Maka ọbụna alaeze ukwu kachasị ukwuu, ọdịdị ala na-abụkarị akara aka. Ị gaghị ama ya na Washington, n'agbanyeghị. Ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, nchekwa mba, na ndị amụma mba ofesi na America na-aga n'ihu na-eleghara ihe ndabere nke geopolitics kpụziri ọdịnihu alaeze ukwu ụwa n'ime afọ 500 gara aga. N'ihi ya, ha agbagharala mkpa mgbanwe mgbanwe zuru ụwa ọnụ ngwa ngwa na Eurasia bụ nke na-eme ka a ghara imebi nnukwu atụmatụ maka ọchịchị ụwa nke Washington gbasoro n'afọ iri asaa gara aga.
Nleba anya n'ihe na-agafe maka "amamihe" onye na-enyocha ihe na Washington ụbọchị ndị a na-ekpughe echiche ụwa nke enweghị isi dị egwu. Were onye ọkà mmụta ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Harvard bụ Joseph Nye, Jr., mara maka echiche ya nke "ike dị nro," dị ka ihe atụ. N'inye ndepụta dị mfe nke ụzọ o siri kwenye na ndị agha US, akụ na ụba na ike ọdịbendị ka bụ otu na nke ka elu, ọ kwuru na nso nso a na enweghị ike, nke ime ma ọ bụ zuru ụwa ọnụ, nke nwere ike ikpuchi ọdịnihu America dị ka ike ọchịchị ụwa.
Maka ndị na-atụ aka na akụ na ụba na-arị elu nke Beijing ma na-akpọsa "narị afọ ndị China," Nye nyere ndepụta nke ihe ọjọọ: ego ego nke China na-akpata "ga-ewe ọtụtụ iri afọ iji nweta (ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụla)" na America; o lekwasịrị anya na atumatu ya n'ụzọ bụ isi na mpaghara ya; ma ọ 'nwebeghị ike ọ bụla dị ịrịba ama maka ntule ike zuru ụwa ọnụ. Nke kachasị, Nye kwuru, China na-enwe "mmetụta geopolitical na nguzozi ike nke Eshia dị n'ime, ma e jiri ya tụnyere America."
Ma ọ bụ tinye ya n'ụzọ dị otú a (na nke a Nye bụ ụdị ụwa dum nke Washington na-eche echiche): na ọtụtụ ndị enyi, ụgbọ mmiri, ndị agha, ngwa agha, ego, patent, na ihe nkiri blockbuster karịa ike ọ bụla ọzọ, Washington na-emeri aka.
Ọ bụrụ na Prọfesọ Nye na-ese ike site na ọnụ ọgụgụ, onye bụbu Secretary nke State Henry Kissinger's latest tome, obi umeala akpọrọ. Ọchịchị ụwa na toro na nyocha dị ka ihe ọ bụla na-erughị mkpughe, nakweere echiche Nietzschean. Kissinger na-enweghị afọ na-akọwa ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ụwa dị ka rọba ma nwee ike ịkpụzi site na nnukwu ndị isi nwere ọchịchọ ime ike. Site na usoro a, n'ọdịnala nke ndị nnọchi anya ndị nnọchi anya mba Europe bụ Charles de Taleyrand na Prince Metternich, Onye isi ala Theodore Roosevelt bụ onye ọhụụ nwere obi ike nke butere "ọrụ America n'ịchịkwa nha nha Asia-Pacific." N'aka nke ọzọ, nrọ ezi uche dị na Woodrow Wilson nke mkpebi onwe onye nke mba mere ka ọ bụrụ ihe na-adịghị mma na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na Franklin Roosevelt kpuo ìsì n'anya "atụmatụ zuru ụwa ọnụ" nke onye ọchịchị aka ike Soviet Joseph Stalin. Harry Truman, n'ụzọ dị iche, meriri ambivalence mba iji mee "America na nhazi nke usoro mba ụwa ọhụrụ," amụma nke ndị isi oche iri na abụọ na-esote jiri amamihe soro ya.
Kissinger na-ekwusi ike, n'ime ndị kasị "obi ike" n'ime ha, bụ onye ndu nke "obi ike, ùgwù, na nkwenye siri ike," George W. Bush, onye chọsiri ike maka "mgbanwe nke Iraq site n'etiti mba Middle East kasị nwee mmegide gaa n'otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị. ochichi onye kwuo uche ya" gaara enwe ihe ịga nke ọma, ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụghị maka "imebi obi ọjọọ" nke Siria na Iran mebiri ọrụ ya. N'echiche dị otú ahụ, geopolitics enweghị ebe; naanị nkwuwa okwu ọhụụ nke "ndị ọchịchị" na ndị eze dị mkpa n'ezie.
Ma eleghị anya, nke ahụ bụ echiche na-akasi obi na Washington n'oge mgbe ọchịchị America na-akụda n'ụzọ pụtara ìhè n'etiti mgbanwe tectonic na ike ụwa.
Ebe ndị ọhụ ụzọ Washington e tere mmanụ na-akpachapụ anya na isiokwu nke ike geopolitical, ikekwe ọ bụ oge ịlaghachi na ntọala. Nke ahụ pụtara ịlaghachi na ederede ntọala nke geopolitics ọgbara ọhụrụ, nke na-anọgide na-abụ ntụzịaka na-enweghị isi n'agbanyeghị na e bipụtara ya na akwụkwọ akụkọ ọdịdị ala Britain na-adịghị ahụkebe ihe karịrị otu narị afọ gara aga.
Sir Halford chepụtara Geopolitics
N'otu mgbede oyi na-atụ London na Jenụwarị 1904, Sir Halford Mackinder, onye isi ụlọ akwụkwọ London School of Economics, ji akwụkwọ n'atụghị egwu bata' ndị na-ege ntị na Royal Geographical Society na Savile Row. akpọ aha "Ihe omimi ala nke akụkọ ihe mere eme." Ngosipụta a gosipụtara, ka onye isi oche otu ahụ kwuru, “nkọwa mara mma… anyị anaghị adịkarị n'ime ụlọ a nhata.”
Mackinder rụrụ ụka na ọdịnihu nke ike zuru ụwa ọnụ abụghị, dị ka ọtụtụ ndị Britain n'oge ahụ chere, n'ịchịkwa ụzọ ụgbọ mmiri zuru ụwa ọnụ, kama n'ịchịkwa oke ala ọ kpọrọ "Euro-Asia." Site n'ịtụgharị ụwa site na America ka ọ tinye Central Asia na mbara ala ụwa, wee gbadaa axis ụwa n'ebe ugwu dị ntakịrị karịa ntule nke Mercator's equatorial, Mackinder emegharị ma si otú ahụ chegharịa map ụwa.
Map ọhụrụ ya gosiri Africa, Eshia, na Europe ọ bụghị dị ka kọntinent atọ dị iche iche, kama dị ka oke ala dị n'otu, "agwaetiti ụwa" n'ezie. “Ala obi” ya sara mbara, nke miri emi - nke dị kilomita 4,000 site na Ọwara Persian ruo n'Osimiri Siberia - buru oke ibu nke na enwere ike ịchịkwa ya site na "rimland" ya na Eastern Europe ma ọ bụ ihe ọ kpọrọ ụgbọ mmiri ya "oke" n'oké osimiri ndị gbara ya gburugburu.
Echiche Mackinder nke World Island, Site na Geographical Journal (1904)
"Nchọpụta nke okporo ụzọ Cape nke Indies" na narị afọ nke iri na isii, Mackinder dere, "nyere Krisendọm ikike ịnyagharị nke ukwuu… na-ekpuchi mmetụta ya gburugburu ike ala-Euro-Asia nke na-eyi ndụ ya egwu ruo ugbu a." Nka ka ukwuu nke a, ka o mesịrị kọwaa, nyere ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri Europe “ịdị elu ruo ihe dị ka narị afọ anọ karịa ndị ala Africa na Eshia.”
Ma “ala obi” nke mbara ala a buru ibu, “mpaghara” nke sitere n'Ọwara Oké Osimiri Persia ruo n'Osimiri Yangtze nke China, nọgidere bụrụ ihe na-erughị ala Archimedean maka ike ụwa n'ọdịnihu. "Onye na-achị Heartland na-enye World-Island iwu," ka Mackinder mechara nchịkọta nke ọnọdụ ahụ. "Onye na-achị ụwa-Agwaetiti na-achị ụwa." N'ofe oke oke nke agwaetiti ụwa ahụ, nke mejupụtara ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ 60% nke ala ụwa, nwere obere mbara ala na-enweghị isi nke jupụtara na nnukwu oke osimiri na “obere agwaetiti” ole na ole dịpụrụ adịpụ. N'ezie, ọ pụtara Australia na America.
Maka ọgbọ gara aga, mmeghe nke Ọwa Mmiri Suez na ọbịbịa nke ụgbọ mmiri uzuoku emeela ka “mmụba ike nke oke osimiri [ndị ikwu] na ike ala.” Mana ụzọ ụgbọ oloko ga-eme n'ọdịnihu nwere ike "na-arụ ọrụ ebube ka ukwuu na steppe," Mackinder kwuru, na-ebelata ọnụ ahịa njem ụgbọ mmiri ma na-agbanwe ebe ike geopolitical dị n'ime ala. N'ime oge zuru oke, "ọnọdụ pivot" nke Russia nwere ike, na njikọ aka ya na ike ọzọ dị ka Germany, gbasaa "n'ime ala ndị dịpụrụ adịpụ nke Euro-Asia," na-enye ohere "iji nnukwu akụ kọntinent mee ihe maka iwu ụlọ, na alaeze ukwu ụwa ga-adị n'ihu.”
N'ime awa abụọ sochirinụ, ka ọ na-agụpụta ederede siri ike nke nwere syntax gbagọrọ agbagọ na ntụaka oge gboo tụrụ anya na Don mbụ Oxford, ndị na-ege ya ntị maara na ha na-ahụ ihe pụrụ iche. Ọtụtụ nọrọ ka ha nye nkọwa nkọwa. Dị ka ihe atụ, onye nyocha agha a ma ama Spenser Wilkinson, bụ́ onye mbụ ji oche n’akụkọ ihe mere eme agha na Oxford, kwuru na obi adịghị ya mma banyere “mgbasawanye nke Russia ọgbara ọhụrụ,” na-ekwusi ike na ike ụgbọ mmiri Britain na Japan ga-aga n’ihu n’ọrụ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ijide “mgbasawanye nke Russia ugbu a,” nguzozi n'etiti ndị agha kewara… na mpaghara kọntinent. ”
N'ịbụ ndị ndị na-ege ntị gụrụ akwụkwọ kpaliri ka ha tụlee eziokwu ma ọ bụ ihe ndị ọzọ, gụnyere "ikuku dị ka ụzọ e si eme njem," Mackinder zara, sị: "Ebumnobi m abụghị ịkọ ọdịnihu dị ukwuu maka nke a ma ọ bụ obodo ahụ, kama ime usoro nhazi ala nke ị ga-eme ya. nwere ike dabara na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ọ bụla. " Kama ihe omume a kapịrị ọnụ, Mackinder nọ na-eru maka nkwupụta izugbe banyere njikọ kpatara ọdịdị ala na ike ụwa. "Ọdịnihu nke ụwa," ka ọ siri ọnwụ, "na-adabere n'ịkwado nguzozi nke ike" n'etiti ike oke osimiri dị ka Britain ma ọ bụ Japan na-arụ ọrụ site n'akụkụ oke osimiri na "ndị agha dị n'ime ime obodo" n'ime ime obodo Europe-Asia. ha bu n'obi iburu.
Ọ bụghị naanị na Mackinder nyere olu na echiche ụwa nke ga-emetụta amụma mba ofesi Britain ruo ọtụtụ iri afọ, mana o nwere, n'oge ahụ, kere sayensị nke oge a nke "geopolitics" - ọmụmụ banyere otú ọdịdị ala nwere ike, n'okpuru ọnọdụ ụfọdụ, na-akpụzi ọdịnihu nke ndị mmadụ dum, mba na alaeze ukwu.
N'abalị ahụ na London bụ, n'ezie, ihe karịrị ogologo oge gara aga. Ọ bụ afọ ọzọ. England ka nọ na-eru uju ọnwụ Queen Victoria. Teddy Roosevelt bụ onyeisi oche. Henry Ford ka mepere obere ụlọ ọrụ ụgbọ ala na Detroit iji mee Model-A ya, ụgbọ ala na-agba ọsọ nke 28 kilomita kwa elekere. Naanị otu ọnwa tupu mgbe ahụ, "Flyer" ụmụnna Wright agbagoro n'ikuku nke mbụ - 120 ụkwụ ikuku, n'ezie.
N'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, n'ime afọ 110 sochirinụ, okwu Sir Halford Mackinder ga-enye nkọwa zuru oke mgbe ọ bịara n'ịghọta geopolitics ndị na-adịghị ahụkebe na-ebute nnukwu esemokwu ụwa - agha ụwa abụọ, Agha Nzuzo, Agha Eshia America (Korea na Vietnam) , agha Gulf abụọ nke Peshia, na ọbụna udo na-adịghị agwụ agwụ nke Afghanistan. Ajụjụ taa bụ: Kedu ka Sir Halford ga-esi nyere anyị aka ịghọta ọ bụghị naanị narị afọ gara aga, mana ọkara narị afọ ka na-abịa?
Britannia na-achị ebili mmiri
N'ọgbọ nke ike oke osimiri nke dịruo ihe karịrị afọ 400 - site na 1602 ruo na Mgbakọ Mgbasa Ozi Washington nke 1922 - ndị ike dị ukwuu na-asọ mpi iji chịkwaa àgwàetiti ụwa Eurasia site n'okporo ụzọ oké osimiri gbara ya gburugburu nke gbatịrị 15,000 kilomita site na London ruo Tokyo. Ngwá ọrụ nke ike bụ, n'ezie, ụgbọ mmiri ahụ - mbụ ndị ikom-o'-agha, mgbe ahụ agha, ụgbọ mmiri okpuru mmiri, na ụgbọelu na-ebu. Ọ bụ ezie na ndị agha ala ji apịtị Manchuria ma ọ bụ France na-alụ ọgụ na-egbu egbu, ndị agha ụgbọ mmiri nke alaeze ukwu na-agbagharị n'oké osimiri, na-agbagharị maka ịchịkwa ụsọ oké osimiri na kọntinent niile.
N'elu ọnụ ọgụgụ kasị elu nke ike alaeze ukwu ya dị ka 1900, Great Britain chịrị ebili mmiri na ụgbọ mmiri nke ụgbọ mmiri 300 na ụgbọ mmiri 30, ntọala ndị na-agbanye n'àgwàetiti ụwa site na North Atlantic na Scapa Flow site na Mediterranean na Malta na Suez ruo Bombay, Singapore na Hong Kong. Dị nnọọ ka Alaeze Ukwu Rom gbachiri Mediterranean, na-eme ya Mare Nostrum ("Oké Osimiri anyị"), ike Briten ga-eme ka osimiri India bụrụ nke ya "oké osimiri mechiri emechi," na-echebe akụkụ ya na ndị agha na Northwest Frontier India na igbochi ma ndị Peasia na ndị Ottoman iwu ebe ndị agha mmiri na-agba na Ọwara Peshia.
Site n'ụzọ ahụ, Britain nwetakwara ikike n'Arebia na Mesopotemia, bụ́ ógbè dị mkpa nke Mackinder kpọworo “ala nke si Europe ruo Indies” na ọnụ ụzọ nke “ala obi” nke agwaetiti ụwa. Site n'echiche geopolitical a, narị afọ nke iri na itoolu bụ, n'obi, ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, nke a na-akpọkarị "Egwuregwu Ukwu ahụ," n'etiti Russia "na-achị ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ akụkụ nke Heartland dum… na-akụ aka n'ọnụ ụzọ ala nke Indies," na Britain. "na-esi n'ọnụ ụzọ ámá nke India na-aga n'ime ime obodo iji zute ihe egwu sitere na ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ." N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, Mackinder kwubiri, "Eziokwu Geographical ikpeazụ" nke oge a bụ ike oke osimiri megide ike ala ma ọ bụ "World-Island na Heartland."
Esemokwu kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ, nke mbụ n'etiti England na France, e mesịa England na Germany, nyere aka n'ịgba ọsọ ụgbọ mmiri ndị Europe na-adịghị akwụsị akwụsị nke welitere ọnụ ahịa ike oké osimiri ruo n'ọkwa na-adịghị adịgide adịgide. Na 1805, Admiral Nelson's flagship, HMS Mmeri, ya na nnukwu osisi oak ya dị naanị tọn 3,500, wee banye n'agha Trafalgar megide ndị agha mmiri Napoleon na eriri itoolu, egbe egbe ya dị 100 dị nro na-agba bọọlụ 42-paụnd na nso nke na-erughị 400 yards.
Na 1906, nanị otu narị afọ ka e mesịrị, Britain malitere ụgbọ agha ọgbara ọhụrụ nke mbụ n'ụwa, HMS Egwu, ogwe ígwè ya dị arọ nke ụkwụ ya na-eru tọn 20,000, turbines ya na-enye ohere ịgba ọsọ nke 21 knots, na egbe ya dị inch iri na abụọ na-agba ọsọ ọsọ 12-paụnd ruo kilomita iri na abụọ. Ọnụ maka leviathan a bụ £850 nde, ya na ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ nde $12 taa. N'ime afọ iri, ike dị ọkara iri na abụọ ekpochapụla akụ ha iji wuo ụgbọ mmiri ndị a na-egbu egbu, ndị dị oké ọnụ ahịa.
N'ihi nchikota nke nkà na ụzụ dị elu, njedebe zuru ụwa ọnụ, na njikọ ụgbọ mmiri na US na Japan, a Aha ya bụ Pax Britannica ga-adịru otu narị afọ zuru ezu, 1815 ruo 1914. Otú ọ dị, n'ikpeazụ, e ji asọmpi ngwá agha ụgbọ mmiri na-eme ngwa ngwa, ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ike na-agbanwe agbanwe, na asọmpi kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ maka alaeze ukwu nke si mba ọzọ bụ́ nke batara n'ọgba aghara aghara aghara nke Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ mara usoro ihe a zuru ụwa ọnụ. M, na-ahapụ nde mmadụ 16 nwụrụ site na 1918.
Makinder's Century
Dị ka onye ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke alaeze ukwu bụ Paul Kennedy otu oge hụrụ, “ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ narị afọ nke iri abụọ gbaara akwụkwọ akụkọ Mackinder gbara àmà,” ka agha ụwa abụọ lụsoro “rimland” ya si n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Europe gafee Middle East ruo n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia. N’ezie, Agha Ụwa Mbụ bụ, dị ka Mackinder n’onwe ya mesịrị kwuo, “agha kwụ ọtọ n’etiti ike ala na ike oké osimiri.” Mgbe agha biri na 1918, ndị ike oké osimiri—Britain, America, na Japan—zigara ndị agha ụgbọ mmiri gaa Onyeisi Ndị Mmụọ Ozi, Oké Osimiri Ojii, na Saịberịa iji nweta mgbanwe nke Russia n’ime “ala obi” ya.
N'igosipụta mmetụta Mackinder na echiche geopolitical na Germany, Adolf Hitler ga-etinye Reich ya n'ihe ize ndụ na mgbalị ezighi ezi iji weghara obi ala Russia dị ka. Lebensraum, ma ọ bụ ebe obibi, maka “agbụrụ nna ya ukwu” ya. Ọrụ Sir Halford nyere aka ịkpụzi echiche onye German geographer Karl Haushofer, onye guzobere akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ. Zeitschrift maka Geopolitik, na-akwado echiche nke Lebensraum, na onye ndụmọdụ Adolf Hitler na nke ya osote führer, Rudolf Hess. Na 1942, Führer zipụrụ otu nde ndị ikom, 10,000 ogbunigwe, na tankị 500 iji mebie Osimiri Volga na Stalingrad. N'ikpeazụ, ndị agha ya merụrụ ahụ, 850,000 merụrụ ahụ, gbuo, ma jide ya n'ime mgbalị efu nke ịbanye na rimland East Europe banye na mpaghara agwaetiti ụwa.
Otu narị afọ ka akwụkwọ akụkọ seminal Mackinder dechara, ọkà mmụta Britain ọzọ, bụ́ ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke alaeze ukwu bụ John Darwin, rụrụ ụka n'ihe nyocha ya. Mgbe Tamerlane gasịrị na United States enwetala “Imperium dị ukwuu… n'ọ̀tụ̀tụ̀ a na-enwetụbeghị ụdị ya” n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ site n'ịghọ ike mbụ n'akụkọ ihe mere eme iji chịkwaa isi ihe axial strategic “na nsọtụ abụọ nke Eurasia” (nsụgharị ya nke Mackinder's “Euro) -Eshia"). N'ịtụ egwu mgbasawanye nke China na Russia na-eje ozi dị ka "ihe na-eme ka e nwee mmekorita," US meriri bastions nke alaeze ukwu na Western Europe na Japan. Site na isi ihe axial ndị a dị ka arịlịka, Washington wee wuo ogbunigwe nke ntọala ndị agha na-agbaso ụkpụrụ ụgbọ mmiri nke Britain ma bụrụkwa nke a na-ahụ anya iji gbaa gburugburu agwaetiti ụwa.
Axial Geopolitics nke America
N'ịbụ ndị na-ejide njedebe axial nke àgwàetiti ụwa site na Nazi Germany na Imperial Japan na 1945, n'ime afọ 70 sochirinụ United States tụkwasịrị obi n'ígwé nke ike agha na-abawanye ụba iji jide China na Russia n'ime obi Eurasia ahụ. N'ịbụ onye napụrụ akwụkwọ ndụ echiche ya, nnukwu atụmatụ Washington nke "njikwa" na-emegide ọchịchị n'oge Agha Nzuzo dị ntakịrị karịa usoro nke ọchịchị eze. A nọchiri Britain nke nwere oghere n'akụkụ mmiri "nke dị n'akụkụ," mana ihe ndị dị na ya ka bụ otu.
N’ezie, na 1943, afọ abụọ tupu Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ akwụsị, Mackinder merela agadi bipụtara edemede ikpeazụ ya, “Gburugburu ụwa na mmeri nke Udo,” n'akwụkwọ akụkọ US nwere mmetụta Isi mba. N'ime ya, o chetaara ndị America na-achọ "atụmatụ dị ukwuu" maka ụdị ọdịdị mbara ala na-enwetụbeghị ụdị ya na ọbụna "nrọ nke ike ikuku zuru ụwa ọnụ" agaghị agbanwe isi geopolitical. Ọ dọrọ aka ná ntị, sị: “Ọ bụrụ na Soviet Union si n’agha a pụta dị ka onye meriri Germany, ọ ghaghị ịbụ na ọ bụ ike kasị ukwuu n’ụwa nile,” na-achịkwa “ebe e wusiri ike okike kasịnụ n’ụwa.”
Mgbe ọ bịara na nguzobe nke ọhụrụ post-agha Pax Americana, nke mbụ na ntọala maka njide ike ala Soviet ga-abụ ndị agha mmiri US. Ụgbọ mmiri ya ga-abịa gbaa gburugburu Eurasian kọntinent, na-agbakwunye ma na-anọchi anya ụgbọ mmiri Britain: Ụgbọ mmiri nke isii dabeere na Naples na 1946 maka ịchịkwa Oké Osimiri Atlantic na Oké Osimiri Mediterenian; Fleet nke asaa na Subic Bay, Philippines, na 1947, maka Western Pacific; na Fleet nke ise na Bahrain na Ọwara Persia kemgbe 1995.
Na-esote, ndị nnọchi anya America gbakwụnyere ọkwa nke njikọta agha gbara gburugburu - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (1949), Middle East Treaty Organisation (1955), Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (1954), na US-Japan Security Treaty (1951).
Ka ọ na-erule 1955, US nwekwara netwọkụ zuru ụwa ọnụ nke ọdụ ndị agha 450 na mba 36 ebumnuche, n'akụkụ buru ibu, na ịnwe mgbochi Sino-Soviet n'azụ ákwà mgbochi Iron nke dabara na akara ịtụnanya na Mackinder's “rimlands” gburugburu ala Eurasia. Ka ọ na-erule njedebe nke Agha Nzuzo na 1990, gburugburu China na Russia bụ ndị Kọmunist chọrọ ntọala 700 esenidụt, ụgbọ elu nke ndị agha jet 1,763, nnukwu ngwa agha nuklia, ihe karịrị 1,000 ogbunigwe ballistic, na ụgbọ mmiri nke ụgbọ mmiri 600, gụnyere ụgbọ mmiri 15. ọgụ dị iche iche - niile jikọtara site na ụwa naanị zuru ụwa ọnụ usoro nke nkwukọrịta satịlaịtị.
Dị ka mmezu maka okirikiri atụmatụ Washington gburugburu agwaetiti ụwa, mpaghara Ọwara Peshia kemgbe ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ afọ 40 bụ ebe ndị America na-etinye aka mgbe niile, n'ezoghị ọnụ na nzuzo. Mgbanwe nke 1979 na Iran pụtara mfu nke obodo isi okwu na nnukwu ike US gburugburu Gulf wee hapụ Washington ka ọ na-agbasi mbọ ike iwulite ọnụnọ ya na mpaghara ahụ. Iji mezuo nke ahụ, ọ ga-akwado Saddam Hussein Iraq n'otu oge na agha ya megide Iran na-eme mgbanwe ma na-akwado ndị agha Afghanistan kacha njọ megide ọrụ Soviet nke Afghanistan.
Ọ bụ n'okwu a ka Zbigniew Brzezinski, onye ndụmọdụ nchekwa mba nye Onye isi ala Jimmy Carter, weputara atụmatụ ya maka mmeri nke Soviet Union site n'ike geopolitical ike ka aghọtachaghị ọbụna taa. N'afọ 1979, Brzezinski, onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Polish declassé kwekọrịtara n'ihe gbasara geopolitical kọntinent ya, mere ka Carter kwenye malite Operation Cyclone site na nnukwu ego nke ruru $500 nde kwa afọ ka ọ na-erule ngwụsị 1980s. Ebumnuche ya: ịchịkọta ndị agha Alakụba ka ha wakpo okpuru mmiri nke Central Eshia dị nro nke Soviet Union wee chụba nnukwu Islam radical n'ime ala Soviet. Ọ bụ imeri ndị agha Red Army na Afganistan n'otu oge ahụ na-akụda mmụọ ma bepụ “rimland” nke dị n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Europe pụọ na orbit Moscow. "Anyị akpalighị ndị Russia itinye aka na [na Afghanistan]," Brzezinski kwuru na 1998, na-akọwa geopolitical masterstroke ya na mbipụta Agha Nzuzo nke Great Game, "ma anyị na-ama ụma mụbara ohere na ha ga-eme… Ọrụ nzuzo ahụ bụ echiche magburu onwe ya. Mmetụta ya bụ ịdọba ndị Russia n'ime ọnyà Afghanistan. "
A jụrụ ya gbasara ihe nketa nke ọrụ a mgbe a bịara n'ịmepụta Islam na-emegide US, Brzezinski, onye gụrụ akwụkwọ ma na-akpọkarị Mackinder, enweghị mgbaghara. "Gịnị kacha mkpa n'akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ụwa?" ọ jụrụ. "Ndị Taliban ma ọ bụ ọdịda nke alaeze Soviet? Ụfọdụ kpalitere ndị Alakụba ma ọ bụ ntọhapụ nke Central Europe na njedebe nke Agha Nzuzo? "
Ma ọbụna ọmarịcha mmeri America na Agha Nzuzo na mkpali nke Soviet Union agaghị agbanwe ihe ndabere geopolitical nke agwaetiti ụwa. N'ihi ya, mgbe ọdịda nke mgbidi Berlin gasịrị na 1989, Washington mbụ mba ọzọ na-agba ọsọ n'oge ọhụrụ ga-agụnye mgbalị iji weghachite ọnọdụ ya na Gulf Persian, na-eji ọrụ Saddam Hussein na Kuwait dị ka ihe ngosi.
Na 2003, mgbe US wakporo Iraq, onye ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke alaeze ukwu Paul Kennedy laghachiri na akwụkwọ akụkọ Mackinder nke narị afọ gara aga. kọwaa ihe ọjọọ a dị ka enweghị nkọwa. "Ugbu a, ya na ọtụtụ narị puku ndị agha US nọ na rimlands Eurasia," Kennedy dere na Guardian, "Ọ dị ka a ga-asị na Washington na-eji iwu Mackinder kpọrọ ihe iji hụ na njikwa 'akụkụ ala nke akụkọ ihe mere eme.'" Ọ bụrụ na anyị akọwapụta okwu ndị a n'ụzọ sara mbara, mmụba mberede nke US bases gafee Afghanistan na Iraq kwesịrị ịhụ ka ọ bụ ihe ọzọ eze ukwu chọrọ. maka ọkwá dị mkpa na nsọtụ ala obi Eurasia, dịka ụlọ nchekwa ndị Britain ochie nke dị n'akụkụ Northwest Frontier nke India.
N'ime afọ ndị sochirinụ, Washington gbalịrị iji drones dochie ụfọdụ akpụkpọ ụkwụ ya na-adịghị arụ ọrụ na ala. Site na 2011, Air Force na CIA nwere kụrụ aka ala Eurasia nwere ntọala 60 maka armada nke drones ya. Ka ọ na-erule mgbe ahụ, onye na-arụ ọrụ Reaper, nke nwere ngwa agha Hellfire na bọmbụ GBU-30, nwere nso nke 1,150 kilomita, nke pụtara na site na ntọala ndị ahụ ọ nwere ike ime ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ebe ọ bụla n'Africa na Asia.
N'ụzọ dị ịrịba ama, ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ugbu a na-egosi oke oke mmiri gburugburu agwaetiti ụwa - site na Sigonella, Sicily, ruo Icerlik, toro toro; Djibouti n'elu Oke Osimiri Uhie; Qatar na Abu Dhabi n'akụkụ Ọwara Peshia; Agwaetiti Seychelles dị n'Oké Osimiri India; Jalalabad, Khost, Kandahar, na Shindand na Afghanistan; na Pacific, Zamboanga na Philippines na Andersen Air Base n'àgwàetiti nke Guam, n'etiti ebe ndị ọzọ. Iji chegharịa mpaghara a na-ekpochapụ, Pentagon na-emefu ijeri $ 10 iji wuo armada nke 99 Global Hawk drones. kwadebere nwere igwefoto nwere mkpebi siri ike nke nwere ike inyocha ala niile dị n'ime otu narị maịl, ihe mmetụta eletrọnịkị nke nwere ike ibuli nkwukọrịta, yana injin dị mma. ike nke awa 35 nke ụgbọ elu na-aga n'ihu na oke 8,700 kilomita.
Atụmatụ China
Ntugharị Washington, n'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, na-anọchi anya ihe ochie, ọ bụrụgodị na ọ bụ n'ọ̀tụ̀tụ̀ a na-apụghị ichetụ n'echiche. Ma ịrị elu nke China dị ka akụ na ụba kasị ukwuu n'ụwa, nke a na-apụghị ichetụ n'echiche otu narị afọ gara aga, na-anọchi anya ihe ọhụrụ ma na-eyi egwu ịkwatu geopolitics nke ụgbọ mmiri nke kpụrụwo ike ụwa maka afọ 400 gara aga. Kama ilekwasị anya naanị n'iwulite ụgbọ mmiri mmiri na-acha anụnụ anụnụ dị ka British ma ọ bụ ụgbọ elu ikuku zuru ụwa ọnụ nke America, China na-erute n'ime agwaetiti ụwa na mbọ iji megharịa usoro geopolitical nke ike ụwa. Ọ na-eji atụmatụ aghụghọ nke gbanarịrị ndị isi ike Washington.
Ka ọtụtụ iri afọ nke nkwadebe dị jụụ gasịrị, Beijing amalitela n'oge na-adịbeghị anya ikpughe atụmatụ ya dị ebube maka ike zuru ụwa ọnụ, jiri nlezianya na-aga. Ezubere atụmatụ nzọụkwụ ya abụọ iji wuo akụrụngwa transcontinental maka njikọta akụ na ụba nke agwaetiti ụwa site n'ime, ebe ọ na-achịkọta ndị agha ka ha were ịwa ahụ kewaa n'ime njide Washington gbara gburugburu.
Nzọụkwụ mbụ etinyere aka na ọrụ dị egwu iji tinye akụrụngwa maka njikọta akụ na ụba kọntinent ahụ. Site n'itinye nnukwu netwọkụ dị oke ọnụ nke okporo ụzọ ụgbọ oloko dị oke ọsọ yana oke mmanụ na mmanụ gas gafee obosara Eurasia, China nwere ike ghọta ọhụụ Mackinder n'ụzọ ọhụrụ. Maka oge mbụ n'akụkọ ihe mere eme, mmegharị ngwa ngwa nke ibu dị oke egwu - mmanụ, mineral na ngwaahịa emepụtara - ga-ekwe omume n'ọtụtụ buru ibu, si otú ahụ nwee ike ime ka nnukwu ala ahụ dị n'otu mpaghara akụ na ụba na-agbatị 6,500 kilomita site na Shanghai ruo Madrid. N'ụzọ dị otu a, ndị isi na Beijing nwere olile anya ịgbanwe mpaghara ike geopolitical pụọ na mpaghara oke osimiri wee banye n'ime obi nke kọntinent ahụ.
"Ụzọ ụgbọ oloko na-agafe na kọntinent na-ebufe ọnọdụ nke ike ala ugbu a," Mackinder dere laa azụ na 1904 dị ka "ụzọ dị egwu" nke okporo ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè Trans-Siberia, nke kasị ogologo n'ụwa, ruru gafee kọntinent ahụ maka kilomita 5,700 site na Moscow gawa Vladivostok. Ọ gbakwụnyere, "Ma narị afọ ahụ agaghị aka nká tupu Eshia niile ejiri ụgbọ okporo ígwè kpuchie ya." "Oghere dị n'ime Alaeze Ukwu Russia na Mongolia buru ibu, yana ikike ha nwere na ... mmanụ ụgbọala na ọla dị ukwuu nke ukwuu nke na ụwa akụ na ụba buru ibu, karịa ma ọ bụ nke na-adịchaghị iche, ga-enwe ike ịnweta azụmahịa nke oké osimiri."
Mackinder adịtụghị aka na amụma ya. Mgbanwe nke Russia nke 1917, mgbanwe ndị China nke 1949, na afọ 40 sochirinụ nke Agha Nzuzo mere ka mmepe ọ bụla kwụsịlata ruo ọtụtụ iri afọ. N'ụzọ dị otú a, a jụrụ "ala obi" nke Euro-Asia nke akụ na ụba na ntinye aka, ekele na akụkụ nke ihe mgbochi echiche artificial - ákwà mgbochi ígwè na mgbe ahụ nke Sino-Soviet kewara - nke kwụsịrị ịrụ ọrụ ọ bụla n'ofe oke ala Eurasia. Agaghịkwa.
Naanị afọ ole na ole ka Agha Nzuzo kwụsịrị, onye bụbu Onye Ndụmọdụ Nchebe Mba Brzezinski, mgbe ahụ, onye na-akatọ echiche zuru ụwa ọnụ nke ma ndị Republican na Democratic amụma, malitere. azụ ọkọlọtọ ịdọ aka ná ntị gbasara ụdị geopolitics adịghị mma nke Washington. “Kemgbe ụwa nile malitere imekọrịta ihe na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, ihe dị ka narị afọ ise gara aga,” ka o dere na 1998, na-akọwakarị Mackinder, “Eurasia bụ ebe etiti ike ọchịchị ụwa. Ike nke na-achị 'Eurasia' ga-achịkwa mpaghara abụọ n'ime mpaghara atọ kachasị elu n'ụwa ma na-arụpụta akụ na ụba…
Ọ bụ ezie na echiche geopolitical dị otú ahụ apụnarịnarị Washington, a ghọtara ya nke ọma na Beijing. N'ezie, n'ime afọ iri gara aga China ewepụtala ntinye ego akụrụngwa kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa, ugbua ijeri dollar na agụta, ebe Washington malitere US Interstate Highway System laa azụ na 1950s. Ọnụọgụ maka ụgbọ okporo ígwè na ọkpọkọ ọ na-ewu na-akụda mmụọ. N'etiti 2007 na 2014, China criss-gafere ime obodo ya nwere 9,000 kilomita nke ụgbọ okporo ígwè dị elu ọhụrụ, karịa nke ụwa ndị ọzọ jikọtara ọnụ. Sistemu ugbu a na-eburu 2.5 nde njem kwa ụbọchị na oke ọsọ nke 240 kilomita kwa elekere. Mgbe usoro ahụ dị zuru ezu na 2030, ọ ga-agbakwunyere ruo 16,000 kilomita nke nnukwu ụzọ egwu dị elu na ọnụ ahịa ijeri $ 300, na-ejikọta obodo ukwu ndị China niile.
Akụrụngwa China-Central Eshia na-ejikọta agwaetiti ụwa (Isi mmalite: Stratfor)
N'otu oge ahụ, ndị isi China malitere imekọ ihe na steeti ndị gbara ya gburugburu na nnukwu ọrụ iji jikọta netwọk ụgbọ okporo ígwè nke mba ahụ n'ime okporo ụzọ transcontinental. Malite n’afọ 2008, ndị Germany na ndị Rọshịa sonyeere ndị China n’iwepụta “àkwà mmiri Eurasian Land Bridge.” Ụzọ abụọ n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ-ọdịda anyanwụ, Trans-Siberian ochie nke dị n'ebe ugwu na ụzọ ndịda ọhụrụ n'okporo ụzọ Silk oge ochie site na Kazakhstan bụ iji jikọta Eurasia niile ọnụ. N'ụzọ dị n'ebe ndịda ngwa ngwa, arịa ndị arụpụtara ọnụ ahịa dị oke ọnụ ahịa, kọmputa na akụkụ ụgbọ ala malitere na-eme njem dị kilomita 6,700 site na Leipzig, Germany, gaa Chongqing, China, n'ime naanị 20 ụbọchị, ihe dị ka ọkara ụbọchị 35 nke ngwaahịa ndị dị otú ahụ na-ejizi ụgbọ mmiri.
Na 2013, Deutsche Bahn AG (German Rail) malitere akwadebe Ụzọ nke atọ dị n'etiti Hamburg na Zhengzhou nke egbuola oge njem gaa nanị ụbọchị 15, ebe ụgbọ okporo ígwè Kazakh meghere njikọ Chongqing-Duisburg nwere oge yiri ya. Na October 2014, China mara ọkwa atụmatụ maka iwu okporo ụzọ ụgbọ oloko kacha ogologo n'ụwa na ọnụ ahịa ijeri $230. Dị ka atụmatụ si kwuo, ụgbọ oloko ga-agafe kilomita 4,300 n'etiti Beijing na Moscow n'ime nanị ụbọchị abụọ.
Na mgbakwunye, China na-ewu ahịrị abụọ na-agba ọsọ na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ yana n'akụkụ ndịda n'akụkụ oke osimiri nke agwaetiti ụwa. N'April, Onye isi ala Xi Jinping banye nkwekọrịta na Pakistan imefu ijeri $ 46 na China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. Ụzọ awara awara, njikọ ụgbọ oloko, na pipeline ga-agbatị ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ kilomita 2,000 site na Kashgar dị na Xinjiang, mpaghara ọdịda anyanwụ China, ruo ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri jikọrọ ọnụ na Gwadar, Pakistan, meghere azụ na 2007. etinye ego ihe karịrị ijeri $200 na-ewu ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri a dị mkpa na Gwadar nke dị n'Oké Osimiri Arebia, dị nnọọ kilomita 370 site na Ọwara Oké Osimiri Persia. Malite na 2011, China malitekwara gbasaa okporo ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè ya gafere Laos ruo Ndịda Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia na ọnụ ahịa mbụ nke ijeri $6.2. N'ikpeazụ, a na-atụ anya ahịrị dị elu ga-ebu ndị njem na ngwongwo na njem nke naanị awa 10 site na Kunming gaa Singapore.
N'ime otu afọ iri a siri ike, China arụpụtala netwọkụ nke trans-continental gas na pipeline mmanụ iji bubata mmanụ sitere na Eurasia dum maka ebe ndị bi na ya - na ugwu, etiti na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ. N'afọ 2009, mgbe afọ iri gasịrị, ụlọ ọrụ China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) nwere steeti. meghere ikpeazụ ogbo nke Kazakhstan-China Mmanụ Pipeline. Ọ gbagoro 1,400 kilomita site n'Oké Osimiri Caspian ruo Xinjiang.
N'otu oge, CNPC na Turkmenistan jikọrọ aka na imeghe Central Asia-China gas pipeline. Na-agba ọsọ maka 1,200 kilomita n'ụzọ dị nhata na Pipeline Mmanụ Kazakhstan-China, ọ bụ nke mbụ butere gas sitere na mpaghara ahụ na China. Iji gafere Straits nke Malacca nke ndị agha mmiri US na-achịkwa, CNPC meghere Otu ọkpọkọ Sino-Myanmar na 2013 iji buru ma mmanụ Middle Eastern na gas sitere na Burmese 1,500 kilomita site na Bay nke Bengal ruo mpaghara ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ China. Na May 2014, ụlọ ọrụ banye ijeri $ 400, nkwekọrịta afọ 30 na nnukwu ike ike Russia nke Gazprom na-ebuga gas gas 38 ijeri cubic mita kwa afọ site na 2018 site na netwọọdụ ugwu nke a ka na-emecha nke pipeline gafee Siberia na Manchuria.
Pipeline mmanụ nke Sino-Myanmar na-agbanarị ndị agha mmiri US n'akụkụ mmiri nke Malacca (Isi mmalite: Stratfor)
N'agbanyeghị nnukwu ọrụ, ọrụ ndị a bụ naanị akụkụ nke mmụba na-aga n'ihu na-ewu ụlọ nke, n'ime afọ ise gara aga, kpara eriri nwamba mmanụ na gas gafee Central Asia na ndịda banye Iran na Pakistan. Nsonaazụ ga-abụ n'oge na-adịghị anya akụrụngwa ike ime obodo agbakwunyere, gụnyere nnukwu netwọọdụ ụgbọ mmiri nke Russia, na-agafe n'ofe Eurasia dum, site na Atlantic ruo n'Oké Osimiri South China.
Iji wepụta atụmatụ uto mpaghara na-atụ egwu, n'October 2014, Beijing kwupụtara nguzobe nke ụlọ akụ itinye ego na akụrụngwa Asia. Ndị isi China na-ahụ ụlọ ọrụ a dị ka mpaghara ga-eme n'ọdịnihu na, n'ikpeazụ, Eurasian ọzọ na ụlọ akụ ụwa nke US na-achị. Ruo ugbu a, n'agbanyeghị nrụgide sitere na Washington ka ọ ghara isonye, mba 14 bụ isi, gụnyere ndị mmekọ US dị ka Germany, Great Britain, Australia na South Korea, nwere. banye na. N'otu oge ahụ, China amalitela iwulite mmekọrịta azụmahịa ogologo oge na mpaghara ndị nwere akụ nke Africa, yana Australia na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia, dịka akụkụ nke atụmatụ ya iji jikọta àgwàetiti ụwa n'ụzọ akụ na ụba.
N'ikpeazụ, Beijing ka ekpughere atụmatụ a haziri nke ọma n'oge na-adịbeghị anya maka iwepụ ndị agha Washington haziela gburugburu kọntinent ahụ. N'April, Onye isi ala Xi Jinping kwupụtara iwu nke nnukwu okporo ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè na-esi na ọdịda anyanwụ China gaa n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ọhụrụ ya na Gwadar, Pakistan, na-ekepụta ngwa agha maka ụgbọ mmiri n'ọdịnihu. nkenye ọnọdụ n'Oké Osimiri Arebia nwere ume.
N'ọnwa Mee, Beijing kwalitere nzọrọ ọ na-ekwu na ọ na-achịkwa naanị oke osimiri South China. ịgbasa Longpo Naval Base na Hainan Island maka ebe ụgbọ mmiri okpuru mmiri mbụ nke mpaghara ahụ, na-eme ngwa ngwa. idọpu imepụta atolls ọhụrụ atọ nwere ike bụrụ ọdụ ụgbọ elu ndị agha na agwaetiti Spratley a na-arụrịta ụka, yana n'ụzọ nkịtị ịdọ aka ná ntị kwụsịrị ụgbọ elu ndị agha mmiri US. Site n'iwulite akụrụngwa maka ntọala ndị agha na South China na oke osimiri Arab, Beijing na-emepụta ikike ọdịnihu iji mebie ịwa ahụ na n'ụzọ dabara adaba njigide ndị agha US.
N'otu oge ahụ, Beijing na-emepe atụmatụ iji maa ọchịchị Washington aka na mbara igwe na cyberspace. Ọ na-atụ anya, dịka ọmụmaatụ, ka zuru ezu sistemụ satịlaịtị ụwa nke ya site na 2020, na-enye ihe ịma aka mbụ na ọchịchị Washington na mbara mbara kemgbe US ulo oru ya usoro nke 26 agbachitere nkwurịta okwu Satellites azụ na 1967. N'out oge, Beijing bụ ụlọ ike dị egwu maka agha cyber.
N'ime afọ iri ma ọ bụ abụọ, ọ bụrụ na mkpa ọ dị, China ga-adị njikere ịwa ahụ site na gburugburu kọntinent Washington na mpaghara atụmatụ ole na ole na-enweghị ihu ike zuru ụwa ọnụ nke ndị agha US, nwere ike inye nnukwu ngwá agha America nke ndị na-ebu ụgbọ mmiri, ndị na-ebu ụgbọ mmiri. , drones, ndị agha, na ụgbọ mmiri okpuru mmiri anaghị arụ ọrụ.
N'ịbụ ndị enweghị ọhụụ geopolitical nke Mackinder na ọgbọ ya nke ndị eze ukwu Britain, ndị ọchịchị America ugbu a aghọtaghị mkpa mgbanwe mgbanwe zuru ụwa ọnụ na-eme n'ime ala Eurasia. Ọ bụrụ na China enwee ihe ịga nke ọma n'ijikọta ụlọ ọrụ ya na-eto eto na nnukwu akụ na ụba sitere n'okike nke ala Eurasia, mgbe ahụ enwere ike, dị ka Sir Halford Mackinder buru amụma n'abalị London oyi ahụ na 1904, "alaeze nke ụwa ga-anọ n'ihu."
Alfred W. McCoy, a TomDispatch mgbe nile, jigidere oche Harrington na History na Mahadum Wisconsin-Madison. Ọ bụ onye nchịkọta akụkọ Alaeze Ukwu na-adịghị agwụ agwụ: Nlaghachi azụ nke Spain, Eclipse Europe, Mbelata America na onye edemede nke Ichekwa Alaeze Ukwu America: United States, Philippines, na Rise of the Surveillance State, n'etiti ọrụ ndị ọzọ.
Edemede a pụtara na TomDispatch.com, weblog nke National Institute of the Nation, nke na-enye usoro isi mmalite, akụkọ, na echiche sitere n'aka Tom Engelhardt, onye nchịkọta akụkọ ogologo oge na mbipụta, onye na-arụkọ ọrụ nke Alaeze Ukwu America, onye dere akwụkwọ akụkọ. Ọgwụgwụ nke omenala mmeri, dịka nke akwụkwọ akụkọ, Ụbọchị Ikpeazụ nke mbipụta. Akwụkwọ kachasị ọhụrụ ya bụ Ọchịchị Shadow: onyunyo, Agha Nzuzo, na Ọchịchị Nchebe zuru ụwa ọnụ n'ime ụwa otu-Superpower (Akwụkwọ Haymarket).
A na-akwado ZNetwork naanị site na mmesapụ aka nke ndị na-agụ ya.
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1 Comment
Chaị. Ihe na-adọrọ mmasị ma na-enye nghọta maka nnukwu foto.