa watsopano
kutsogola pakuwunika ndi kuyang'anira mabungwe amayiko osiyanasiyana
ntchito zakunja. The Alien Tort Claims Act (ACTA) ndi malamulo wamba
chiphunzitso cha forum ayi zabwino
ntchito mwachindunji
kutsutsana wina ndi mzake; yoyamba imalola nthumwi za US kuti ziyesedwe ku US
makhoti chifukwa cha zolakwa zomwe anachita kunja kwa nyanja motsutsana ndi matupi akunja, pamene a
omaliza amalola mabungwe aku US kuti apereke milandu yowatsutsa
ndi nthumwi zakunja kuweruzidwa m'mabwalo amilandu a dziko lolandirira. Zoneneratu ndi
kuti msonkhano waku US ndiwosokonekera komanso kuti, popeza zolakwazo zidachitika
dziko lokhalamo, zonenazo ziyenera kuyesedwa kumeneko. Chilimbikitso chenicheni mu
kukhala ndi milandu yowazenga mlandu kunja kwa nyanja ndizomwe nthawi zambiri, monga mu
mlandu wa Ecuador, dongosolo la khoti la dziko lomwe lalandirako silokwanira kuti
yesani masuti owopsa kwambiri, komanso malamulo a chilengedwe sali okhwima mokwanira
kulola kupambana kwa mlanduwo.
ACTA,
yokhazikitsidwa ndi Congress mu 1789, imalola nzika zakunja kubweretsa US
nzika, alendo ndiโngati mlanduwu wapambanaโmabungwe kuti
chilungamo mโmakhoti a ku United States, ndi kufunafuna chithandizo chamkhalidwe wolakwa โwochitidwa
mophwanya lamulo la mayiko.โ Lamulo la Alien Tort Claims Act silinali lachilendo
idagwiritsidwa ntchito mpaka 1980, pomwe mlandu wa Filartiga vs. Pena-Irala-kumene
membala wa gulu lakufa la Paraguay Americo Pena-Irala adayimbidwa mlandu
kuzunzidwa ndi kuphedwa kwa Joelito Filartiga wazaka 17 mu 1976 - kunapambana pa
mfundo za ATCA. Kuyambira pamenepo, Act Alien Tort Claims Act yakhala ikugwiritsidwa ntchito
bwino pamilandu ingapo: mtsogoleri waku Bosnia-Serb yemwe akuimbidwa mlandu wogwiririra,
kupha fuko ndi kukakamiza uhule; yemwe kale anali mkulu wa gulu lankhondo la Guatemala ndi chitetezo
mtumiki woimbidwa mlandu wozunza; yemwe kale anali msilikali wa ku Ethiopia akuimbidwa mlandu
kuzunza; yemwe kale anali mkulu wa asilikali a ku Argentina akuimbidwa mlandu woba ndi kuzunza anthu ambiri
anthu wamba a Argentina; ndi Dipatimenti ya Apolisi ku Los Angeles chifukwa chabodza
kumangidwa ndi kumangidwa kwa banja la Mexico. The Alien Tort Claims Act ili,
choncho, wakhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka kutsutsa anthu kwa munthu
kuphwanya ufulu wochitidwa kunja.
Posachedwapa,
ATCA yagwiritsidwa ntchito kubweretsa mabungwe amitundu yosiyanasiyana kukhoti kwa anthu
kuphwanya ufulu. Izi ndi zomwe zinachitika pamene bungwe la ufulu wachibadwidwe la New York
Bungwe, Center for Constitutional Rights, lidachitapo kanthu
mlandu m'malo mwa boma la Burma ku ukapolo ndi alimi a
Dera la Tenasserim ku Burma motsutsana ndi Unocal, Total, ndi maboma awiri a Burma
mabungwe, State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) ndi
Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) mu Okutobala 1996 kukhothi ku Los Angeles.
Oimbidwa mlanduwo anaimbidwa mlandu wotenga nawo mbali pa kusamutsa anthu onse
midzi, ntchito yokakamiza, kugwiriridwa, ndi kupha kuti amange payipi ya gasi kuchokera
malo amafuta achilengedwe a Yadana kufupi ndi gombe la Burma kudzera ku Tenasserim
dera mpaka kumalire a Thailand. Pofika mu April 1997 khoti la LA linali litafika pa
chigamulo choyambirira kuti ngakhale mabungwe a boma la Burma a SLORC ndi
MOGE adatha kukhalabe osatetezedwa pansi pa Wolamulira Wachilendo
Immunity Act, otsutsa otsala a Unocal ndi Total Corporations atha
zidzachitikabe pansi pa ulamuliro wa khothi kutengera ATCA. Izi zikuwoneka ngati
nthawi yoyamba ACTA idagwiritsidwa ntchito bwino kumayiko aku US
corporation ntchito zake zakunja. Chigamulocho chinakulitsa kukula kwa
kale Filartiga chisankho kuchokera kwa anthu wamba kupita kumayiko ena
makampani, pomwe nthawi yomweyo akuwonetsa kuti malonda apadziko lonse lapansi
mabizinesi atha kuyimbidwa mlandu pazochita za anzawo,
kuphatikiza maboma akunja kapena omwe ali nawo. Monga William Aceves mu Marichi 25, 1997
kope la The American Journal of International Law amati, โMpaka
posachedwa, kuyesetsa kuthana ndi vuto laudindo wamakampani (ndi
Liability) pankhani ya ufulu wachibadwidwe adakumana ndi zopambana zochepa M'mbuyomu
milandu yobweretsedwa motsutsana ndi mabungwe apadziko lonse lapansi | lamulo
kuphwanya kwakhala ndi zotsatira zosakanikirana (...) Mosiyana, Doe v.Unocal is
mwina mlandu woyamba kuzindikira kuthekera kwa mangawa akampani
kuphwanya ufulu wachibadwidwe chifukwa cha ntchito zamakampani kunja."
Zowonjezera
mbali ya nkhaniyi yagona pa mfundo za forum zosathandiza. A
federal common Law doctrine, cholinga chachikulu cha forum non conveniens ndi
kuwonetsetsa kuti mawonekedwe a chiweluzo ndi abwino kwa onse awiri, ndi kuti
bwalo lina lokwanira limakhalapo mlandu usanathe. Zinali
zolembedwa mokulira (onani, mwachitsanzo, "Texaco on Trial" yolembedwa ndi Eyal Press, The Nation
May 11, 1999) ndipo ndi mfundo yodziwika bwino kuti makhoti a ku Ecuador satero
perekani forum yokwanira ina.
Mwina
wotchuka kwambiri posachedwapa pa forum zosathandiza wakhala
adagwiritsidwa ntchito bwino ndi bungwe la US kuti athawe
zotsatira za zochita zake zinali mu Bhopal tsoka 1982
December Union Carbide kutayikira kwa matani a gasi wapoizoni m'chilengedwe
ndi imfa zaposachedwapa za okhalamo oposa 2,000, zikwi za Bhopal
anthu okhala mโdzikolo anakasuma milandu mโmakhothi a ku America mothandizidwa ndi maloya a ku America. Izi
masuti kenaka anaphatikizidwa mu mlandu umodzi woopsa wakupha womwe unali
idaperekedwa ku Khothi Lachigawo la US ku Southern District ku New York. The
Khothi Lachigawo la US linathetsa mlanduwu pamaziko a forum zosathandiza
ndipo adabwezanso ku India, ndikusunga kuti ozunzidwa atha kupeza chithandizo
kudzera mu makhothi aku India. Mpaka pano, ambiri mwa ozunzidwa ndi Bhopal atero
kuti alipidwe. Mu 1989, boma la India lidakambirana za $470
miliyoni kukhazikika ndi Union Carbide, koma ndalamazo zikupitilirabe
banki yolola boma la India kutenga chiwongola dzanja. Pa 615,000
milandu yapadera, yochepera 10,000 yasankhidwa, ndi avareji
malipiro amakhala $3,500.00โngakhale imfa. Zipatala zadzaza anthu
ndi zosakwanira, ndi chiลตerengero cha imfa chifukwa cha matenda obwera chifukwa cha gasi
akupitiriza kukwera ndipo panopa akuti ali pakati pa 10,000 ndi 15,000.
Chinthu chofunika kwambiri
pa forum ya Union Carbide zosathandiza kuchotsedwa ntchito kunali mu zonena zawo
kuti popeza ngoziyo inachitika ku India, forum yabwino kwambiri
mlandu unali ku India. Ananenanso kuti chomera cha Union Carbide chimayendetsedwa ndi
Amwenye, ndipo adawopseza kuti ngati khoti lingachitike ku United States,
oposa 100,000 odandaula adzayenera kutumizidwa ku States
umboni. Zonena kuti chomeracho chinakhala ku India, kuti antchito ambiri anali
Amwenye, adabisa kuti anali a Union Carbide okhala ku Danbury omwe anali nawo
umwini wambiri (50.9 peresenti) ndi kulamulira koyenera pa Indian wake
Othandizana nawo, Union Carbide India Ltd., monga momwe mabungwe aku US amachitira nthawi zonse
pali ogwirizana ochepa. Zodabwitsa ndizakuti, masheya a Union Carbide adakwera posachedwa
pambuyo pa tsokalo.
Monga izi
akuwonetsa, kugwiritsa ntchito forum non conveniens mu yopapatiza, luso
nzeru zagwira ntchito makamaka kuteteza mabungwe amitundu yonse ku
otsutsa akunja, komanso "monga chotchinga ku US kumayiko osiyanasiyana
makampani omwe amayankha chifukwa cha khalidwe lawo lowononga chilengedwe
kunja" monga Brooke Clagette mu kope la 1996 la Tulane Environmental Law
Journal imayika izo. Popanda mgwirizano wapadziko lonse wa chilengedwe
Njira zodzitetezera, makhothi aku US, komabe, angapangitse ma MNC kukhala ochulukirapo
kuyankha zochita zawo zoipa zambiri polola kuvulazidwa kwachinsinsi uku
ndi milandu yambiri yapoizoni yozengedwa m'makhothi a US. Izi zingafune
kuti makhothi a federal aku US atenge lamulo la Alien Tort Statute-ndi chilengedwe
ndi kuphwanya ufulu wa anthuโkoopsa kwambiri.
Kuti muchite izi, dinani
Dongosolo lamilandu la US - komanso anthu aku North America onse - ayenera
kudziwa kuti anthu ambiri padziko lapansi, amwenye kapena
apo ayi, khalani muubwenzi wapafupi kwambiri ndi malo awo achilengedwe
ndipo nthawi zambiri popanda malamulo okwanira kapena zomanga dziko kuteteza
chitetezo cha chilengedwe ndi anthu ake. Monga momwe zinalili ku Texas
zochitika ku Ecuadorian Amazon ndi zina zambiri zofanana, zachuluka
kusankhana mitundu kwakhala kukuchitika mmalo mwake. Zikatero, kuphwanya kwa
ufulu wa chilengedwe uyenera kutanthauziridwa ngati kuphwanya ufulu wa anthu kwa
midzi ndi anthu ena okhala m'madera okhudzidwawa. Mosiyana
malamulo a chilengedwe, ufulu wa anthu ali ndi maziko amphamvu mu malamulo a mayiko ndi
kuphwanya ufulu wa anthu kuyenera kuwonedwa ngati kuphwanya malamulo a mayiko,
monga Hari Osofsky (Suffolk Transnational Law Review, Chilimwe 1997) ali
anatsutsana. Si kuyambitsa khansa mu anthu mmene anali
simunamvepo za kuphwanya ufulu wa anthu? M'dera limodzi laling'ono lokha
pafupi ndi mtsinje wa Napo ndipo chapakati chili pafupi ndi zitsime zambiri zamafuta ndi
malo oipitsidwa, amuna opitilira 40 amwalira ndi khansa ndi ambiri
akazi awo amasiye amadwala khansa ya m'chiberekero. Iwo anganenedi zimenezo
Texaco Corporation yaphwanya ufulu wawo wachibadwidwe.