The
chizindikiro chachikulu cha makampani kulamulira ndondomeko zachilengedwe ndi ufulu wake
kuyika mankhwala m'chilengedwe popanda kuyezetsa paokha sikungatsutsidwe
ngakhale lero. Izi hegemony ndi wathunthu kuti kokha mphonje yaing'ono
akatswiri azachilengedwe amakayikira udindo wamakampaniwo. Mainstream
akatswiri azachilengedwe amaona kuti ulamuliro wa opanga zinthu mopepuka ndipo amangofuna zochepetsera
kusintha komwe kukuwoneka kuti kuli mkati mwa ndale zomwe zingatheke.
Kutsatira mkanganowo Wokhala chete
Spring kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1960, panalibe kuchepa kwa kupanga ndi
kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala ophera tizilombo pano kapena kunja. Kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala ophera tizilombo kuwirikiza kawiri mโdziko muno
pazaka 30 zotsatira, kuchokera pa mapaundi 540 miliyoni mu 1964 mpaka kupitirira biliyoni imodzi.
mapaundi mu 1993; mphamvu ya ntchito pa ekala ya minda kuposa
kuwirikiza kawiri, ndipo kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala ophera tizilombo m'nyumba ndi kusamalira kapinga kunyumba kudakwera kwambiri. Ena
poizoni monga DDT ndi PCBs potsirizira pake analetsedwa, koma ena anatenga malo awo,
ndi mankhwala ambiri omwe ali ndi carcinogens kapena zodziwika zowononga
minyewa ndi chitetezo cha mthupi chikugwiritsidwabe ntchito ponseponse.
Atrazine, munthu wokayikiridwa
carcinogen, ndi imodzi mwa mankhwala omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri mu ulimi waku US, ndi
awononga madzi apansi pafupifupi m'dziko lonselo. Mu Toxic
Chinyengo, Fagin ndi Lavelle akufotokoza momwe Ciba-Geigy watha kusunga
atrazine pamsika kwa zaka 30, ngakhale pali umboni wochuluka wa izo
Zowopsa, powononga sayansi, EPA, ndale, ndi
media. Iyi ndi nkhani yayikulu ya ziphuphu zandale-zowongolera-zasayansi,
zokhala ndi zotsatira zoyipa paumoyo wa anthu. Koma mawayilesi akuluakulu sanatero
akhala ndi chidwi, chifukwa monga mamembala a dongosolo lamakampani udindo wa media
wakhala kuteteza ufulu makampani amphamvu makampani, kupewa ndi
kutsutsa kutsutsa kofunikira, ndikukonzanso zomwe zikuchitikazo. Monga
pankhani ya bajeti yankhondo, nthawi zina timakhala mwachidule, nthawi zambiri tsamba lakumbuyo,
zidutswa za zidziwitso zowonongeka ndi zonyansa, koma zambiri zambiri
yadetsedwa ndi kusanthula kwakukulu ndi kutsutsana pazambiri
nkhanza zamakampani, njira zodzitetezera, zowonongera anthu, ndi njira zina
kupha chiphe, sizikumveka.
Ufulu wamakampani wopitilira
Poyizoni woyamba wawonetsedwa kwambiri m'zaka zaposachedwa ndi the
kuyambitsa kwa Monsanto's recombinant bovine hormone mankhwala rBGH ndi ena awiri
dazeni za zakudya zopangidwa ndi chibadwa. Monga momwe zilili ndi mankhwala, izi zatero
zachitika pafupifupi kwathunthu pamaziko otsimikizira zachitetezo chamakampani,
popanda kuyezetsa kapena kuwunika kodziyimira payekha komwe kungathe kutsika
zotsatira. Monga Peter Montague akunenera, "Kuyika zomera zopangidwa ndi majini ndi
nyama kulowa m'malo achilengedwe sichinthu chongoyerekeza - chimodzi
zokhala ndi zotulukapo zazikulu kwambiri kuposa tsoka lakale la Monsanto
kuyesa, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ndi Agent Orange" (Rachel
Zachilengedwe & Zaumoyo Weekly, October, 29, 1998). Harvard geneticist
Richard Lew- ontin ananena kuti: โNdingadabwe ngati sitipeza
kugwedezeka mopanda ulemuโ pansi pa ulamuliro wa zopangapanga. Ndi kale
nkhawa ya alimi aku US omwe Monsanto adawaphatikiza nawo
mbewu ya mbatata ya jini yochokera ku bacteria bacillus thuriengensis (Bt)โyomwe
imapha Colorado mbatata kafadala - idzatulutsa mwachangu tizilombo tosamva,
motero kuvulaza alimi omwe amagwiritsa ntchito Bt mochepa. Kafukufuku waposachedwapa wa
zotsatira za kulima mbewu zosinthidwa ma genetic pamlingo wamalonda mu
Britain, yolamulidwa ndi boma la Britain, inatsimikiza kuti panali
chitetezo chokwanira choteteza kupangidwa kwa haibridi, yosamva zambiri
zomera, ndi kuti chitukuko choterocho chinabweretsa zoopsa ku ma hedgerows aku Britain,
mbalame, ndi zomera zakomweko. (Lipoti ili, lomwe silinasindikizidwe chifukwa
za chikhalidwe chake "chotsutsana", chikufotokozedwa mu "Kuvumbulutsidwa: Zowopsa za
Chakudya Chachibadwa," ndi Marie Woolf, Ngwachikwanekwane, December 12, 1998.)
Monsanto ndi ma comrades ake
ayika ndalama zambiri pakufufuza zamoyo, ndipo akufuna phindu pamsika
tsopano. Zachilengedwe ndi chitetezo chanthawi yayitali sizinakhalepo zodetsa nkhawa kwambiri
wa makampani opanga mankhwala, ndi Phil Angell, mkulu wa PR wa Monsanto,
anavomereza posachedwapa kuti chitetezo si ntchito ya kampani yake kapena
udindo: โChidwi chathu ndikugulitsa zochuluka momwe tingathere.
Kutsimikizira chitetezo chake ndi ntchito ya FDAโ (NYT, October 25, 1998). (Ya
kumene, pamene FDA [kapena EPA] ali aukali kwambiri za chitetezo, makampani
imagwira ntchito molimbika kuti ifooketse kapena kulanda bungwe, kuti likhale lomvera kumakampani
zofuna. Ngati bwino, monga nthawi zambiri, makampani akhoza kupanga ndi
kugulitsa popanda zopinga zambiri kutengera ziwopsezo zomwe zingatheke pachitetezo, pomwe amati
kuti FDA [kapena EPA] ikusamalira chitetezo ndi zofuna za anthu.)
rBGH sinavomerezedwe
kuti agwiritsidwe ntchito ku Canada chifukwa, mwa zifukwa zina, palibe toxicology yayitali
Maphunziro adafunidwa kwa wopanga, ndi sayansi yaku Canada
owunika adawona kuti kafukufuku wanthawi yayitali wa toxicology anali wolakwika
adanenedwa ndi Monsanto ndi FDA kuti apeza kuti kukula kwa hormone
"sanali ndipo sakanakhoza kulowetsedwa m'magazi." Choncho, ngakhale a
$1-2 miliyoni yachiphuphu yopereka kuchokera ku Monsanto kuti ivomerezedwe mwachangu, ndi chithandizo
kwa kampani ndi akuluakulu a bungwe loyang'anira zaumoyo ku Canada,
Khama la Monsanto kumeneko lidakalipobe (Richard Lloyd, "Health Canada
asayansi adauzidwa kuti azitumikira makampani opanga mankhwala," CCPA Monitor, December
1998-Januware 1999).
Ngakhale kuti ku Canada kunalibe vuto,
ndi mfundo yakuti akuluakulu a ku Ulaya ndi asayansi ambiri amakayikira kwambiri
za zotsatira za uinjiniya wa majini paumoyo wa anthu ndi chilengedwe, watero
adapita patsogolo ku US Popanda cholepheretsa chachikulu kapena kutsutsana pagulu
mkati mwa media. Kupatulapo chimodzi chinali nkhani yovuta ya Michael Pollan On
"Kusewera Mulungu M'munda" (NYT magazini, Okutobala 25,
1998), koma nkhaniyi idayima yokha. Mkangano waku Canada, womwe udaphatikizapo
Kupereka ziphuphu kwa Monsanto, komanso kuwululidwa kwaposachedwa kwambiri
lipoti lotsutsa lothandizidwa ndi boma la Britain kuopsa kwa majini
chakudya chopangidwa ndi injiniya, onse sananyalanyazidwe ndi ma TV ambiri aku US.
Chiwonetsero china cha
Kuwongolera kwamakampani kwakhala kosankhidwa ndi media kutengera mabuku pa
chilengedwe. Iwo amene amatsutsa kwambiri makampani amakonda kunyalanyazidwa;
amene n'zogwirizana ndi ndondomeko makampani ndi kuti kuukira makampani
adani amapeza chisamaliro chochuluka. The New York Times, Mwachitsanzo,
sanawunikepo za Samuel Epstein Ndale za Khansa (1978), Mar
Lappe pa Chinyengo cha Chemical (1991), Jennifer Curtis ndi Tim
Profeta wa Pambuyo pa Silent Spring (1993), Fagin ndi Lavelle's Toxic
Chinyengo (1995), kapena memoir yodziwika bwino yasayansi ndi Sandra
Steingraber, Kukhala Pansi (1996). Theo Colbourn, John Peterson
Myers ndi Dianne Dumanoski Tsogolo Lathu Lobedwa (1996) adapatsidwa a
kuwunika koyipa komanso kosakhulupirika mu Times by Gina Kolata.
Chithunzi cha Joe Thornton Science
Zogulitsa (1990), lofalitsidwa ndi Greenpeace, lomwe limafotokoza za Monsanto
kuzunzidwa kwa sayansi mu maphunziro ake a dioxin, sikunawunikidwe kapena kutchulidwa ndi
ndi New York Times, Washington Postkapena Los Angeles Times.
Kumbali ina, Marcia Angell's Sayansi pa Mayesero (1996), kuti
imapereka malingaliro amakampani pa sayansi yazakudya, idawunikiridwa kawiri mu yatsopano
York Times (komanso mu Washington Post ndi zambiri
kwina). Mbiri ya Gregg Easterbrook Kamphindi Padziko Lapansi (1995), kuti
adakondwerera kupambana kwa chilengedwe, adatsutsa akatswiri a zachilengedwe monga
otsutsa, ndipo anapereka lingaliro lakuti zinthu zinali pansi pa ulamuliro wabwinoโbuku
lofotokozedwa ndi wasayansi Peter Raven kukhala akupereka โmawonedwe a dziko la Panglossian, mu
amene watipatsa chiitano chodzaza ndi shuga kuti tisachite kanthuโโanalonjezedwa
mwachangu m'ma media onse akuluakulu. Analandiridwanso ndi mankhwala
makampani monga adakwaniritsa kufunikira kwawo kotsimikizika, komanso kochepa
kutsutsa makampani kapena dongosolo loyang'anira.
Kusokoneza
Zowonongeka
Sandra
Steingraber, mu Kukhala Pansi, imatsindika kwambiri mfundoyi
pomwe chiwopsezo cha khansa chikuchulukirachulukira ndikufanana ndi
Chemicalization ya chilengedwe, ndi mazana a maphunziro ang'onoang'ono awonetsa
kulumikizana muzochitika zina, kulumikizana "sikunatsatidwe mwanjira iliyonse
mwadongosolo, njira yokwanira. Chilengedweโฆ chikupitilira kugwa ndi khansa
skrini." Iye akuchitira chitsanzo ichi, mwa njira zina zambiri, ndi chakuti pamene
Illinois State Cancer Registry idakhazikitsidwa mu 1984 kuyang'anira thanzi
Zotsatira za zinthu zoopsa, kaundula wa khansa adalandira ndalama, koma osati
kaundula wa zinthu zowopsa (zomwe makampani amatsutsa mwamphamvu). Iye
amaona mmene akuluakulu aboma ndiponso ntchito zophunzitsira anthu zimalimbikitsira
"Moyo" zimayambitsa khansa, osati zachilengedwe zokhudzana ndi mafakitale
katundu ndi zinyalala. Amalozera pazomwe ndimakhulupirira kuti ndizodziwikiratu: kuti mankhwalawo
makampani, kufuna kuti zinthu zachilengedwe ziwonongeke, zapambana
maboma ndi aphunzitsi apakatikati kuti achite zomwezo.
Momwemonso ma media apamwamba,
omwe akhala ndi mwayi wambiri wotsegula bokosi la Pandora-koma
ndi lipoti lililonse losonyeza kuwonongeka kwa mankhwala, atolankhani amapatsa m'deralo
mfundo, ndi โkulinganizaโ; choipitsitsa, amanyalanyaza kapena kuลตerenga molakwa malipoti oterowo. Iwo
musalole kuti apangitse kufufuza kwakukulu. Choncho nkhani yeniyeni
lipoti likutiuza kuti EPA yaganiza zololeza kugwiritsa ntchito
alachlor "ngakhale ali ndi kuthekera koyambitsa khansa komanso kuipitsidwa kwa
madzi akumwa m'madera akumafamu," chifukwa cha "zambiri
zopindulitsaโ zomwe โzimaposa kuopsa kwake.โ Osamalira zachilengedwe akwiya ndi
chisankho, pamene Monsanto akunena kuti izi zikuwonetsera "sayansi yabwino"; ndi
nkhani yachiphamaso ndi mtsutso woyenerera anapatsidwa nkhani yochepa pa tsamba
25 mwa Washington Post (December 16, 1987). Kampeni ya Greenpeace
motsutsana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito vinyl muzoseweretsa, kuphatikiza ma rattles ndi ma teethers oyambilira, okhazikitsidwa
pa umboni kuti pawiri zimayambitsa chiwindi ndi impso zotupa, afika
kusamala bwino patsamba lakumbuyo, ndikukhala payekha popanda ndemanga yolemba (NYT,
Novembala 13 ndi 18, 1998).
The International Joint
Commission (IJC), mgwirizano wa US ndi Canada kuyambira 1978
kupatsidwa ntchito yayikulu yoyesa kuyimitsa kutuluka kwa mankhwala oopsa
Great Lakes. Limanena chaka chilichonse kuti lalephera kuthetsa vutoli,
kuti kutuluka kwapoizoni kukupitirirabe kuwonjezeka ndipo kumawononga kwambiri anthu
thanzi. Kuchokera mchaka cha 1992 kupita mtsogolo, malipoti apachaka a IJC adapempha kuti
kutha kwa kugwiritsa ntchito chlorine popanga ngati chofunikira kwambiri
kukwaniritsa ntchito yomwe adapatsidwa. Iwo amapeza, n'zosadabwitsa, kuti makampani sali
omwe akufuna kuchepetsa kugwiritsa ntchito chlorine. Koma atolankhani a dziko
samalirani malipoti apachaka a IJC mwachidule kwambiri ndipo osatsatira. The
Wapampando wa IJC ku US, Gordon Durnil, adati "tili ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu.
vuto la momwe angathanirane ndi izi, koma 90 peresenti ya anthu
sadziwa nโkomwe kuti pali vuto lililonse.โ
Kusokoneza
Kulephera Kwadongosolo
In
molingana ndi ulamuliro wamakampani pazantchito, atolankhani akuwonetsa EPA ngati a
bungwe la powerhouse, mwinamwake laukali kwambiri komanso lotsutsa mu zake
kutsata zofuna za anthu. Zoona zakeโndi ndalama zochepa kwambiri
bungwe, osatha kugwira ntchito yake moyenera, nthawi zina amagwidwa komanso nthawi zambiri
kutengeka ndi kusagwirizana kwamakampani-zingathe kuzindikirika, ngati n'komwe, ndi a
pafupi kwambiri, nthawi zambiri pakati pa-mizere kafukufuku wa malipoti atolankhani. Ofalitsa satero
zikuwonetsa kuti, mosiyana ndi cholinga chonenedwa cha 1976 Toxic Substances
Control Act, EPA sinathe kuthana ndi kusefukira kwa mankhwala oopsa,
ndipo pafupifupi 70-75 peresenti ya mankhwala omwe akugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri mpaka pano
adayesedwa kawopsedwe.
Ngakhalenso ofalitsa nkhani samayang'ana kwambiri
pa umboni wina kuti dongosolo kusiya makampani kuyesa chitetezo ali
analephera. Mwachitsanzo, pakulimbana ndi Monsanto pa
Ufulu wa kampani woyambitsa Santogard pakati pa 1986 ndi 1990, EPA
adapeza kuti zaka zingapo zapitazo Monsanto adapeza zotsatira zoyipa za
Santogard mu kafukufuku yemwe kampaniyo idalephera kupereka ku EPA,
motsutsana ndi lamulo. Monsanto adapatsidwa chindapusa cha $196,000, ngakhale mwalamulo chindapusacho chiyenera
anali $19.7 miliyoni. Kenako kampaniyo inaloledwa kufufuza zina
maphunziro owopsa a kawopsedwe, ndipo adapezeka 164, pomwe adalipira wina
$648,000 mwadzina. Pozindikira kuti makampani ena opanga mankhwala analinso
mwina kulephera kupereka maphunziro EPA inakonza "chikhululukiro" ndi
makampani, akulonjeza chindapusa chokha kwa zaka zitatu zotsatira posinthana
kwa makampani akutsokomola maphunziro obisika kale. Pansi pa chikhululukiro ichi
makampani adatulutsa zikalata pafupifupi 11,000. Ngakhale chindapusa mwadzina, ndi
chiwonetsero cha kulephera kwakukulu kwamakampani kupereka umboni wa mankhwala
zotsatira monga momwe lamulo limafunira, zinawonetsa kuperewera kwakukulu munjira zomwe zikupitilira
powunika kuopsa kwa mankhwala, atolankhani sanapeze nkhaniyi ngakhale
chidwi chodutsa.
Mofanana zokopa, ndipo ngakhale
kuwulula zambiri za kufooka kwamalamulo a EPA komanso kulumikizana pafupipafupi ndi
makampani, kunali kutsatizana kwa zochitika zokhudzana ndi malamulo a dioxin pakati pa 1986
ndi 1993. Makampani opanga mapepala ndi zamkati amapanga dioxin ndipo adayamba kuda nkhawa
kuwopseza zowongolera mu 1980s. M'buku lawo Palibe malire a Chitetezo,
lofalitsidwa ndi Greenpeace mu August 1987, Paul Merrell ndi Carol Van Strum
adawonetsa momwe EPA idagwirizana ndi makampani opanga mapepala kusunga chidziwitso
kuchokera pagulu la anthu, kuti awonetse aliyense amene adakakamizika kumasula
monga "choyambirira," komanso kukonza miyezo ya dioxin movomerezeka mwandale
milingo. Kutsatira kusindikizidwa kwa bukhuli, wogwira ntchito pamakampani opanga mapepala adawukhira
Masamba 300 a zikalata zopita ku Greenpeace, zomwe zidatsimikizira zonenazo Ayi
Mphepete mwa Chitetezo, kuwonetsa mgwirizano wa EPA-mafakitale akukonzekera kuchepetsa
kuwunika zoopsa za dioxin ndikuchepetsa mantha a anthu powatsimikizira
Kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi chitetezo ndi zolemba zimangotengera "zoyambirira."
Izi zochititsa chidwi mkati
zinthu zinayamba kuperekedwa ngati gawo la New York Times, kumene
nkhani yozikidwa pa izo inaphedwa. The Times nkhani yomwe pamapeto pake
inatuluka (September 24, 1987) inangonena kuti โoyangโanira mafakitale anali
nkhawa ndi mayankho a anthu pamene kuipitsidwa kwa pepala mankhwala
zinadziwika.โ Osati kokha umboni wa kugwirizana kwa mafakitale-EPA
ataponderezedwa, nkhaniyi inanenanso kuti EPA "idapeza zochepa
kuipitsidwa kuposa momwe akuluakulu amayembekezera," zomwe, potengera kuponderezedwa
zikalata zamkati umboni wa mgwirizano wa EPA kuthandiza kufewetsa anthu
Zotsatira za zomwe zapezazi zikuyimira utolankhani wosakhulupirika. The Washington
Post, kutsatira nkhani yomwe inanena kuti EPA idapeza dioxin
milingo "inawonedwa ngati yopanda chiwopsezo ku thanzi" (September 25, 1987), anatero
pamapeto pake perekani gawo ku kampeni ya PR yamakampani ndikuyesera
adalimbikitsa EPA, ndipo anali ndi malingaliro oti kampeni iyi idapambana
(Michael Weiskopf, October 25, 1987). Koma nkhaniyo inalembedwa patsamba 23 ndi
analibe kutsatira.
Kuwunikira kofananako kwakhala
Thandizo la atolankhani la umboni wabodza wamakampani. The
Kukonzekera kwa EPA kwa kulolerana kwa dioxin kunakhazikitsidwa mbali ina pa Monsanto
ndi maphunziro a BASF za zotsatira za ngozi zokhudzana ndi dioxin. Maphunziro awa,
zomwe zidanena kuti palibe kuwonongeka kwakukulu kwamunthu, zonse zidawonetsedwa
kutengera kusintha kwa data; pamene akonzedwa chifukwa cha zidule zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito (makamaka
kuphatikizidwa kosayenera ndi kuchotsedwa kwa ogwira ntchito), panali zambiri
zotsatira zoyipa za thanzi. Zonama za Monsanto ndi zawo
Zotsatira zakuwongolera dioxin zidabweretsedwa ku EPA
akuluakuluโkomanso osamalira zachilengedwe ndi magulu ankhondo akale amene analipo
okhudzidwa kwambiri ndi sayansi yazakudya zamakampani โ ndi katswiri wamankhwala wa EPA Cate
Jenkins mu 1991. EPA inayamba kufufuza zachinyengo za Monsanto,
yomwe inagwetsedwa mwakachetechete, kutsatira kukakamizidwa kwa Monsanto ndi kusinthanitsa kwachinsinsi
ndi chitsimikizo pakati pa kampaniyo ndi akuluakulu a EPA. Kumbali ina, Cate
Jenkins, woululira mluzu, adazunzidwa komanso kuzunzidwa kangapo
milandu yamkati (zonsezi zidalephera).
Ngakhale New York Times
kapena Washington Post adatchulapo zachinyengo za Monsanto/BASF, a
kufufuzidwa kwamilandu kwa EPA kwa Monsanto, Cate Jenkins, ndi zolemba zake
pa chinyengo ndi malamulo a dioxin, kapena kuzunzidwa kwake ngati woululira mluzu.
Chomwe chimapangitsa kuti mdimawu ukhale wofunikira kwambiri ndikuti onse awiri Post
ndi Times adagwirizana ndi makampani opanga mapepala panthawiyi
kunena kuti "sayansi yabwino" inali kuwonetsa nemesis yakale ya dioxin kukhala nayo
wakhutitsidwa. Chifukwa chake monga Monsanto ndi BASF adachitira umboni, chimodzimodzinso chachikulu
Mapepala anatsimikizira nkhanizo, kutsutsa umboni wotsutsa pa zonse "zabwino
sayansi" ndi mgwirizano wamakampani a EPA (kupatulapo pang'ono mu Posts
chithandizo chachinyengo cha 1986-1987), ndikunyoza dioxin.
"kuwopseza."
The National Research
Lipoti la Council la 1993 la Mankhwala Ophera Tizilombo mu Zakudya za Makanda ndi Ana
adafotokoza momveka bwino kuti pokhazikitsa "kulekerera" kwa mankhwala ophera tizilombo EPA ndi FDA
anali atagwiritsira ntchito achikulire monga muyezo, akulephera kulingalira chenicheni chakuti
ana anali osatetezeka kwambiri. Apanso, kukondera kwa pro-indasitiri ku
malamulo owonetseredwa mu nkhani iyi sanazindikiridwe ndi
media media. Posachedwapa, Monsanto adapempha bwino EPA kuti
onjezerani milingo yotsalira yovomerezeka yamankhwala glyphosate, yogwira
chophatikizira mu soya wake wopangidwanso mwachibadwa, Roundup Ready, kuyambira 6 mpaka
20 magawo miliyoni. Monga a Marc Lappe ndi Britt Baily amanenera, zomwe zinali "zotetezeka"
mu 1987 "ankaonedwa ngati 'otetezeka' zaka zisanu ndi zitatu pambuyo pake katatu
kulolerana koyambiriraโ (Against the Grain: Biotechnology ndi Corporate
Kutenga Chakudya Chanu). Izi sizikukambidwa muzofalitsa zodziwika bwino.
Kusokoneza
Ufulu Wosadziwa
pakuti
zaka zambiri makampani opanga mankhwala alimbana ndi kuwulula za zotsatira za
zopangidwa zake, pazifukwa za "zambiri zaumwini" komanso zaulere
kulankhula ufulu kukhala chete. Ngakhale kuwulula kwathunthu kungawonekere makamaka
mwachangu komwe zinthu zitha kuvulaza ndipo omwe angakhale ozunzidwa ayenera kudziwa momwe angachitire
zotheka kuthana ndi kuwonongeka, makampani akhala opambana modabwitsa
posunga ufulu wake wokhala chete ndi ufulu wa anthu kuti asadziwe.
Kudziwa kwa ogwira ntchito za zotsatira za mankhwala a kuntchito kunabwera kokha zaka makumi angapo
kulimbana, ndipo sizinali mpaka 1986, pambuyo pa Bhopal (ndi kutayikira kwa Bhopal.
kufa mankhwala ku West Virginia), kuti Congress pamapeto pake idadutsa Emergency
Kukonzekera ndi Kudziwa Zoyenera Kudziwa Padera. Mchitidwewo unadutsa mokwiya
otsutsa makampani ndi voti imodzi.
Pansi pa Act, chachikulu
makampani opanga mankhwala adakakamizika kudziwitsa anthu za iwo
amatulutsa mankhwala okwana 654 m'chilengedwe. Wodziwika bwino
media sanapeze kukana makampani kudziwitsa anthu, kapena
ndime ya mchitidwewo ndi zochitikazo, kapena zotsatira zake, zokondweretsa kwambiri.
Steingraber akutchula kuvomereza kwamakampani kuti kufotokozerako kudakakamizika
mamembala amakampani kuti amvetsere za mankhwala omwe amathira mu
chilengedwe, mfundo yomwe ingawoneke ngati yofunika kwambiri kwa anthu
thanzi. The Toxic Release Inventory anasonyeza ziwerengero zodabwitsaโmabiliyoni angapo
mapaundi a mankhwala oopsa chaka chilichonse-ngakhale ndi kufalitsa kochepa kwa
mankhwala ndi makampani, kudzidziwitsa okha, ndi kukana ambiri kutsatira. Koma inu
adzayang'ana pachabe m'ma TV ambiri kuti amve zambiri za izi
kutulutsa, kuyitanitsa deta yabwinoko, zokambirana za zotsatira za thanzi la
kutulutsa izi, kapena kukwiyitsidwa ndi dongosolo lololeza izi zazikulu
utsi wa ziphe.
Kuyambira 1993 kupita patsogolo, bizinesi
yakhala ikupanga mayiko kuti apereke "Malamulo a Audit Privilege," omwe amapereka
makampani ali ndi ufulu wodzipangira okha kafukufuku wa chilengedwe, kuti afotokoze izi
zowona kwa akuluakulu aboma komanso malonjezano okonza zolakwika zomwe zadziwika,
ndiyeno kukhala wopanda kufunikira kofotokozera zambiri za chilengedwe
kwa anthu kapena m'bwalo lamilandu. Mkulu wa EPA Steven Herman akutero
malamulo oterowo ndi โotsutsana ndi malamulo, amalepheretsa anthu kudziwa bwino anthu, ndipo angathe
kulanga antchito omwe apereka malipoti ophwanya malamulo
akuluakulu. Zimasokoneza mphamvu ya boma yoteteza anthu
thanzi ndi chitetezo. Amalepheretsa anthu kupeza zomwe zingakhale zovuta
zidziwitso zowopsa za chilengedweโฆโ (National Environmental
Enforcement Journal, February 1998). Koma mayiko 24 apanga malamulo otere,
ndipo apanso ofalitsa ambiri akhala chete pa izi
regressive process, yokhala ndi zolemba zingapo zakumbuyo, koma osawonetsa izi
kukulitsa kapena kupereka chidwi chofuna kusintha.
Panalinso kwambiri
Nkhani yofunikira yodziwikiratu yokhudzana ndi zinthu zatsopano zaukadaulo wazomera.
ogula ambiri ndi zachilengedwe anaumirira kuti mkaka opangidwa ndi
ng'ombe zopatsidwa mahomoni okula a Monsanto, ndi soya ndi zinthu zina zaulimi
zomwe ndi bio-engineered, ziyenera kulembedwa motere. Vermont ndi mayiko ena
ayesa kukhazikitsa malamulo, ndipo maiko angapo a ku Europe atero
okhudzidwa ndi kulola zinthu zotere kulowa komanso kugulitsa popanda zilembo.
Pali mavuto ozama omwe ali pachiwopsezo pano kuposa kuwulula kwa ogula, koma
Ndizodziwikiratu kuti ma media ambiri ku US samaganizira za nkhaniyi
zofunika kwambiri. Nkhani izi zapatsidwa chithandizo chakumbuyo ku
zabwino kwambiri, ndipo palibe kutsutsa mkonzi mu zofalitsa za dziko. The New York Times
mkonzi adadzudzula malamulo a "kusokoneza chakudya" pankhani ya Oprah
Winfrey motsutsana ndi oweta ng'ombe aku Texas ("Kulankhula Kwaulere Paza Chakudya,"
January 19, 1998), koma izo kapena mapepala ena a dziko sanalankhulepo
pokomera zolemba zopangidwa ndi bio-engineered (kapena zotsutsana ndi "audit
malamulo amwayi"). Zingawonekere kuti muzochitika izi opanga ulamuliro
zimakwiyitsa nkhawa zilizonse zakuwopseza kwachilengedwe kapena ufulu wa ogula wosankha.
zosapatsa
"Zowopsa" Zotengera Sayansi
As
zomwe tazitchula kale, ofalitsa nkhani amagwiritsa ntchito mawu oti "sayansi yosafunika" makamaka ngati
makampani amagwiritsa ntchito, kunena za sayansi yosagwirizana ndi mafakitale, osati DuPont-,
Ciba-Geigy-, kapena sayansi ya Monsanto-friendly, ngakhale mbiri yayitali ya
chinyengo cha sayansi yamakampani komanso kugwiritsa ntchito sayansi ngati ubale wapagulu
chida. Momwemonso, atolankhani amakonda kulumpha pamakampani aliwonse omwe amati
kuti vuto lazinthu zamakampani ndi "mantha" ozikidwa pa sayansi yoyipa.
Ala.
Izi zidawonetsedwa modabwitsa kutsatira kuwulutsa kwa CBS "60 Minutes".
mu February 1989 yomwe inali ndi chiopsezo cha khansa ya Alar, mankhwala ogwiritsidwa ntchito
maapulo kuti asagwe msanga ndikusintha mtundu wawo. EPA
anali atasiya kuchitapo kanthu pa Alar kwa zaka 16, kutsatira mayeso a labu mu 1973
zomwe zidawonetsa kuti Alar adatulutsa khansa mu mbewa. Pambuyo pake mayesero adatsimikizira izi
zotsatira. Mu Meyi 1989 EPA inaletsa Alar kuti ali ndi khansa
kuopseza, ndipo mu 1992 National Academy of Sciences inatsimikizira kuopsa kwake
za chiwopsezo ichi. Alar amayenera kuletsedwa mu 1973 pansi pa gawo la Delaney,
zomwe zimaletsa kugwiritsa ntchito carcinogen iliyonse m'zakudya.
Komabe, pambuyo pa CBS
pulogalamu inachititsa shrinkage mwadzidzidzi malonda apulo, makampani ndi PR ndi
Othandizira atolankhani, mothandizidwa ndi EPA, adadzudzula "Alar scare"
zimaganiziridwa kuti zachokera ku sayansi yazakudya. Chidziwitso ichi chidakhazikitsidwa mwachangu
media media, ndi Jane Brody, Walter Goodman, ndi Gina Kolata mu yatsopano
York Times atchula kuopsa kumeneku mobwerezabwereza monga chowonadi chokhazikitsidwa.
Posachedwapa, nkhani ya Brody pa "Zowopsa Zaumoyo Zomwe Sizowopsa Kwambiri"
(August 18, 1998) anatchula Alar kukhala chitsanzo choyamba pamfundoyi. Brody amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati
gwero lake lokhalo losatsutsika pa izi ndi zina zimawopseza chikalata cholembedwa ndi
American Council on Health, ntchito yofalitsa zabodza yothandizidwa ndi makampani,
adadziwika ndi Brody kokha ngati "wochokera ku New York." Iye ananama zimenezo
EPA sinapeze kuti Alar ndi yosavomerezeka ngati carcinogen, ndipo adanenanso kuti
Mlingo wokwera woperekedwa ndi mbewa pakuyesa kwa labotale udapangitsa kuti kuyezetsako kukhala kopanda ntchito (nthawi zonse
makampani gambit - pamene mayesero sapereka ziganizo zolondola). Yambani
September 5, 1998, โKuwongoleraโ mu Times adavomereza
Kulephera kwa Brody kuzindikira bwino Bungwe ndikuvomereza kuti EPA
adapeza Alar carcinogenic ndikuletsa kugwiritsa ntchito kwake.
The dioxin mantha.
Monga tafotokozera, a New York Times ndi Washington Post onse analephera
tchulani zowulula za 1990-1991 kuti dioxin ya Monsanto ndi BASF
maphunziro anali achinyengo, ndi Times sananenepo zokakamiza
1987 umboni wa mgwirizano pakati pa EPA ndi makampani opanga mapepala kuti achepetse
chiopsezo cha dioxin. Kuponderezedwa uku kunakhazikitsa maziko a mapepala onsewa, koma
makamaka a Times, mwaukali akutenga mzere wamakampani mu
1990s kuti chiwopsezo cha dioxin chidachulukitsidwa, kuti m'mawu a Times
mtolankhani Keith Schneider, kupezeka kwa dioxin โtsopano kumaganiziridwa ndi akatswiri ena
kusakhalanso kwaupandu monga kuthera mlungu umodzi kuwotchedwa ndi dzuwaโ (August 15, 1991).
Mukutsutsa kowononga kwa
Schneider's report ("Ona Choyipa," Ndemanga ya American Journalism,
1993), Vicki Monks adawonetsa, poyamba, kuti fanizo lakuwotcha dzuwa lidapangidwa ndi
Schneider ndipo adakanidwa ngakhale ndi katswiri wake wa ziweto Vernon Houk. Pambuyo pake
lipoti (September 26, 1993), akuti linazikidwa pa zimene gulu la
asayansi odziimira anasonkhana ndi EPA, Schneider ananena kuti gulu
anapeza kuti, "chiopsezo kwa anthu ambiri aku America omwe ali ndi dioxin ... ndi otsika kuposa
anakhulupirira kale.โ Schneider sanatchulepo wasayansi wa gulu pa izi, ndipo
Amonke adagwira mawu angapo omwe amati mawu ake analibe maziko pagululi
zopeza. Mamembala a gulu ndi maphunziro ena asayansi mu nthawi yomweyo
adanenanso kuti dioxin ndi yowopsa kwambiri kuposa yomwe idadziwika kale; kuti
zidabweretsa chiwopsezo ku ubereki ndi chitetezo chamthupi pamilingo kale
zikuchitika m'matupi a anthu. Schneider sananenepo izi zofunika
kupeza. Atafunsidwa ndi a Monks za zotsatira zake za March 21, 1993
"Kafukufuku watsopano akuwonetsa kuti dioxin singakhale yoopsa kwambiri
pambuyo pake,โ anamuuza kuti ankangonena za dioxin
kuthekera koyambitsa khansa, koma nkhani yake sinanene kuti kuyenerera, ndi
Amonke adawonetsa kuti kuvomerezana kwasayansi kumatsutsana ndi zomwe ananena
matenda a khansa ya dioxin.
Pa Marichi 21, 1993 Schneider
ananena kuti panali "funde lachitatu" latsopano lololera
chilengedwe chozikidwa pa "sayansi" osati choyendetsedwa ndi "otchuka
mantha.โ Sanatchule wasayansi yemwe akuchirikiza funde lachitatu, koma adaphatikizanso
kugwiritsa ntchito mwanzeru kuyenda muvard (popanda kutchula zamakampani ake
ndalama), ndipo adatchulapo zomwe a Monsanto adawona David Mahoney kuti anthu
potsiriza adazindikira zowona zomwe makampani akhala akukankhira. Ponseponse
zolemba zake za dioxin, wasayansi wamkulu wa Schneider - pafupifupi yekha - wasayansi
wolankhulira anali Vernon Houk, amene mu May 1991 anapereka maganizo ake kuti Times
Anthu okhala ku Beach, Missouri omwe adachotsedwa ku dioxin yomwe ili ndi kachilombo
tawuni mu 1982 simayenera kusuntha. Schneider ndi Times
adasewera izi patsamba loyamba, ndipo Schneider adanena kuti izi
"kubwerera" kwa Houk kunawonetsanso funde latsopano. Koma Houk sanasinthe
udindo wake konse-ndi Vicki Amonke anasonyeza kuti Schneider ankadziwa izi kuchokera ake
malipoti awo akale. Houk anali woteteza dioxin kwa nthawi yayitali, anali ndi udindo
kuwononga kafukufuku wa zotsatira za Agent Orange pa asilikali akale a Vietnam,
ndipo pamapeto pake adakhala ngati wolankhulira wotseguka wamakampani opanga mapepala (onse
osanenedwa ndi Times).
Schneider ndi zoyipa
malipoti adadziwika kwambiri m'ma TV ndipo adayendetsedwa panjinga ndikusinthidwanso - mkati
onse a Times ndi kwina. Zinanenedwa mobwerezabwereza kuti dioxins
sizinali zovulaza kuposa kuwotcha kwa dzuwa komanso, monga Chicago Tribune kusinthidwa,
"Dioxin yakhala chinthu chopanda vuto komwe anthu ali
nkhawa.โ Iyi ndi njira yomwe sayansi yazachuma imakhalira
Ziwopsezo zokhazikika komanso zenizeni zamankhwala zimasinthidwa kukhala
"alarm."
Tsogolo lathu la Stolen, Kolata,
ndi Policy Policy.
Peter Montague wasonyeza motsimikiza kuti Gina Kolata ndi adani Times
ndemanga ya Theo Colbourn (et al's) Tsogolo Lathu Lobedwa anali
ntchito ya hatchet yopanda nzeru komanso kukondera kwambiri (Rachel's Environmental
& Zaumoyo Weekly, #486, Marichi 21, 1996). Zina Times atolankhani
nawonso sanakonde Tsogolo Lathu Lobedwa, ndi uthenga wake womwe ungakhale wovuta kwambiri
kuwonongeka kwa chilengedwe chifukwa cha momwe mafakitale alili. Mu zake Nation
Nkhani yakuti โKodi Cholakwika Nโchiyani ndi Lipoti la Sayansi la New York Times?โ
(July 6, 1998), Mark Dowie akusimba kuti pamene Colbourn ndi olemba anzake
adayendera Times kuti tikambirane za buku lawo, Nicholas Wade, la Kolata
ndiye wamkulu adakwiya kwambiri, kuwadzudzula kuti "amapanga
kuopsa kwa chilengedwe popanda umboni. " Wade anali asanawerenge bukhulo, koma lake
kukhudzidwa ndi "zoyipa [ie, kutsutsa zamakampani] sayansi" zidangochitika zokha. Iwo
zikuwonekeratu kuti Kolata, yemwe Dowie amamutcha "wopepesa wokhulupirika wamakampani
sayansi,โ akutero New York Times ndondomeko. Dowie akuwonetsa kuti
pepala lakana mobwerezabwereza kusindikiza zowongolera za Kolata
zolakwika ndi zolakwika, ndipo adakhalabe m'malo kuti achite bizinesi yake
utumiki kwa zaka khumi. Keith Schneider adakhalanso pafupifupi zaka khumi
mtolankhani wa chilengedwe, ndipo malinga ndi Dowie, akonzi akuluakulu ku New York
adayimbira Schneider kuti amuyamikire pa mndandanda wake wa dioxin. Panthawiyi, Filipo
Shabecoff, Philip Hilts, ndi Richard Severo adakankhidwira kunja kwa chilengedwe
kunena kuti ndizovuta kwambiri. Shabecoff adakumbukira kuti bwana wake adamuuza kuti,
"New York ikudandaula. Ndiwe wokonda chilengedwe ndipo amati ndiwe
kunyalanyaza mtengo wachuma woteteza chilengedwe.โ
Ma alarm ena.
Pamodzi ndi Alar, dioxin, ndi chitetezo chamthupi chowopsa pakhala poizoni
kuwopsa kwa malo otayika, asibesito m'masukulu akuwopseza, chingwe champhamvu cha khansa ya m'magazi,
Silicone m'mawere implant mantha, ndi ena. Makanema akuluakulu asankha
awa ndi chidwi chomwe samawonetsa kawirikawiri pofunafuna zomwe zimatengera mafakitale
kuwonongeka kapena kuphwanya malamulo, komanso mopanda nzeru modabwitsa, monga momwe zilili
Milandu yowopsa ya Alar ndi dioxin. Pamene a Nthawi ndi Brody, Schneider, kapena
Wade amatchula za asibesito m'masukulu amawopsyeza, samatchula nthawi yayitali
mbiri yamakampani aasibesitosi kukana kuvulaza kuchokera ku asibesitosi. Nthawi zonse amalephera
kukambirana momwe mphamvu zamabizinesi zimalepheretsa, zikoka, ndipo nthawi zina zimalamulira
malamulo oyendetsera dziko. Osati mu nkhani zawo zonse za zoopsa, zoopsa, ndi
mtengo-phindu tradeoffs, kodi iwo amanena kuti precautionary mfundo
ziyenera kuwongolera kapena kuti zoopsa ndi ndalama ziyenera kunyamulidwa ndi iwo
kukakamiza chinthu pagulu. Iwo ali internalized ndondomeko yakuya kuti
imatumikira zosowa zamakampani, ndikukankhira zofuna zamakampani, nthawi zambiri ndi chidwi komanso chidwi
chilakolako.
Kumaliza
Zindikirani
The
kusuntha kwa chilengedwe kwabweretsa phindu lofunika, maphunziro ndi mkati
zochita za ndondomeko. Komabe, sizinasinthe ufulu makampani kuika
mankhwala mu chilengedwe popanda kudziyesa payekha pasadakhale
kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwanthawi zonse, ndi kuperekedwa kokha kwa chidziwitso cha anthu. Pali
ngakhale amphamvu regressive kayendedwe panopa kuchepetsa kupezeka kwa chidziwitso
kudzera mu Malamulo a Audit Privilege Laws. Lamulo likadali caveat emptor, ayi
kusamala ndi reverse onus; opanga amakhalabe odziyimira pawokha; ndi
media wamba, ndi normalizing ufulu makampani ndi ndondomeko zakuya, kuthandiza
sungani ulamuliro wa wopanga ameneyo.
Z