Drug War Capitalism
Wolemba Dawn Paley
AK Press 2014
Ndemanga ya Al Gedicks
Ndi cholinga chilichonse, nkhondo yolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo yakhala yolephereka kwambiri. Sizinayimitse kuyenda kwa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kapena kuphwanya malo ogulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kumwera kwa malire a U.S. Koma izi siziri umboni wa kulephera kwa nkhondo ya mankhwala osokoneza bongo, malinga ndi mtolankhani wa ku Canada Dawn Paley m'buku lake. Drug War Capitalism. Potengera maulendo ochuluka, kufunsana, ndi kafukufuku ku Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, ndi Mexico, Paley akupempha owerenga kuti aganizire zinthu zina ndi zolimbikitsa za nkhondo yolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo, "makamaka kufalikira kwa dongosolo lachikapitalist kukhala madera atsopano kapena omwe kale anali osafikirika. malo ochezera. ”
Paley akunena kuti nkhondo yolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo "siyi yokhudza kuletsa kapena kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo," koma m'malo mwake ndi nkhondo "yomwe zigawenga zimagwiritsidwa ntchito polimbana ndi anthu ambiri m'mizinda ndi kumidzi" pomwe "mofanana ndi zigawenga izi komanso mantha amabweretsa, kusintha kwa ndondomeko kukuchitika zomwe zimathandizira kuti ndalama zakunja zitheke komanso kukula kwachuma. " Ichi ndi drug war capitalism.
N’zosadabwitsa kuti anthu amene akhudzidwa kwambiri ndi nkhondo ya mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku Mexico, Central ndi South America ndi anthu osauka, eni eni eni, komanso alimi osauka. Awa ndi anthu omwe amapereka ntchito zotsika mtengo popanga ndi kusonkhanitsa zinthu m'malire a U.S.-Mexico kapena omwe amakhala m'malo okhala ndi mafuta kapena mchere wambiri. Nkhondo ya mankhwala osokoneza bongo ndi yosalekanitsidwa ndi kufalikira kwa mafakitale owonjezera ku gawo latsopano ndikugwiritsa ntchito mantha ndi magulu ankhondo kuti ateteze kapena kupondereza magulu otsutsa otchuka.
Paley akukambirana zitsanzo zitatu za kupititsa patsogolo nkhondo ya mankhwala osokoneza bongo kumwera kwa malire a US. Plan Colombia inali yoyamba ndipo idakhala chitsanzo cha Merida Initiative ku Mexico ndi Central America Regional Security Initiative. Ntchito zolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo izi zimasiyana ndi zomwe zidachitika m'mbuyomu chifukwa chakusintha kwakukulu kwa malamulo ndi mfundo zomwe zimatsimikizira kutetezedwa kwa ndalama zakunja kwinaku kulungamitsa ziwawa zolimbana ndi anthu ambiri ku Central ndi South America kuphatikiza aphunzitsi, atsogoleri ogwira ntchito, atolankhani, ogwira ntchito kutchalitchi komanso olimbikitsa ufulu wa anthu. "Nkhondo ya mankhwala osokoneza bongo imapangitsa kuti mamembala a magulu otsutsa komanso atolankhani aphedwe kapena kutha chifukwa choganiza kuti akuchita nawo malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo."
Pansi pa Plan Colombia US idapereka $4.9 biliyoni pakati pa 2000 ndi 2008 kuthandiza asitikali achinyengo aku Colombia kuwononga malonda a cocaine ndikumenya nkhondo zolimbana ndi zigawenga za Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) ndi National Liberation Army (ELN). Zambiri mwazothandizira zankhondo zapereka maphunziro, zida ndi ma helikoputala omenyera nkhondo zankhondo zolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo zomwe zikugwira ntchito m'malo omwe ali ndi mikangano yayikulu pazantchito zamigodi ndi mphamvu. Kukula kwa mafakitale amafuta ndi magulu ankhondo a zigawenga zayendera limodzi. “Mochititsa chidwi,” akutero Paley, “magulu apadera ankhondo a ku Colombia anaphunzitsidwa kuteteza mapaipi amafuta a makampani a U.S.
Malinga ndi malingaliro a anthu amtundu waku Colombia, kupha anthu ambiri komanso kuthamangitsidwa kwawo sikunangochitika mwangozi chifukwa chankhondo yamankhwala. Ndiko kulekanitsidwa kwenikweni kwa anthu amtundu wawo kudziko lawo, komwe kuli pakati pa nkhondo ya mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Ufulu wachibadwidwe wa nthaka ndi ulamuliro wopangira zisankho zokhudzana ndi zachilengedwe zimawoneka ngati zolepheretsa ndalama zazikulu za US ndi mayiko akunja m'mapulojekiti akuluakulu, kuphatikizapo migodi, madamu, misewu ndi ngalande zomwe zidzalole kugwiritsa ntchito bwino zinthu zachilengedwe za Colombia.
Akuti pafupifupi 80 peresenti ya zinthu zamchere ndi mphamvu za dziko (madzi, mchere, mafuta, zamoyo zosiyanasiyana) zimapezeka mu 27 peresenti ya gawo la dziko lomwe lili ndi anthu amtundu wa Colombia. Madera amtunduwu akuphatikizana ndi madera omwe magulu ankhondo azunza madera onse. Malinga ndi bungwe la National Indigenous Organisation of Colombia (ONIC), 66 mwa magulu 102 amtundu wa Colombia ali pachiwopsezo cha kutha kuchokera ku mphamvu monga chitukuko chachikulu cha migodi komanso mikangano yomwe ikuchitika ku Colombia.
Colombia ndiye malo oyesera ntchito yofunikira ya magulu ankhondo, kapena osagwiritsa ntchito zida zankhondo pankhondo yamankhwala osokoneza bongo. Kuyambira 1991, malinga ndi Human Rights Watch, asitikali aku Colombia agwira ntchito ndi dipatimenti yachitetezo yaku US ndi gulu la CIA kuti apange "maukonde akupha omwe adazindikira ndikupha anthu wamba omwe akuwaganizira kuti akuthandiza zigawenga" ("Colombia's Killer Networks: The Military-Paramilitary Partnership and the United States, 1996).
Maukonde akupha awa adakhazikitsa maziko a kuwonekera kwa United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), gulu lalikulu kwambiri lankhondo mdzikolo. Carlos Castano, mtsogoleri wa AUC, anauza omvera wailesi yakanema ya dziko la Colombia kuti malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo anapereka 70 peresenti ya ndalama za gulu lake.
Kuyesa kwa dziko la Colombia kufananitsa kulimbikitsa ziwonetsero za anthu ndi kugwetsa zigawenga komanso kuthandizira magulu a zigawenga kwapangitsa kuti magulu ankhondo omwe amagwira ntchito limodzi ndi asitikali aku Colombia achuluke. Paley akuwonetsa umboni woti chithandizo chothana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo komanso thandizo lankhondo lomwe amaperekedwa ku Colombia nthawi zonse amatumizidwa ku mabungwe ankhondo. Chikoka cha magulu ankhondo chimafikira ku Colombian Congress ndi bungwe lachitetezo cha boma. Mwachidule, ma paramilitaries ndi njira ya boma la Colombia komanso nkhondo yamankhwala osokoneza bongo.
Bungwe la Victims Unit la ku Colombia posachedwapa linanena kuti chiŵerengero cha ozunzidwa ndi nkhondo yapachiweniweni ku Colombia tsopano chaposa 7 miliyoni m’dziko la anthu osakwana 50 miliyoni. Chiwerengerochi chikuphatikizapo omwe anaphedwa, kusowa kapena kuthawa kwawo kuyambira 1956. Ndi kuwonjezeka kwa thandizo lankhondo pansi pa Plan Colombia pambuyo pa 2000, chiwerengero cha anthu ophedwa ndi anthu wamba chinawonjezeka kwambiri, chikufika mu 2002 pa 744,799 ozunzidwa.
Kuphatikiza pa nkhondo zolimbana ndi zigawenga, Plan Colombia ndiyomwe ili ndi udindo wowononga mbewu zosaloledwa za coca kudzera mumlengalenga kupopera mankhwala ochulukirapo omwe amapanga nkhondo yolimbana ndi alimi ndi alimi omwe amalima coca komanso mbewu za chakudya. The herbicide yomwe inagwiritsidwa ntchito inali yosakaniza glyphosate ya wakupha udzu wodziwika ndi dzina la malonda Roundup, lopangidwa ndi Monsanto. Komabe, kuchuluka kwa glyphosate komwe kumagwiritsidwa ntchito ku Colombia kunatsagana ndi chiwopsezo chambiri cha US Environmental Protection Agency.
Magulu omenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe komanso zachilengedwe ku Colombia adapereka madandaulo ambiri kuchokera kwa alimi ku Colombia kuti kupopera mankhwala mumlengalenga kunayambitsa matenda a maso, khungu ndi kugaya chakudya, kuwononga mbewu zongotsala pang'ono, kudwala nyama zoweta, komanso madzi oipa. “Nkhondo yolingaliridwa yolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo inadzetsa vuto la chakudya m’dziko lonselo,” anatero wochirikiza ufulu wachibadwidwe wa anthu wa ku Colombia. “Anthu ambiri anayenera kuchoka, chifukwa malo amene anali nawo anali kagawo kakang’ono kumene anali ndi plantain, ndipo anafukizidwa ndi fumicated, ndipo pamapeto pake anasanduka bwinja.” Kaya alimi ang'onoang'ono athamangitsidwa chifukwa cha counterinsurgency kapena fumigations zotsatira zake zimakhala zofanana.
Kupambana kwa Plan Colombia kungawonekere pakukula kwa ndalama zakunja m'mafakitale owonjezera komanso kukambirana kwa mgwirizano wa U.S.-Colombia ndi Canada-Colombia mgwirizano wamalonda waulere. Pa nthawi ya Plan Colombia, kuyambira 2000 mpaka 2006, kulima koka kunakula pamodzi ndi kukwera kwa cocaine kuchokera ku South America kupita ku United States.
Kupambana kwa Plan Colombia kunagwiritsidwa ntchito ku Mexico ndi Central America pambuyo pa 2007. Merida Initiative, kapena Plan Mexico inali yofanana ndi Plan Colombia mu cholinga chake chosokoneza malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo pamene ikuwonjezera asilikali a apolisi ndi asilikali a ku Mexico komanso "monga chinthu china. omalizirawo, kulimbikitsa kupangidwa ndi kuchulukitsa kwa magulu ankhondo.” Popeza kuzembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kumakhala kwankhondo, magulu azigawenga amatuluka kuti aletse kulimbikitsa anthu kuti athane ndi ma projekiti akuluakulu owononga. Izi sizikukhudzana kwambiri ndi kumenyana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo komanso chilichonse chokhudzana ndi kukhazikitsa njira yabwino yopezera ndalama zakunja, makamaka ndalama zamigodi.
Kuyambira 2000, Mexico yakhala pamalo achinayi pazachuma padziko lonse lapansi kutengera Canada, Australia ndi United States. Pambuyo pokonzanso malamulo ake a migodi pofuna kulimbikitsa ndalama, gawo la migodi ndi 70 peresenti ya mayiko akunja. Paley anati: “Ntchito zamigodi zakhala m’gulu la malo amene anthu amakangana kwambiri chifukwa cha kuwonjezereka kwa chikapitalist chaposachedwapa ku Mexico, ndipo golide ndi siliva wambiri m’dzikoli amapangidwa m’mayiko amene chiwawa chimachuluka kwambiri (Sonora, Chihuahua, Zacatecas), Guerrero ndi Durango).
Kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa kutumizidwa kwa asilikali ndi apolisi a boma pofuna kuthana ndi kuzembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo sikunathandize kwenikweni kusokoneza malonda a mankhwala osokoneza bongo koma kwachititsa kuti ziwawa ziwonjezeke ku Mexico. Chiwerengero cha madandaulo a kuphwanya ufulu wa anthu ochitidwa ndi asitikali otsutsana ndi anthu wamba chawonjezeka kuchokera ku 691 kuchokera ku 2003-2006 kufika ku madandaulo 4,803 mu nthawi ya 2007-2010, nthawi yomweyi monga Merida Initiative.
Panthawi imodzimodziyo akuluakulu a mabungwe apolisi, akuluakulu a boma ndi magulu odana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo nthawi zambiri amawakayikira kuti akugwirizana ndi zigawenga zokonzedwa. Ozembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo ambiri odziwika ndi Mexico ndi United States ndi asilikali kapena apolisi opuma pantchito.
Kusintha kwa Guatemala
Mu 1996 mapangano amtendere ku Guatemala adathetsa mkangano wazaka 36 pomwe gulu lankhondo la Guatemala lothandizidwa ndi US lidachita chiwembu cha anthu masauzande ambiri a ku Guatemala, makamaka amwenye amwenye omwe anali pafupifupi 200,000 omwe adaphedwa m'ma 1980. Komiti Yoona za Choonadi ya UN ya mu 1999 inaimba mlandu asilikali a boma la Guatemala kuti ndiwo anachititsa 93 peresenti ya nkhanzazo. Mapangano amtendere amayenera kuchepetsa bajeti yankhondo ndikuchepetsa mphamvu ya asitikali m'magulu a anthu.
M’malo mwake, asilikaliwo analongosolanso ntchito yawo polimbana ndi umbanda wolinganizidwa ndi kuzembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Monga ku Colombia ndi Mexico, kukhalapo kwa asitikali kumakhazikika m'malo olimbana ndi migodi ndi ntchito zochotsa mphamvu. Omenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe wa anthu ku Guatemala akunena kuti "kumanga malo atsopano ankhondo kukuchitika m'madera omwe muli kale mikangano."
Ngakhale kuti kuzembetsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kumachitika m’madera ena, kuno si kumene kuli malo a asilikali. M'malo mwake, gulu limodzi lankhondo lili pafupi ndi migodi ya faifi tambala komwe kampaniyo (Hudbay Minerals yaku Canada) ili ndi mbiri yayikulu yakuphwanya ufulu wa anthu. Kwa madera omwe adazunzidwa pankhondo yapachiweniweni m'zaka za m'ma 1980, nkhondo yamankhwala osokoneza bongo ndizovuta zomwe zawonedwanso. Gulu lankhondo lapadera la Guatemala (a Kaibiles) omwe adapha anthu m'zaka za m'ma 1980 tsopano akugwira ntchito yoletsa kukana kwawo komanso kutenga nawo mbali m'magulu achifwamba.
Madera omwe amakana kusamutsidwa ndi mafakitale opangira zida zachiwopsezo ali pachiwopsezo choimbidwa mlandu wochita zaumbanda. “Nthaŵi zina,” akutero Paley, “midzi yonse ya anthu wamba imatchedwa midzi yoledzeretsa.”
Dawn Paley si katswiri woyamba kunena kuti nkhondo yolimbana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo ndi nkhondo yolimbana ndi anthu. Peter Dale Scott, mwa ena, adatsutsa Mankhwala Osokoneza Bongo, Mafuta ndi Nkhondo: United States ku Afghanistan, Colombia, ndi Indochina (2003) kuti a US apanga njira yomenyera nkhondo m'malo osungira mafuta mothandizidwa ndi ogwirizana nawo ogulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Komabe, Paley wasintha ndikukulitsa kusanthula uku ndi maakaunti ambiri ochokera kwa anthu omwe ali pamzere wakutsogolo wankhondo yamankhwala osokoneza bongo. Kuwunika kwake kukuwonetsa momwe chiwawa chankhondo yamankhwala sichiri chodzidzimutsa, koma chofunikira pakukulitsa kwa capitalism kukhala malire atsopano ochotsera zida. Chotsatira chake ndi nkhani yokwanira, yolembedwa bwino ya asilikali a US omwe amathandizidwa ndi ndalama ku Central ndi South America ndi momwe ndondomekoyi imapangitsa kuti nkhanza zikhale zosatha kwa anthu osauka komanso osagwirizana ndi anthu.
Z