ʻO kēia pepa, i kākau ʻia ma lalo o ke poʻo inoa, "US Settler-Colonialism and Genocide Policies," i hāʻawi ʻia ma ka Organization of American Historians 2015 Annual Meeting ma St. Louis, MO ma ʻApelila 18, 2015.
ʻO nā kulekele a me nā hana a ʻAmelika e pili ana i ka poʻe ʻōiwi, ʻoiai ua kapa pinepine ʻia ʻo "racist" a i ʻole "discriminatory," ʻaʻole i hōʻike ʻia e like me ke ʻano o ia mau mea: nā hihia maʻamau o ka imperialism a me kahi ʻano colonialism—settler colonialism. E like me ke kākau ʻana o ka mea anthropologist ʻo Patrick Wolfe, "ʻAʻole mamao loa ka nīnau o ka pepehi kanaka i nā kūkākūkā o ka colonialism settler. ʻO ka ʻāina ke ola—a i ʻole, pono ka ʻāina no ke ola."i ʻO ka mōʻaukala o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa he moʻolelo o ka noho colonialism.
ʻO ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o ʻAmelika mai ke kai a i ke kai ʻālohilohi ka manaʻo a me ka hoʻolālā ʻana o nā mea hoʻokumu o ka ʻāina. ʻO ka ʻāina ʻo “Free” ka mea hoʻokalakupua i ka poʻe noho ʻEulopa. Ma hope o ke kaua no ke kūʻokoʻa akā ma mua o ke kākau ʻana o ke Kumukānāwai US, ua hoʻopuka ka Continental Congress i ka Northwest Ordinance. ʻO kēia ke kānāwai mua o ka repubalika hoʻomaka, e hōʻike ana i ke kumu o ka poʻe makemake i ke kūʻokoʻa. ʻO ia ka papa kuhikuhi no ka ʻai ʻana i ka Territory India i pale ʻia e Pelekania ("Ohio Country") ma kēlā ʻaoʻao o nā Appalachians a me Alleghenies. Ua hana hewa ʻole ʻo Beretania i ka noho ʻana ma laila me ka Hoʻolaha o 1763.
I ka makahiki 1801, ua wehewehe pololei ʻo Pelekikena Jefferson i ka manaʻo o ka mokuʻāina hou no ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o ka ʻāina ākea, me ka ʻōlelo ʻana: "Akā naʻe, hiki i kā mākou mau pono i kēia manawa ke kāohi iā mākou i loko o ko mākou mau palena ponoʻī, ʻaʻole hiki ke nānā i mua i nā manawa lōʻihi, i ka wā e hoʻonui wikiwiki ai mākou. e hoʻonui iā ia iho ma waho o kēlā mau palena a uhi i ka ʻākau holoʻokoʻa, inā ʻaʻole ka ʻāina hema, me ka poʻe e ʻōlelo ana i ka ʻōlelo hoʻokahi, i hoʻokele ʻia ma ke ʻano like e nā kānāwai like. Ua ʻike ʻia kēia ʻike o ka hopena ʻike i kekahi mau makahiki ma hope mai ma ka Monroe Doctrine, e hōʻailona ana i ka manaʻo e hoʻohui a hoʻomalu paha i nā panalāʻau kolonial Sepania ma ʻAmelika a me ka Pākīpika, e hoʻokō ʻia i ke koena o ke kenekulia.
ʻO ke ʻano o ka colonialism i ʻike ʻia e ka poʻe ʻōiwi o ʻAmelika ʻĀkau he mea hou ia mai kinohi mai: ʻo ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o nā hui ʻEulopa, i kākoʻo ʻia e nā pūʻali aupuni, i nā ʻāina ʻē, me ka lawe ʻana i nā ʻāina a me nā waiwai. Pono ka colonialism settler i kahi kulekele genocidal. ʻO nā lāhui ʻōiwi a me nā kaiāulu, ʻoiai e hakakā nei e mālama i nā waiwai kumu a me ka hui pū ʻana, mai kinohi mai i kūʻē i ka colonialism hou me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā ʻenehana pale a me nā ʻano hana ʻino, e komo pū ana me nā ʻano kūʻē kaua o nā neʻe hoʻokuʻu aupuni a me ka mea i kapa ʻia i kēia manawa hoʻoweliweli. I kēlā me kēia manawa ua hakakā lākou a hoʻomau i ka hakakā no ke ola ʻana ma ke ʻano he lāhui. ʻO ka pahuhopu o nā mana o ʻAmelika ʻo ka hoʻopau ʻana i ko lākou noho ʻana ma ke ʻano he lāhui - ʻaʻole ma ke ʻano he poʻe maʻamau. ʻO kēia ka wehewehe pono o ka pepehi kanaka hou.
ʻO ka pahuhopu o nā mana colonialist o ʻAmelika ʻo ka hoʻopau ʻana i ko lākou noho ʻana ma ke ʻano he lāhui - ʻaʻole ma ke ʻano he poʻe maʻamau. ʻO kēia ka wehewehe ʻana o ka pepehi kanaka o kēia wā e like me ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana me nā manawa o ka wā kahiko o ka hana ʻino loa i loaʻa ʻole ka pahuhopu o ka luku ʻana. ʻO ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa ma ke ʻano he socioeconomic a me ka politika ka hopena o kēia kaʻina hana colonial mau kenekulia. ʻO nā lāhui ʻōiwi a me nā kaiāulu o kēia wā he mau hui i hoʻokumu ʻia e ko lākou kūʻē ʻana i ka colonialism, kahi i lawe ai lākou i kā lākou mau hana a me nā moʻolelo. He mea kupanaha, akā, ʻaʻohe mea kupanaha, ua ola lākou ma ke ʻano he lāhui.
Pono ka noho ʻana o ka colonialism i ka hana ʻino a i ʻole ka hoʻoweliweli ʻana i ka hana ʻino e loaʻa ai kāna mau pahuhopu, a laila hoʻokumu ʻia ke kumu o ka ʻōnaehana o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa. ʻAʻole hāʻawi ka poʻe i ko lākou ʻāina, nā waiwai, nā keiki, a me nā wā e hiki mai ana me ka hakakā ʻole, a ua hui ʻia kēlā hakakā me ka hana ʻino. I ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ikaika e pono ai e hoʻokō i kāna mau pahuhopu expansionist, hoʻokumu ke aupuni colonizing i ka hana ʻino. ʻO ka manaʻo he mea hiki ʻole ke ʻae ʻia ka hakakā o ka poʻe noho a me nā ʻōiwi o ka moʻomeheu like ʻole a me ka hoʻomaopopo ʻole ʻana, a i ʻole ka hana ʻino i hana like ʻia e ka poʻe colonized a me ka colonizer. ʻO ka colonialism Euro-ʻAmelika, kahi hiʻohiʻona o ka hoʻokele waiwai hoʻokele waiwai, mai kona hoʻomaka ʻana i kahi ʻano genocidal.
No laila, he aha ka genocide? ʻO koʻu hoa hana ma ka papa, ʻo Gary Clayton Anderson, i kāna puke hou, "Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian," i hoʻopaʻapaʻa: "ʻAʻole loa e lilo ʻo Genocide i mea i ʻike nui ʻia no ka mea i hana ʻia ma ʻAmelika ʻĀkau, no ka mea, nui ka poʻe India i ola a no nā kulekele. ʻAʻole i hoʻokō ʻia ka pepehi kanaka lehulehu ma ke ʻano like me nā hanana ma waena o ʻEulopa, Cambodia, a me Rwanda.ii Aia nā hewa make i kēia loiloi.
Ua hoʻokumu ʻia ka huaʻōlelo "genocide" ma hope o ka Shoah, a i ʻole Holocaust, a ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia kona pāpā ʻana i ka ʻaha kūkā o nā Aupuni Hui Pū ʻIa i hōʻike ʻia ma 1948 a apono ʻia ma 1951: ka UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. ʻAʻole hana hou ka ʻaha kūkā akā pili ia i nā pilina US-Indigenous mai ka makahiki 1988, i ka wā i ʻae ʻia ai e ka US Senate. ʻO ka ʻaha hoʻopaʻapaʻa he mea koʻikoʻi ia no ka nānā ʻana i ka mōʻaukala i nā hopena o ka colonialism i kēlā me kēia au, a ma ka mōʻaukala ʻAmelika.
I loko o ka ʻaha kūkā, ua manaʻo ʻia kekahi o nā hana ʻelima he pepehi kanaka inā "hana me ka manaʻo e luku, ma ka holoʻokoʻa a i ʻole ka hapa, kahi lāhui, lāhui, lāhui a hoʻomana":
(a) pepehi kanaka o ka hui;
(b) hoʻopilikia koʻikoʻi kino a noʻonoʻo paha i nā lālā o ka hui;
(c) ka hoʻokau ʻana i nā kūlana hui o ke ola i helu ʻia e lawe mai i kona luku kino holoʻokoʻa a hapa paha;
(d) ka hoʻokau ʻana i nā hana i manaʻo ʻia e pale i ka hānau ʻana i loko o ka hui;
(e) ka hoʻoneʻe ʻana i nā keiki o ka hui i kahi hui ʻē aʻe.iii
Ua hoʻopaʻi ʻia kēia mau hana:
(a) Ka pepehi kanaka;
(b) Kipi e hana i ka pepehi kanaka;
(c) Hoʻoikaika pololei a me ka lehulehu e hana i ka pepehi kanaka;
(d) Ho'āʻo e hana i ka pepehi kanaka;
(e) Hoʻopili i ka pepehi kanaka.
Hoʻohana hewa pinepine ʻia ka huaʻōlelo "genocide", e like me ka loiloi a Kauka Anderson, e wehewehe i nā hiʻohiʻona koʻikoʻi o ka pepehi kanaka lehulehu, ka make ʻana o ka lehulehu o nā kānaka, e like me ka laʻana ma Cambodia. He mea weliweli ka mea i hana ʻia ma Cambodia, akā ʻaʻole ia e hāʻule ma lalo o nā ʻōlelo o ka Genocide Convention, no ka mea, ʻo ka Convention e pili ana i kahi hui aupuni, lāhui, lāhui a hoʻomana paha, me nā poʻe i loko o ia hui i manaʻo ʻia e ke aupuni a i ʻole kona mau ʻelele. he mau lālā lākou o ka hui a i ʻole ma ka hoʻouka ʻana i ke kumu o ka noho ʻana o ka hui ma ke ʻano he hui i hui ʻia me ka manaʻo e luku i kēlā pūʻulu holoʻokoʻa a hapa paha. Ua hana ke aupuni Cambodia i nā hewa i ke kanaka, ʻaʻole naʻe i ka pepehi kanaka. ʻAʻole ʻo Genocide kahi hana ʻino ma mua o nā mea ʻē aʻe, akā he ʻano hana kikoʻī. ʻO ka huaʻōlelo, "hoʻomaʻemaʻe lāhui," he huaʻōlelo wehewehe i hana ʻia e nā mea kōkua kanaka e wehewehe i ka mea i ʻōlelo ʻia e hana nei i nā kaua 1990s ma waena o nā repubalika o Yugoslavia. He huaʻōlelo wehewehe, ʻaʻole ia he huaʻōlelo o ke kānāwai kōkua kanaka honua.
ʻOiai maopopo loa ʻo ka Holocaust ka mea koʻikoʻi loa o nā pepehi kanaka a pau, ʻo ka pā i hoʻonohonoho ʻia e nā Nazis ʻaʻole ia ka pā i koi ʻia e manaʻo ʻia he pepehi kanaka. ʻO ke poʻo inoa o ka Genocide convention ʻo ia ka "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide," no laila ke kānāwai e pili ana i ka pale ʻana i ka pepehi kanaka ma ka ʻike ʻana i nā mea o ke kulekele aupuni, ma mua o ka hoʻopaʻi ma hope o ka ʻoiaʻiʻo. ʻO ka mea nui loa, ʻaʻole pono e hoʻopau ʻia ka pepehi kanaka e manaʻo ʻia he pepehi kanaka.
ʻAʻole hiki ke hoʻomaopopo ʻia ka mōʻaukala o ʻAmelika, a me ka trauma ʻōiwi hoʻoilina me ka ʻole o ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa ʻana i ka pepehi kanaka a ʻAmelika i hana ai i nā ʻōiwi. Mai ka wā colonial a hiki i ka hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a hoʻomau i ke kenekulia iwakālua, ua komo kēia i ka hoʻomāinoino, ka weliweli, ka hoʻomāinoino ʻana i ka wahine, ka pepehi kanaka, nā hana pūʻali koa ʻōnaehana, ka hoʻoneʻe ʻana i nā ʻōiwi mai ko lākou mau ʻāina kupuna, nā kula hanai e like me ka pūʻali koa, ka ʻāpana, a me kahi kulekele hoʻopau.
I loko o ka manaʻo o ka poʻe noho-kolonialism, ʻo ka pepehi kanaka ke kulekele holoʻokoʻa o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa mai kona hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana, akā aia kekahi mau kulekele i kākau ʻia no ka luku ʻana ma ka ʻaoʻao o nā ʻoihana US i hiki ke ʻike ʻia i loko o ʻehā mau manawa ʻokoʻa: ka Jacksonian. au o ka hoopau koiia; ka holo gula o Kaleponi ma Kaleponi Akau; i ka wā o ke Kaua Kivila a i ka wā ma hope o ke Kaua Kivila o nā kaua i kapa ʻia ʻo India ma ke Komohana Hema a me nā Pāpū Nui; a me ka manawa hoʻopau o ka makahiki 1950; Eia kekahi, aia ka manawa overlapping o nā kula hānai koi, 1870s a 1960s. ʻO ke kula hānai ʻo Carlisle, i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka pūʻali koa US Richard Henry Pratt i ka makahiki 1879, ua lilo i kumu hoʻohālike no nā mea ʻē aʻe i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka Keena o ko Inia (BIA). Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Pratt ma kahi haʻiʻōlelo i ka makahiki 1892, "Ua ʻōlelo kekahi pūkaua nui ʻo ka India maikaʻi wale nō ka mea make. Ma kahi ʻano, ʻae wau i ka manaʻo, akā i kēia wale nō: ʻo ka poʻe India a pau i ka heihei e make. E pepehi i ka India i loko ona a hoʻopakele i ke kanaka.
Hiki ke loaʻa nā hihia pepehi kanaka i hana ʻia ma ke ʻano he kulekele ma nā palapala mōʻaukala a me nā moʻolelo waha o nā kaiāulu ʻōiwi. ʻO kahi hiʻohiʻona mai ka makahiki 1873 he mea maʻamau, me ke kākau ʻana ʻo General William T. Sherman, "Pono mākou e hana me ka hoʻopaʻi hoʻopaʻi kūʻē i ka Sioux, a hiki i ka luku ʻana iā lākou, nā kāne, nā wahine a me nā keiki . . . i ka wā o ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana, ʻaʻole hiki i nā koa ke hoʻomaha e hoʻokaʻawale i waena o ke kāne a me ka wahine, a i ʻole ka hoʻokae ʻana i ka makahiki.iv
ʻO ka mea i kapa ʻia ʻo "Indian Wars" i hoʻopau ʻia ma kahi o 1880, ʻoiai ua hana ʻia ka pepehi kanaka Wounded Knee i kahi ʻumi makahiki ma hope. ʻIke ʻia he hana me ka manaʻo genocidal, ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo ia he "kaua" ma ka moʻolelo o ka moʻokūʻauhau pūʻali koa US. Ua hāʻawi ʻia nā Mekala Hanohano o ka Congressional i iwakālua o nā koa i komo. Ua kūkulu ʻia kahi kia hoʻomanaʻo ma Fort Riley, Kansas, no ka hoʻohanohano ʻana i nā koa i make i ke ahi aloha. Ua hana ʻia kahi streamer kaua e hoʻohanohano i ka hanana a hoʻohui ʻia i nā kahawai ʻē aʻe i hōʻike ʻia ma ka Pentagon, West Point, a me nā kahua pūʻali koa ma ka honua holoʻokoʻa. ʻO L. Frank Baum, he kanaka noho ʻo Dakota Territory i kaulana ma hope mai no ke kākau ʻana Ka Kupanaha Kupua paha o oz, hooponopono i ka Paionia Poaono Aberdeen i kēlā manawa. ʻElima lā ma hope o ka maʻi maʻi ma Wounded Knee, ma Ianuali 3, 1891, ua kākau ʻo ia, "Ua haʻi mua ka Paionia ʻo ko mākou palekana wale nō e pili ana i ka luku ʻia ʻana o nā India. I ka hana ʻino ʻana iā lākou no nā kenekulia, ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi, i mea e pale ai i ko mākou lāhui, e hahai iā ia e kekahi a ʻoi aku paha ka hewa a holoi i kēia mau mea aloha ʻole mai ka honua aku.
ʻO ka makahiki 1880 a i ʻole 1890 paha, ua nalowale ka hapa nui o ka waihona ʻāina i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā Native Nations ma o ka hakakā paʻakikī no nā kuʻikahi i hana ʻia me ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa ma hope o ia lā.
Ma hope o ka pau ʻana o nā Kaua India, hiki mai ka ʻāpana, kahi kulekele ʻē aʻe o ka luku ʻana i nā lāhui ʻōiwi e like me nā lāhui, e like me nā lāhui, ka hoʻopau ʻana o ka hui. Ma ka lawe ʻana i ka Lahui Sioux ma ke ʻano he laʻana, ʻoiai ma mua o ka hoʻokō ʻia ʻana o ke kānāwai ʻo Dawes Allotment Act o 1884, a me nā Black Hills i kāʻili hewa ʻia e ke aupuni federal, ua hōʻea kekahi komisina aupuni ma ka ʻāina ʻo Sioux mai Wakinekona, DC, i ka makahiki 1888 me kahi noi e ho'ēmi i ka Lahui Sioux i ʻeono mau hoʻopaʻa liʻiliʻi, kahi hoʻolālā e waiho ai i ʻeiwa miliona mau ʻeka i wehe ʻia no ka noho Euro-ʻAmelika. Ua ʻike ke komisina ʻaʻole hiki ke loaʻa nā pūlima o ka ʻekolu hapahā o ka lāhui e like me ka mea i koi ʻia ma lalo o ke kuikahi o ka makahiki 1868, a no laila ua hoʻi i Wakinekona me ka ʻōlelo ʻana e haʻalele ke aupuni i ke kuʻikahi a lawe i ka ʻāina me ka ʻole o Sioux ʻae. ʻO ke kānāwai wale nō ke ala e hoʻokō ai i kēlā pahuhopu, ua hoʻokuʻu ʻo Congress i ke aupuni i ke kuleana e kūkākūkā i kahi kuʻikahi. Ua kauoha ka Ahaolelo ia Generala George Crook e alakai i ka elele e hoao hou, i keia manawa me ka haawina he $1.50 no ka eka. I loko o nā ʻano hana hoʻopunipuni a me nā alakaʻi e pōloli nei ka poʻe i kēia manawa, ua hōʻiliʻili ke komisina i nā pūlima e pono ai. Ua wāwahi ʻia ka Lahui Sioux nui i nā mokupuni liʻiliʻi i hoʻopuni ʻia ma nā ʻaoʻao a pau e ka poʻe malihini ʻEulopa, me ka hapa nui o ka ʻāina i hoʻopaʻa ʻia he checkerboard me nā poʻe noho ma nā ʻāpana a i ʻole ka ʻāina hoʻolimalima.v ʻO ka hoʻokumu ʻana i kēia mau hoʻokaʻawale kaʻawale i uhaʻi i ka pilina mōʻaukala ma waena o nā ʻohana a me nā kaiāulu o ka Lahui Sioux a wehe i nā wahi i noho ai ka poʻe ʻEulopa. Ua ʻae ʻo ia i ka Bureau of Indian Affairs e hoʻokō i ka mana paʻa, i kākoʻo ʻia e ka ʻōnaehana kula papa o ke keʻena. ʻO ka Hula Lā, ka hana makahiki i hui pū ʻia ʻo Sioux a hoʻoikaika i ka hui aupuni, ua pāpā ʻia, me nā hana hoʻomana ʻē aʻe. ʻOiai ke kūlana nāwaliwali o ka poʻe Sioux ma lalo o ka noho aliʻi ʻana o ka colonial i ka hopena o ka makahiki ʻumikumamāiwa, ua hoʻomaka lākou e hoʻomaka i ke kūkulu ʻana i kahi ʻoihana hānai pipi haʻahaʻa e pani i kā lākou ʻoihana hahai holoholona bison kahiko. I ka makahiki 1903, ua hoʻoholo ka ʻAha Kiekie ʻAmelika, ma Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, ʻo ka lā 3 o Malaki, 1871, he kumukānāwai ka mea hoʻokele kālā a he mana "plenary" ka Ahaolelo e mālama i ka waiwai o India. No laila, hiki i ke Office of Indian Affairs ke hoʻopau i nā ʻāina a me nā waiwai o India me ka nānā ʻole i nā ʻōlelo o nā ʻōlelo kuʻikahi mua. Ma hope o ke kānāwai i wehe ai i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana ma o ka hoʻolimalima ʻana a me ke kūʻai ʻana aku i nā ʻāpana i lawe ʻia ma waho o ka hilinaʻi. Ma kahi kokoke i nā ʻāina ʻai nui a pau i noho ʻia e nā poʻe kahu hānai ʻaʻole India i nā makahiki 1920.
I ka wā o ka New Deal–Collier a me ka hoʻopau ʻana i ka ʻāina ʻāina ma lalo o ke India Reorganization Act, ua ʻoi aku ka nui o ka poʻe ʻaʻole India ma mua o ka poʻe India ma ka Sioux reservation ʻekolu a hoʻokahi. Eia nō naʻe, ʻo "nā aupuni ʻohana" i kau ʻia ma hope o ke India Reorganization Act i hōʻike ʻia i ka pōʻino a me ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana no ka Sioux.vi No kēia ana, ua ʻike ʻo Mathew King, ka mea kākau moʻolelo kahiko kahiko o ka Oglala Sioux (Pine Ridge): "Ua kākau ka Bureau of Indian Affairs i ke kumukānāwai a me nā kānāwai o kēia hui me ka Indian Reorganization Act o 1934. ka hoʻokomo ʻana i ka lula home. . . . Ua paʻa mau ka poʻe kuʻuna i kā lākou Kuʻikahi, no ka mea, he aupuni mōʻī kākou. Loaʻa iā mākou ko mākou aupuni ponoʻī. "vii "Home rule," a i ʻole neocolonialism, i hōʻoia i kahi kulekele pōkole, akā naʻe, i ka makahiki 1950, ua hoʻomohala ʻo ʻAmelika i kāna kulekele hoʻopau, me ke kānāwai e kauoha ana e hoʻopau lohi i kēlā me kēia mālama ʻana a me nā aupuni ʻohana.viii I ka wā o ka hoʻopau ʻana a me ka hoʻoneʻe ʻana, ʻo ka loaʻa kālā o kēlā me kēia kanaka ma ka Sioux reservations he $355, aʻo kēlā ma nā kūlanakauhale kokoke i South Dakota he $2,500. Me kēia mau kūlana, i ka hahai ʻana i kāna kulekele hoʻopau, ua kākoʻo ka Bureau of Indian Affairs i ka hōʻemi ʻana i nā lawelawe a hoʻolauna i kāna papahana e hoʻoneʻe i nā India i nā kikowaena ʻoihana kūlanakauhale, me ka hapa nui o Sioux e neʻe ana i Kapalakiko a me Denver e ʻimi i nā hana.ix
Ua like nā kūlana o nā lāhui ʻōiwi ʻē aʻe.
Ua kākau ʻo Pawnee Loio Walter R. Echo-Hawk:
I ka makahiki 1881, ua hāʻule ka ʻāina ʻāina o India ma ʻAmelika i ka 156 miliona ʻeka. Ma ka makahiki 1934, ma kahi o 50 miliona mau ʻeka wale nō i koe (he ʻāpana e like me Idaho a me Wakinekona) ma muli o ke Kānāwai Hoʻokaʻawale Nui o 1887. I ka wā o ke Kaua Honua II, ua lawe ke aupuni i 500,000 mau ʻeka hou aku no ka hoʻohana kaua. Ma luna o hoʻokahi haneli mau ʻohana, hui, a me Rancherias i haʻalele i ko lākou mau ʻāina ma lalo o nā hana like ʻole a ka ʻAhaʻōlelo i ka wā o ka pau ʻana o nā makahiki 1950. Ma ka makahiki 1955, ua emi iho ke kahua o ka aina oiwi i 2.3 pakeneka o kona nui [ma ka pau ana o na kaua Inia].x
Wahi a ka ʻae ʻana o ka poʻe kākau moʻolelo i kēia manawa, ʻo ka hoʻoili kūʻai nui ʻana o ka ʻāina mai nā ʻōiwi a i nā lima Euro-ʻAmelika i hana ʻia ma ʻAmelika ma hope o 1492 ma muli o ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana o Pelekane a me ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, ke kaua, nā kūlana puʻuhonua, a me nā kulekele genocidal ma ʻAmelika ʻĀkau. ʻo ka bacteria a ka poʻe hoʻouka kaua i lawe pū me lākou. ʻO ka mea kākau moʻolelo ʻo Colin Calloway kekahi o ka poʻe kākoʻo o kēia manaʻo e kākau nei, "ʻO nā maʻi maʻi maʻi e hoʻomake i ka nui o ka poʻe ma ʻAmelika inā i lawe ʻia mai e nā mea hoʻouka kaua ʻEulopa a i lawe ʻia mai i ka home e nā mea kālepa ʻAmelika."xi ʻO ia ʻōlelo kūpaʻa ʻē aʻe e hiki ʻole ai i ka poʻe ʻōiwi ke hiki. ʻO kēia ka mea a ka mea anthropologist Michael Wilcox i kapa ai "ka moʻolelo hope." He kanaka kākau moʻolelo akahele a mahalo nui ʻia ʻo Polofesa Calloway o ʻAmelika ʻĀkau, akā ʻo kāna hopena e hōʻike ana i kahi manaʻo paʻa. ʻO ka noʻonoʻo ma hope o ka manaʻo he ahistorical a ʻaʻole kūpono ʻo ʻEulopa ponoʻī i nalowale i ka hapakolu a i ka hapalua o kona heluna kanaka i ka maʻi maʻi i ka wā o nā maʻi maʻi medieval. ʻO ke kumu kumu he hewa a he ahistorical ka manaʻo kuʻikahi, ʻo ia ka holoi ʻana i nā hopena o ka colonialism settler me kāna mau mea mua ma ka Spanish "Reconquest" a me ka naʻi ʻana o ka Pelekane iā Scotland, Ireland, a me Wales. I ka manawa i hōʻea ai ʻo Sepania, Pokukala, a me Beretania e hoʻopaʻa i ka ʻāina ʻo ʻAmelika, ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia nā ʻano o ka hoʻopau ʻana i nā lāhui a i ʻole ke koi ʻana iā lākou i ka hilinaʻi a me ka hoʻokauwā ʻana.
ʻO nā manaʻo like ʻole e pili ana i ka nui o nā lāhui ʻōiwi precolonial, ʻaʻohe mea kānalua i ka emi ʻana o ka heluna kanaka i nā kenekulia ʻumikumamāono a me ʻumikumamāhiku, ʻo kona manawa mai kēlā ʻāina a i kēia ʻāina e pili ana i ka wā i hoʻomaka ai ka naʻi aupuni. Ma kahi kokoke i nā ʻāpana heluna a pau o ʻAmelika ua hoʻemi ʻia e 90 pakeneka ma hope o ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā papahana hoʻopalekana, e hoʻemi ana i ka heluna kanaka ʻōiwi o ʻAmelika i manaʻo ʻia mai ka haneli miliona a i ka ʻumi miliona. ʻO ka mea maʻamau i kapa ʻia ʻo ia ka pōʻino nui loa o ka lehulehu—i hoʻonohonoho ʻia ma ke ʻano kūlohelohe—i loko o ka mōʻaukala kanaka, ʻaʻole i kapa ʻia ʻo genocide a hiki i ka piʻi ʻana o nā neʻe ʻōiwi i ka waena waena o ke kenekulia iwakālua i hoʻokumu i nā nīnau hou.
Ua ʻae ʻo ʻAmelika ʻAmelika ʻo Benjamin Keen i ka poʻe kākau moʻolelo "ʻae me ka ʻole ʻole i ka 'epidemic fatalistic a me ka nele o ka palekana i loaʻa' ka wehewehe ʻana no ka emi ʻana o nā heluna India, me ka ʻole o ka nānā pono ʻana i nā kumu socioeconomic. . . ʻo ia ka mea i manaʻo mua i nā kamaʻāina e hāʻule i nā maʻi liʻiliʻi.xii Ua ʻae kekahi poʻe naʻauao. ʻO Geographer William M. Denevan, ʻoiai ʻaʻole i haʻalele i ke ola ʻana o nā maʻi maʻi maʻi ākea, ua hoʻoikaika i ka hana o ke kaua, ka mea i hoʻoikaika i ka hopena make o ka maʻi. He mau hoouka kaua pololei ma waena o na aupuni o Europa a me na aupuni oiwi, aka, ua nui ka poe i ike i na mana o Europa e paio ana i kekahi lahui oiwi me kekahi a i ole mau mahele paha iloko o na aupuni, me ke kokua ana o na hoa Europa i kekahi aoao a elua paha, e like me ka noho ana o na kanaka o Irelani. ʻApelika a me ʻAsia, a he kumu hoʻi ia i ka Holocaust. ʻO ka poʻe pepehi kanaka ʻē aʻe i ʻōlelo ʻia e Denevan, he hana nui lākou ma nā mines, ʻai pinepine pinepine, ʻai ʻole a me ka pōloli ma muli o ka haki ʻana o nā ʻoihana kalepa ʻōiwi, ka hana ʻana i ka meaʻai a me ka lilo ʻana o ka ʻāina, ka nele o ka makemake e ola a hānau hou (a pēlā e pepehi ai, hoʻomake ʻana, a me ka pepehi keiki. ), a me ka lawe pio ʻana a me ke kauā.xiii Ua kuhikuhi ʻo Henry Dobyns, mea kālaihonua i ka hoʻopau ʻana i nā ʻoihana kalepa o nā ʻōiwi. I ka wā i hopu ai nā mana koʻi i nā ala kalepa ʻōiwi, ʻo ka hemahema nui, me nā huahana meaʻai, hoʻonāwaliwali i ka heluna kanaka a koi aku iā lākou e hilinaʻi i ka poʻe colonizer, me nā huahana hana ʻEulopa e pani ana i nā ʻōiwi. Ua manaʻo ʻo Dobyns ua loaʻa nā hui ʻōiwi āpau i ka pōʻai nui i hoʻokahi makahiki i ʻehā. I loko o kēia mau kūlana, ʻo ka hoʻolauna ʻana a me ka hoʻolaha ʻana i ka waiʻona i hōʻoia i ka addictive a me ka make, e hoʻohui ana i ka haki ʻana o ka nohona a me ke kuleana.xiv Hāʻawi kēia mau mea maoli i ka moʻolelo o "ka nele o ka palekana," me ka waiʻona, hoʻomāinoino.
Ua nānā ka mea kākau moʻolelo ʻo Woodrow Wilson Borah i ke kahua ākea o ka noho aupuni ʻana o ʻEulopa, kahi i hoʻemi nui ʻia ka heluna kanaka ma nā mokupuni o ka Pākīpika, Australia, Western Central America, a me West Africa.xv Ua aʻo ʻo Sherburne Cook—i hui pū ʻia me Borah ma ke kula hou ʻo Berkeley School, e like me ia i kapa ʻia ai—i ka hoʻāʻo ʻana e luku i nā ʻInelani Kaleponi. Ua manaʻo ʻo Cook he 2,245 ka make ma waena o nā poʻe ma Kaleponi ʻĀkau—ʻo nā aupuni Wintu, Maidu, Miwak, Omo, Wappo, a me Yokuts—i ka hopena o nā hakakā kaua me ka poʻe Sepania i ka hopena o ka makahiki ʻumikumamāwalu, a ua make kekahi 5,000 i ka maʻi a ua hoʻoneʻe ʻia he 4,000 i nā misionari. Ma waena o nā kānaka hoʻokahi i ka hapa ʻelua o ke kenekulia ʻumikumamāiwa, ua pepehi nā pūʻali koa US i 4,000, a ua make i ka maʻi he 6,000. Ma waena o 1852 a me 1867, ua ʻaihue nā kamaʻāina ʻAmelika i 4,000 mau keiki India mai kēia mau hui ma Kaleponi. ʻO ka hoʻohaunaele ʻana i nā hale kaiapuni ʻōiwi ma lalo o kēia mau ʻano a me ka pono waiwai nui i koi aku i ka nui o nā wahine i ka moekolohe ma nā kahua hoʻomoana gula, me ka hoʻopau hou ʻana i nā koena o ka noho ʻana o ka ʻohana i kēia mau ʻohana matriarchal.
ʻO ka poʻe mōʻaukala a me nā poʻe ʻē aʻe e hōʻole ana i ka pepehi kanaka e hoʻokūpaʻa ana i ka emi ʻana o ka heluna kanaka ma muli o ka maʻi, hoʻonāwaliwali i ka hiki i nā ʻōiwi ke kūʻē. I ka hana ʻana pēlā, hōʻole lākou e ʻae i ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa ʻana o ʻAmelika ma o ka hoʻolālā, ʻaʻole wale ka hopena pōʻino o ka poʻe i nele i ka pale ʻana i ka maʻi. Inā hiki i ka maʻi ke hana i ka hana, ʻaʻole maopopo ke kumu i ʻike pono ai ʻo ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa e hoʻokō i nā kaua hoʻomau ʻole i nā kaiāulu ʻōiwi i mea e loaʻa ai kēlā me kēia ʻīniha o ka ʻāina a lākou i lawe mai iā lākou-me ka wā ma mua o ka noho aupuni ʻana o Pelekane, kokoke. ʻekolu haneli mau makahiki o ke kaua eliminationist.
Ma ka hihia o ka Holocaust Iudaio, ʻaʻohe mea e hōʻole i ka nui o nā Iudaio i make i ka pōloli, hana nui, a me nā maʻi ma lalo o ka paʻahao Nazi ma mua o ka make i loko o nā umu kinoea a pepehi ʻia paha e nā ʻano ʻē aʻe, akā naʻe nā hana o ka hana ʻana a me ka mālama ʻana i nā kūlana i alakaʻi ai i kēlā mau make. maopopo loa ka pepehi kanaka. ʻAʻohe mea e haʻi i ka moʻolelo hope e pili ana i nā Native Americans, a me Armenians, a me Bosnia.
ʻAʻole pono nā hana a pau i hoʻopaʻa ʻia i loko o ka ʻaha hoʻopaʻapaʻa pepehi kanaka e hana i ka pepehi kanaka; ua lawa kekahi o ia mau mea. Ma nā hihia o nā kulekele a me nā hana genocidal o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, hiki ke ʻike ʻia kēlā me kēia o nā koi ʻelima.
Ka mua, Pepehi i nā lālā o ka hui: ʻAʻole hōʻike ʻia ka ʻaha hoʻopaʻapaʻa he nui ka poʻe e pepehi ʻia i mea e hana ai i ka pepehi kanaka, akā ua pepehi ʻia nā lālā o ka hui no ka mea he lālā lākou o ka hui. ʻO ka loiloi ʻana i kahi kūlana ma ke ʻano o ka pale ʻana i ka pepehi kanaka, ʻo kēia ʻano pepehi kanaka he hōʻailona no ke komo ʻana.
Ka lua, Hoʻopilikia i nā lālā o ka hui: e like me ka pololi, ka hoomalu ana i ka lako ai a me ka aua ana i ka ai ma ke ano he hoopa'i a ma ke ano he uku no ka hooko ana, e like me ke kakau inoa ana i na kuikahi kaili. E like me ka mea kākau moʻolelo koa ʻo John Grenier i kuhikuhi ai i kāna Ala Mua o ke Kaua:
No nā makahiki he 200 mua o ko kākou hoʻoilina pūʻali koa, a laila, ua hilinaʻi ka poʻe ʻAmelika i nā ʻoihana kaua i manaʻo ʻia e hoʻowahāwahā ʻia e nā koa ʻoihana o kēia wā: ka luku ʻana a me ka luku ʻana i nā kauhale a me nā kula ʻenemi; pepehi i na wahine a me na keiki enemi; ka hoouka ana i na wahi noho no ka poe pio; hoʻoweliweli a hoʻomāinoino i nā ʻenemi i hakakā ʻole; a pepehi i na alakai enemi. . . . I nā kaua mua ma waena o 1607 a me 1814, ua hoʻokumu nā ʻAmelika i ʻelua mau mea - kaua palena ʻole a me ke kaua ʻole - i ko lākou ala mua o ke kaua.XNUMX
Ke ʻōlelo nei ʻo Grenier, ʻaʻole i hoʻomau wale ʻia kēia ʻano kaua i ke kenekulia 19 i nā kaua kūʻē i nā lāhui ʻōiwi, akā ua hoʻomau ʻia i ke kenekulia 20 a i kēia manawa i nā kaua kūʻē kūʻē i nā poʻe ma Latin America, Caribbean and Pacific, Southeast Asia, Middle and Western. ʻAsia a me ʻApelika.
Ka hoʻokau ʻana i nā kūlana hui o ke ola i helu ʻia e lawe mai i kona luku kino holoʻokoʻa a ʻāpana paha: ʻO ka hoʻoneʻe ikaika ʻia ʻana o nā lāhui ʻōiwi āpau ma ka hikina o ka Mississippi a hiki i ka Territory India i ka wā o ka hoʻokele ʻana o Jackson, he kulekele i manaʻo ʻia e hoʻopau i nā pilina o nā poʻe i ko lākou ʻāina mua, a me ka haʻi ʻana aku i ka poʻe ʻōiwi i neʻe ʻole i Muskogee, Sauk. , Kickapoo, Choctaw, e luku ana i ke ola ana a hiki i ka hapalua o kela a me keia aupuni i weheia. ʻO nā kula hānai koi, ka ʻāpana a me ka hoʻopau ʻana - nā kulekele aupuni āpau - aia nō hoʻi ma lalo o kēia māhele o ka hewa o ka pepehi kanaka. ʻO ka hoʻoneʻe ʻia ʻana a me ka hoʻopaʻa ʻia ʻana o ka poʻe Navajo i ʻehā makahiki i make ai ka hapalua o ko lākou heluna kanaka.
ʻO nā hana i manaʻo ʻia e pale i ka hānau ʻana i loko o ka hui: ʻO ka mea kaulana, i ka wā Termination Era, ua hoʻokele ke aupuni ʻo ʻAmelika i ka lawelawe olakino ʻo India i mea nui o ka lāʻau lapaʻau i ka sterilization o nā wahine ʻōiwi. I ka makahiki 1974, ua ʻike ʻia kahi noiʻi kūʻokoʻa e kekahi o nā kauka ʻAmelika ʻAmelika, ʻo Kauka Connie Pinkerton-Uri, Choctaw/Cherokee, ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia kekahi o nā wahine ʻehā me ka ʻole o kona ʻae ʻana. Ua hōʻike ʻia ka noiʻi a Pnkerton-Uri ua "hoʻokaʻawale ka India Health Service i nā wahine India piha koko no nā kaʻina hana sterilization." I ka manawa mua i hōʻole ʻia e ka Indian Health Service, ʻelua mau makahiki ma hope mai, ua ʻike ʻia kahi noiʻi a ka US General Accounting Office he 4 o nā 12 Indian Health Service nā wahi i sterilized 3,406 Native wahine me ka ʻole o ko lākou ʻae ʻia ma waena o 1973 a me 1976. Ua ʻike ka GAO he 36 wahine ma lalo o ʻO ka makahiki 21 i hoʻopaʻa ʻia i loko o kēia manawa ʻoiai he moratorium i kauoha ʻia e ka ʻaha no ka sterilization o nā wahine ma lalo o 21.
E hoʻoneʻe ikaika i nā keiki o ka hui i kahi hui ʻē aʻe: ʻO nā hui aupuni like ʻole, ka hapa nui o nā kalana, nā kalana, a me nā mokuʻāina, hoʻoneʻe mau i nā keiki ʻōiwi mai ko lākou ʻohana a waiho iā lākou no ka hoʻokama ʻana. I loko o nā neʻe kūʻē kūʻē ʻōiwi o nā 1960s a me 1970s, ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ke koi e hoʻōki i ka hana ma ka Indian Child Welfare Act o 1978. Eia naʻe, ʻo ke kaumaha o ka hoʻokō ʻana i ke kānāwai aia i ke Aupuni Tribal, akā ʻaʻole hāʻawi kālā ke kānāwai. nā kumuwaiwai no nā aupuni ʻōiwi e hoʻokumu i nā ʻoihana e kiʻi i nā keiki mai ka ʻoihana hānai, kahi i koi nui ʻia ai nā pēpē India. ʻOiai ʻo kēia mau pale i ka hoʻokō ʻana, ua kāohi ʻia nā hana ʻino loa i nā makahiki he ʻekolu i hala. Akā, i ka lā 25 o Iune, 2013, ua hoʻohana ka ʻAha Kiekie o ʻAmelika, ma kahi hoʻoholo 5-4 i hoʻolālā ʻia e Justice Samuel Alito, i nā ʻōlelo o ka Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) e ʻōlelo ai ʻaʻole i loaʻa i kahi keiki, i ʻike nui ʻia ʻo Baby Veronica. pono e noho me kona makua kāne Cherokee. ʻO ka ʻōlelo hoʻoholo a ka ʻaha kiʻekiʻe i wehe i ke ala no Matt lāua ʻo Melanie Capobianco, nā mākua hānai, e noi aku i nā ʻaha hoʻokolokolo o South Carolina e hoʻihoʻi ʻia ke keiki iā lāua. Ua hoʻopau ka ʻaha i ka manaʻo a me ka manaʻo o ke Kānāwai Welfare Keiki India, ua nalowale ka manaʻo ma hope o ka ICWA, ka pale ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai moʻomeheu a me ka waiwai o nā keiki ʻōiwi; ʻaʻole ia e pili ana i ka pale ʻana i nā ʻohana kuʻuna a i ʻole nā ʻohana nuklea. E pili ana i ka ʻike ʻana i ka laha o nā ʻohana ākea a me ka moʻomeheu.xviii
No laila, no ke aha e pili ai ka Genocide Convention? Aia mau nā lāhui ʻōiwi ma ʻaneʻi a pilikia mau i nā kulekele genocidal. ʻAʻole kēia he moʻolelo wale nō ma mua o ka 1948 Genocide Convention. Akā, he mea koʻikoʻi ka mōʻaukala a pono e hoʻolaha nui ʻia, i hoʻokomo ʻia i loko o nā kikokikona kula aupuni a me nā hoʻolaha lawelawe aupuni. ʻO ka Doctrine of Discovery ke kānāwai o ka ʻāina. Mai ke kenekulia ʻumikūmālima a hiki i ke kenekulia iwakālua, ua noho ʻia ka hapa nui o ka honua ʻaʻole ʻEulopa ma lalo o ka Doctrine of Discovery, kekahi o nā kumu mua o ke kānāwai honua i hoʻolaha ʻia e nā mōʻī ʻEulopa ʻEulopa e ʻae i ka ʻimi ʻana, ka palapala ʻāina, a me ke koi ʻana i nā ʻāina. i na kanaka mawaho aku o Europa. Ua hoʻokumu ʻia ia mai loko mai o kahi bipi pope i hoʻopuka ʻia i ka makahiki 1455 i ʻae i ka mōʻī Pukiki e hopu i ʻApelika Komohana. Ma hope o ka huakaʻi huakaʻi kaulana ʻo Columbus i ka makahiki 1492, kākoʻo ʻia e ke aliʻi a me ka mōʻī wahine o ka mokuʻāina ʻo Sepania, ua hāʻawi aku kekahi bipi pope i ka ʻae like i Sepania. ʻO nā hoʻopaʻapaʻa ma waena o nā aupuni mōʻī Pukiki a me Sepania ua alakaʻi ʻia i ke Kuikahi ʻo Tordesillas i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka pope (1494), ʻo ia hoʻi, ma waho aʻe o ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i ka honua ma waena o nā aupuni Iberia ʻelua, ua wehewehe ʻo ia wale nō nā ʻāina ʻaʻole Kalikiano i hāʻule ma lalo o ke aʻo ʻana.umikumamaiwa ʻO kēia aʻo ʻana i hilinaʻi ʻia e nā mokuʻāina ʻEulopa a pēlā i hoʻokumu ʻia me ka hoʻokumu ʻole ʻana a me ka unilateral o nā kuleana kūʻokoʻa o nā mōʻī Iberia ma lalo o ke kānāwai canon Kalikiano e noho aliʻi i nā lāhui ʻē, a ua hopu ʻia kēia kuleana ma hope e nā papahana colonizing mōʻī ʻEulopa. Ua hoʻohana ka Lepupalika Farani i kēia mea hana kānāwai no kāna mau papahana colonialist noho i ka makahiki ʻumikumamāiwa a me ka iwakālua, e like me ka United States kūʻokoʻa hou i ka wā i hoʻomau ai i ka noho ʻana o ʻAmelika ʻĀkau i hoʻomaka ʻia e ka poʻe Pelekania.
I ka makahiki 1792, ʻaʻole i liʻuliʻu ma hope o ka hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana o ka US, ua ʻōlelo ke Kakauolelo o ka Mokuʻāina ʻo Thomas Jefferson ʻo ka Doctrine of Discovery i hoʻomohala ʻia e nā mokuʻāina ʻEulopa he kānāwai honua ia e pili ana i ke aupuni US hou kekahi. I ka makahiki 1823, ua hoopuka ka Aha Kiekie o Amerika i kana olelo hooholo Johnson vs. McIntosh. Ma ke kākau ʻana no ka hapa nui, ua manaʻo ʻo Lunakanawai Kiʻekiʻe ʻo John Marshall ʻo ka Doctrine of Discovery he kumu i hoʻokumu ʻia o ke kānāwai ʻEulopa a me ke kānāwai Pelekane i mana ma nā panalāʻau o ʻAmelika ʻAmelika a ʻo ia hoʻi ke kānāwai o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa. Ua wehewehe ka ʻAha i nā kuleana waiwai kūʻokoʻa i loaʻa i ka ʻāina ʻEulopa ma muli o ka loaʻa ʻana: "Ua hāʻawi ka Discovery i ke kuleana i ke aupuni, nona nā kupa, a i ʻole nona ka mana, i hana ʻia ai, e kūʻē i nā aupuni ʻē aʻe o ʻEulopa, e hiki ke hoʻopau ʻia kēlā inoa e kuleana.” No laila, ua loaʻa i nā "mea ʻike" ʻEulopa a me Euro-ʻAmelika nā kuleana waiwai maoli ma ka ʻāina o ka poʻe ʻōiwi ma ke kanu wale ʻana i ka hae. ʻO nā pono ʻōiwi, ma ka ʻōlelo a ka ʻAha, “ʻaʻole i mālama ʻia; akā, ua hoʻopilikia nui ʻia. Ua ʻōlelo hou ka ʻaha, ua hōʻemi ʻia nā "kuleana o nā ʻōiwi e hoʻokō i ke aupuni kūʻokoʻa." Hiki i ka poʻe ʻōiwi ke hoʻomau i ka noho ʻana ma ka ʻāina, akā noho ka poʻo inoa me ka mana ʻike, ʻo ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa. Ua hoʻoholo ka ʻōlelo hoʻoholo ʻo nā lāhui ʻōiwi he "ʻāina kūloko, hilinaʻi."
ʻO ka Doctrine of Discovery no ka mea ʻaʻole i ʻōlelo ʻia ma ka mōʻaukala a i ʻole nā palapala kānāwai i paʻi ʻia ma ʻAmelika. ʻO ka UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Peoples, e hui ana i kēlā me kēia makahiki no ʻelua pule, ua hoʻolaʻa i kāna kau holoʻokoʻa 2012 i ke aʻo ʻana.xx Akā kakaikahi nā kamaʻāina ʻAmelika e ʻike i ka pono ʻole i ke kūlana o ka poʻe ʻōiwi ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa.
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i ʻO Patrick Wolfe, "Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of Native," Nūpepa no ka Genocide Research 8, vol. 4 (Kekemapa 2006), 387.
ii ʻO Gary Clayton Anderson, ʻO ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe lāhui a me ka India: ʻO ka hewa e pono ai e hoʻopilikia iā ʻAmelika. (Norman: Ke Kulanui o Oklahoma Press, 2014.), 4.
iii “Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Paris, 9 December 1948,” Audiovisual Library of International Law, http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/ha/cppcg/cppcg.html (loaʻa iā Kekemapa 6, 2012). E nānā hoʻi iā Josef L. Kunz, "The United Nations Convention on Genocide," ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa 43, aole. 4 (ʻOkakopa 1949) 738–46.
iv ʻApelila 17, 1873, i ʻōlelo ʻia ma John F. Marszalek, Sherman: Ka makemake o kahi koa no ke kauoha (New York: Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, 1992), 379.
v E ʻike i ka hōʻike a Pat McLaughlin, ka luna o ke aupuni Standing Rock Sioux, Fort Yates, North Dakota (Mei 8, 1976), ma ka hālāwai hoʻolohe manaʻo o ka American Indian Policy Review Commission, i hoʻokumu ʻia e Congress in the Act of January 3, 1975.
vi E nana: Kenneth R. Philp, ʻO John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954.
vii Ua ʻōlelo ʻo King ma Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, ʻO ka Lahui Sioux Nui: Noho i ka hoʻokolokolo ma ʻAmelika (Lincoln: Ke Kulanui o Nebraska Press, 2013), 156.
viii No ke kamaʻilio pololei ʻana o ka neocolonialism e pili ana i nā ʻAmelika ʻAmelika a me ka ʻōnaehana mālama, e ʻike iā Joseph Jorgensen, ʻO ka hoʻomana Hula Lā: Mana no ka Poʻe Mana ʻole (Chicago: Ke Kulanui o Chicago Press, 1977), 89–146.
ix Ke hoʻomau nei ka neʻe ʻana mai nā hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā kūlanakauhale a me nā kaona palena a hoʻi i ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana, no laila ʻo ka hapalua o ka poʻe India i kēlā me kēia manawa e haʻalele i ka mālama. ʻO ka mea maʻamau, akā naʻe, ʻaʻole paʻa ka neʻe ʻana a ʻoi aku ke ʻano o ka neʻe ʻana ma mua o ka neʻe mau ʻana. Hoʻokumu ʻia kēia hopena ma luna o kaʻu mau ʻike pilikino a me nā noiʻi ʻaʻole i paʻi ʻia o ka heluna ʻōiwi ʻōiwi ma San Francisco Bay Area a me Los Angeles.
x Walter R. Echo-Hawk, Ma na Aha o ka Na'i Aupuni (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2010), 77–78.
xi Colin G. Calloway, loiloi o Julian Granberry, ʻO nā ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa paha: Nā Pūnaehana Pilikino ʻAmelika ma o ka manawa (Tuscaloosa: Ke Kulanui o Alabama Press, 2005), ʻO Ethnohistory 54, aole. 1 (Hoʻoilo 2007), 196.
xii ʻO Benjamin Keen, "The White Legend Revisited," Hepanika American Historical Review 51 (1971): 353.
xiii Denevan, “The Pristine Myth,” 4–5.
xiv Henry F. Dobyns, Hoʻemi ʻia kā lākou helu: ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa ʻAmelika ma ʻAmelika ʻĀkau Hikina (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press in cooperation with the Newberry Library, 1983), 2. E nana hoi i Dobyns, ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa mōʻaukala, a me Dobyns, "Estimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate," ʻO Antropology o kēia manawa 7 (1966), 295–416, a me “Pule,” 440–44.
xv ʻO Woodrow Wilson Borah, "ʻAmelika e like me ke kumu hoʻohālike: The Demographic Impact of European Expansion on the Non-European World," ma Actas y Morías XXXV Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, México 1962,3 puke. (Mexico City: Editorial Libros de México, 1964), 381.
XNUMX John Grenier, ʻO ke ala mua o ke kaua: ʻO ke kaua ʻAmelika e hana ana ma ka palena, 1607–1814 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 5, 10.
xviii http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/06/25/supreme-court-thwarts-icwa-intent-baby-veronica-case-150103
umikumamaiwa Robert J. Miller, "The International Law of Colonialism: A Comparative Analysis," ma ka "Symposium of International Law in Indigenous Affairs: The Doctrine of Discovery, United Nations, and the Organization of Americans States," hoopuka kūikawā, Lewis a me Clark Law Review 15, aole. 4 (Hoʻoilo 2011), 847–922. E nana hoi ia Vine Deloria Jr., No ka Manao maikai loa (San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1971), 6–39; Steven T. Newcomb, ʻO ka poʻe Pagan i ka ʻāina i hoʻohiki ʻia: hoʻololi i ke aʻo ʻana o ka ʻike Karistiano (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 2008).
xx ʻEʻumikūmākahi Session, United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, http://social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/UNPFIISessions/Eleventh.aspx (hiki i ʻOkakopa 3, 2013).
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